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HARVARD 
COLLEGE 
LIBRARY 


Colorado  College  Poblication 


GENERAL  SERIES  No.  30. 
Science  Series  VoL  XIL,  No.  1.  Pp.  1-43 


THE  MYXOMYCETES  AND  FUNGl  OF  COLORADO 
ELLSWORTH  BETHEL,  A.  M. 

AND 

WM.  C  STURGIS,  Ph.  a  . 


No.  I.    THE  MYXOMYCETES  OF  COLORADO 
W.  C  STURGIS 


Colorado  Springs.  Colorado 
september.  1907 

Published  by  authority  of   the  Boaid  oi  Trustees  of  Colorado  G>llege  eveiy  six 
weeks  during  the  Academic  year. 


Entesed  u  ■ecoad-dut  matter.  September  23.   1905.  at  the  Post  Office  at  Coloia<]o  Spnnss. 
Colorado,  ooder  Act  of  Coogrea  for  July  16,  1904. 


V- 


Colorado  College  Poblication 

GENERAL  SERIES  No.  30. 
Science  Series  VoL  XII.,  No.  1 .  Pp.  1^3 


The  Myxomycetes  and  Fungi  of  Colorado 
ellsworth  bethel,  a.  m. 

AND 

WM.  C  STURGIS,  Ph.  a 


No.  1.    THE  MYXOMYCETES  OF  COLORADO 
W.  C.  STURGIS 


Colorado  Springs.  Cc4.orado 
september,  1907 

PubUfhed  by  authority  of  the  Boaid  o(  Tnntees  of  Colorado  C>Uege  eveiy  six 
weeka  during  the  Academic  year. 


ELniered  u  aecaid.clui  maltci.  Sttitoabet  23,  1905,  at  the  Potf  Office  >l  Coloodo  Spiiiio. 
Coiomlo,  nader  Act  o(  Coninai  for  July  16,  1904. 


■*'. 


1 
Editor-^ih-Chief,  -  -  -  .  William  F.  Slocum,  LL.  D.'. 
Managing  Editor, Florian  Cajori,  Ph.  D/ 

E.  C.  HxLW,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D. 

F.  H.  Loud,  Ph.  D. 
Associate  Editors,     Edwakd  S.  Parsons,  Litt.  D. 

E.  C.  Schneider,  Ph.  D. 

T.  K.  Urdahl,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary, 

Science  Series. 

Nos.  l-2d  Science  Series,  1-4  Social  Science  Series,  and  1-14  Lan^ruage  Series.  hav9^ 
appeared  in  Colorado  CoUegre  Publication.  Vols.  1-10  inclusive.  Noa.  1-17  Science  Series,^ 
1-3  Soc|al  Science  Series,  and  1-9  Languag^e  Series,  are  out  of  print. 

Dedication  Address, — President  David  Starr  Jordan,  Leland 

Stanford,  Jr,,  University. 
Science  Address. — President  Charles  R.  Van  Hise,  University 

of  Wisconsin. 
Dedication  Sermon. — Professor  Edward  C.  Moore,  Harvard 

University. 
Summary  of  Meteorological  Observations,  January  to  June, 

1904. — F.  H.  Loud. 
Determination  of  Number  of  Hours  of  Possible  Sunshine  at 

Colorado  Springs. — F.  H.  Loud. 
Notes  on  Multiple  Lightning  Flashes. — F.  C.  Jordan. 
Plant  and  Animal  Ferments  and  Their  Relation  to  Life. — E.  C. 

Schneider. 

37.  The  Elastic  Modulus  and  Elastic  Limit  of  Rubber  and  Their 
Relation  to  Change  of  Temperature. — /.  C.  Shedd  and  L.  R. 
Ingersoll. 

38.  The  Use  of  the  Interferometer  in  the  Study  of  the  Zeeman 
Effect.—/.  C.  Shedd. 

39.  Meteorological  Statistics  for  1904. — F.  H.  Loud. 

40.  Notes  on  Meteorological  Topics.— F.  H.  Loud. 

41.  The  Evolution  of  the  Snow  Crystal. — J.  C.  Shedd. 

42.  Euler's  Summation  of  Series  of  Reciprocal  Powers  and  Related 
Series. — W.  Noel  Birchby. 

43.  Student  Work  on  Sunspots  and  Solar  Rotation. — F.  H.  Loud. 

44.  The  Great  Sunspot  of  January-March,  1905. — F.  H.  Loud. 

45.  Solution  of  Numerical  Cubic  Equations. — F.  H.  Loud. 

46.  The  Mammals  of  Colorado. — Edward  R.  Warren. 

47.  Meteorological  Statistics. — F.  H.  Loud. 

48.  Colorado  Springs  Weather  Records. — C.  M.  Angell. 

49.  The  Evolution  of  the  Snow  Crystal. — J.  C.  Shedd. 

50.  Notes  on  the  Computation  of  Logarithms. — F.  II.  Loud. 

51.  Meteorological  Statistics. — F.  H.  Loud. 
{Continued  on  inside  of  back  cover.) 


No. 

30- 

31- 

32. 

33- 

34- 

.« 

35- 
36. 

Colorado  College  Poblication 

GENERAL  SERIES  No.  30. 
Science  Series  VoL  XII..  No.  I .  Pp.  1-43 


THE  MYXOMYCETES  AND  FUNGI  OF  COLORADO 
ELLSWORTH  BETHEL.  A.  M. 

AND 

WM.  C.  STURGIS.  Ph.  D. 


No.  I.    THE  MYXOMYCETES  OF  COLORADO 
W.  C.  STURGIS 


Colorado  Springs.  Colorado 
september  1907 

Pttblitbecl  by  aolhoriiy  o(   ihe  Boaid  o(  Tnutee*  of  C>loiado  CoUege  evoy 
weeka  during  the  Academic  year. 


Euaed  —  KCODdHJui  mMa,  Scptcmbec  23,  1905,  U  die  Pen  Ofice  U  Cokmilo  Spiiagk 
Colomla,  uader  Act  <f  Cobskb  (oc  July  16,  1904. 


r     \ 


NOTE. 

The  series  of  papers,  of  which  the  present  one  is  the 
first,  is  intended  to  cover  the  mycological  flora  of  Colorado. 
The  Rocky  mountain  region  has  heretofore  received  Httle 
attention  on  the  part  of  mycologists,  first,  because  the  rich 
and  varied  phanerogamic  flora  has  engrossed  the  attention 
of  botanists,  and  secondly,  because  it  has  been  assumed  that 
such  an  arid  region  offered  no  attractions  to  mycologists. 
This  assumption,  however,  is  unwarranted.  During  the  past 
ten  years  or  more,  Mr.  Bethel  has  collected  a  vast  quantity 
of  material  in  all  groups  of  fungi,  and  the  fact  has  become 
apparent  that  the  region  explored,  so  far  from  being  devoid 
of  these  plants,  presents  an  extraordinarily  rich  field  for  the 
mycologist.  That  the  present  paper  includes  almost  one  hun- 
dred species  and  varieties  of  Myxomycetes  from  the  state 
of  Colorado  alone,  is  certainly  a  striking  and  unexpected 
fact.  In  preparing  this  series  of  papers  each  of  the  collab- 
orators will,  as  a  rule,  treat  the  g^oup  or  groups  in  which 
he  has  specialized  and  will  be  solely  responsible  for  his  own 
work,  but  in  certain  cases  the  work  will  be  done  conjointly. 

Although  much  material  is  already  on  hand,  collectors 
and  students  throughout  the  State  are  earnestly  requested  to 
send  in  specimens.  All  specimens  received  in  this  way  will 
be  determined  and  due  credit  given  to  the  collector. 

Ellsworth  Bethel^  A.  M., 

President  Colo,  Acad,  of  Science. 
W.  C.  Sturgis,  Ph.  D., 

Dean  Colo,  School  of  Forestry. 


fktiif^fO  ccuict  i:c,u»f 

ClUCf  IKE 

ifAfiuAU  SCHCOl  OP  E9UCATIW 

miA  millTUTC  CtUECTIM 

MV.  I.  Ittt 


THE  MYXOMYCETES  OF  COLORADO. 


WM.  C.  STURGIS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Myxomycetes,  or  Mycetozoa,  form  a  natural  group 
of  organisms  bearing  an  indefinite  relationship  on  the  one 
hand  to  the  Protozoa  and  on  the  other  to  certain  of  the  lower 
Fungi,  So  vague  is  this  relationship,  however,  that,  without 
stretching  the  observed  facts,  they  cannot  be  placed  in  either 
group.  Nor  indeed,  can  it  be  said  with  any  certainty  wheth- 
er they  should  be  classed  as  plants  or  as  animals ;  neverthe- 
less the  study  of  these  organisms  is,  and  always  has  been, 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  botanists,  probably  because  in  their 
reproductive  phase  they  bear  a  certain  external  resemblance 
to  the  fungi,  many  of  them  having  been  included  among 
the  "puflF-balls"  by  the  earlier  writers. 

LIFE  HISTORY. 

Briefly,  the  Myxomycetes  are  characterized  by  a  vege- 
tative phase,  consisting  of  a  naked,  venulose  or  pulvinate, 
protoplasmic  mass,  often  attaining  a  large  size  and  possess- 
ing a  striking  color,  and  exhibiting  streaming  movements 
within  its  substance,  as  well  as  amoeboid  movements  of  the 
whole  mass.  This  is  kno^yn  as  the  Plasmodium,  The  Plas- 
modium has  a  distinct  affinity  for  water  and  obscurity ;  hence 
it  usually  affects  the  lower  surface  of  rotten  logs,  the  inter- 
stices of  bark  or  wood,  the  interior  of  damp  leaf-heaps  and 
similar  locations.  Before  passing  over  to  the  reproductive 
phase,  the  Plasmodium  moves  toward  the  light  and  to  a  drier 
portion  of  the  substratum.  Here  it  becomes  transformed 
into  fruiting  bodies  of  manifold  forms  according  to  the  spe- 
cies. In  a  single  instance  the  fruiting  body  consists  of  col- 
umnar prolongations  of  the  Plasmodium,  which  rise  erect  and 
eventually  produce  on  their  surfaces  vast  numbers  of  spores. 
Usually,  however,  this  phase  is  in  the  form  of  sporangia, 
which  may  be  of  various  shapes,  stalked  or  sessile,  simple  or 
compound,  spherical  or  elongated  (plasmodiocarps).  Fre- 
quently the  fruiting  body  consists  of  a  multitude  of  convo- 


6  Colorado  College  Publication. 

luted  sporangia,  inextricably  united  and  forming  a  mass  of 
considerable  size  known  as  ai?  "aethalium,"  In  any  case, 
however,  the  interior  of  the  sporangium,  at  first  similar  to  the 
plasmodic  matter  from  which  it  was  derived,  becomes  diflFer- 
entiated  before  maturity  into  spores  and,  in  many  cases,  into 
delicate  threads  which  may  be  either  free  (elaters)  or  united 
into  a  network  known  as  the  capillUium.  Meantime  the 
sporangium  itself  develops  a  more  or  less  firm  wall,  on  the 
surface  of  which  may  be  deposited,  in  the  form  of  crystals 
or  granules,  a  varying  quantity  of  lime  heretofore  held  in 
suspension  by  the  Plasmodium.  Such  deposits  of  lime,  to- 
gether with  refuse  matter,  may  al^o  occur  in  the  stalk  and  in 
the  threads  of  the  capillitium.  Frequently  the  stalk  is  pro- 
longed upward  into  the  sporangium  and  appears  either  as  a 
rounded  body  at  the  base  of  the  sporangitun,  or  elongated, 
sometimes  to  the  very  apex  of  the  sporangium.  This  is 
known  as  the  columella  and  from  it  spring  the  main  branch- 
es of  the  capillitium. 

The  spores  are  usually  spherical  bodies  with  a  firm, 
colored  wall  which  is  either  smooth  or  marked  with  papillae, 
spines,  or  raised  bands.  Under  suitable  conditions  the  spore 
germinates  and  produces  a  motile,  amoeboid  body  known  as  a 
swarm-spore.  Eventually  neighboring  swarm-spores  unite 
and  by  their  union  form  the  Plasmodium. 

Such  in  brief  outline  is  the  life-cycle  of  an  ordinary 
Myxomycete, 

As  a  rule  they  are  to  be  looked  for  in  warm,  damp  situ- 
ations. It  is  therefore  rather  surprising  to  find  them  occur- 
ring in  great  variety  and  abundance  under  the  rather  arid 
conditions  prevailing  in  Cotorado  and  at  every  degree  of  alti- 
tude up  to  10,000  feet.  Of  course  there  must  be,  for  their 
best  development,  a  certain  amount  of  protection  and  moist- 
ure. Hence  they  are  to  be  looked  for,  as  a  rule,  in  shady 
canons  or  in  the  forests  where  fallen  logs  decay  and  hold  the 
moisture.    In  such  places  we  find  them  growing  luxuriantly. 

COLLECTION  AND  PRESERVATION. 

In  collecting  Myxomycetes  the  most  convenient  method 
is  to  detach  each  colony  together  with  a  portion  of  the  sub- 
stratum and  wrap  the  whole  in  a  twist  of  tissue  paper.  In 
this  way  even  the  more  delicate  forms  can  be  safely  carried. 
To  preserve  them  it  is  only  necessary  to  let  them  remain  ex- 
posed to  the  air  until  thoroughly  dry  and  then  glue  them  to 
cards  cut  to  fit  oblong  paper  slide-boxes  and  removable 


Ths  MYxoirrcBXSS  of  Couaado.  7 

therefrom.  If  the  two  ends  of  the  card  are  bent  up  at  right 
angles  they  will  senre  to  keep  the  card  fimUy  in  the  box 
when  the  cover  is  in  place. 

It  is  often  advisable  to  collect  a  Plasmodium  and  allow 
it  to  develop,  in  which  case  it  may  be  placed  in  a  tin  box 
and  held  in  place  by  damp  paper  or  moss.  Care,  however, 
must  be  taken  that  the  Plasmodium  does  not  come  in  contact 
with  the  box  or  the  padcing  and  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
the  substrattun  be  removed  with  die  Plasmodium  to  insure  its 
further  development.  As  soon  as  practicable  the  specimen 
should  be  removed  from  the  box  and  placed  on  damp  paper 
under  a  bell-jar  at  the  ordinary  room-temperature,  when,  if 
all  goes  well,  it  will  be  transformed  into  the  fruiting  bodies 
within  a  few  hours. 

MICROSCOPIC  EXAMINATION. 

For  the  microscopic  examination  of  the  Myxomycetes  it 
is  only  necesary  to  pick  off  a  single  sporangium  or  bit  of  an 
aethalium,  place  it  in  a  drop  of  alcohol  on  a  glass  slide  in  order 
to  remove  the  air,  then  replace  the  alcohol  with  a  drop  of 
water  and  cover  with  a  cover-glass.  For  permanent  mounts 
glycerine  jelly  or  Canada  balsam  may,  after  due  prepara- 
tion of  the  specimen,  be  used.  The  writer,  however,  prefers 
a  mixture  of  glycerine  and  acetic  acid  in  equal  parts,  boiled 
and  then  cooled.  Of  course  this  is  ruinous  to  any  specimen 
containing  lime,  in  which  case  plain  glycerine  is  used.  A  drop 
either  of  the  mixture  or  the  glycerine  is  placed  on  one  end 
of  the  slide  bearing  the  specimen  mounted  in  water ;  to  this 
a  few  drops  of  water  are  added  and  thoroughly  mixed  by 
stirring  with  a  needle ;  the  mixture  is  then  drawn  up  to  the 
edge  of  the  cover-glass  and  the  slide  is  placed  in  a  shallow 
drawer  or  other  receptacle  where  it  will  be  free  from  dust. 
In  the  course  of  a  week  or  ten  days  the  water  and  the  acid 
will  have  evaporated  and  the  specimen  is  now  in  pure  glycer- 
ine. The  cover-glass  is  now  ringed  with  King's  Red  Lacquer 
Cement  until  the  ring  is  perfectly  opaque.  Specimens  so  pre- 
pared are  free  from  shrinkage  and  distortion  and  may  be 
kept  indefinitely. 

LITERATURE. 

The  literature  of  the  Myxomycetes  is  very  extensive,  but 
for  the  beginner  one  of  two  books  only  is  essential,  Mac- 
bride's  North  American  Slime-Moulds,  published  by  the 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  or  Lister's  Monograph  of  the 


8  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Mycetozoa,  published  by  the  British  Museum.  The  former  is 
by  far  the  best  account  ever  published  of  the  American 
forms;  the  latter  has  a  wider  scope  and  is  intended  to  in- 
clude all  known  species. 

In  preparing  the  present  paper  the  writer  intended  at 
first  to  make  it  a  mere  list  of  the  species  heretofore  found 
in  Colorado.  But  during  the  three  years  that  it  has  been  in 
course  of  preparation,  the  amount  of  material  has  become  so 
large,  the  number  of  persons  who  have  shown  interest  in 
this  group  of  organisms  has  so  increased,  and  so  many  forms 
demanding  more  than  a  brief  notice  have  been  added  to  the 
collection,  that  it  has  seemed  best  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  the 
paper  so  as  to  make  it  in  some  degree  a  beginner's  guide 
to  the  Myxomycetes  in  general  and  a  more  or  less  critical 
survey  of  the  Colorado  species  in  particular,  by  means  of 
which  those  interested  can  determine  the  genus  and  possibly 
the  species.  To  this  end  the  writer  has  made  use  of  Mr. 
Lister's  Synopsis  of  the  Orders  and  Genera  included  in 
his  Monograph,  selecting,  however,  only  those  genera  at 
present  known  to  occur  in  Colorado. 


KEY  TO  THE  ORDERS  AND  GENERA  OF 

MYXOMYCETES  KNOWN  TO  OCCUR 

IN  COLORADO. 


A.  Spores  developed  outside  the  Sporophores.  Ceratiotnyxa. 
AA.  Spores  developed  inside  a  Sporangium. 

B.  Spores  violet,  violet-brown,  or  pale  ferruginous. 
C.  Sporangia  provided  with  lime. 

D.  Lime  in  minute  granules.    (Physaraceae.) 

a.  Capillitium  charged  with    lime    throughout. 

Badhamick 

b.  Capillitium  with  lime-knots  only. 

*  Fructification  compound,  (aethalioid) 

Fuligo, 
**  Fructification  simple. 
§  Sporangium  wall  membranous,  calcareous. 

Physarum 
§§Sporangium  wall  cartilaginous. 

Sporangia  plasmodiocarps      Cienkowskuk 
Sporangia  with  a  lid  Craterium 

Sporangia  ovoid,  shining  Leocarpus 

c.  Capillitium  withouit  lime-knots  Diderma 

d.  Lime  confined  to  stalk  and  columella  Diachcea 

DD.  Lime  in  crystals.    (Didymiaceae.) 

a.  Fructification  simple,  Didymium 

b.  Fructification  compound.  .  Spumaria 

CC.  Sporangia  without  lime  (Stemonitaceae) 
0.  Sporangium  wall  evanescent. 
Capillitium  forming  a  net  at  surface  ^f  sporan- 
gium Stemonitis 
Capillitium  not  forming  a  surface-net 

Comatricha 
Capillitium  springing  from  apex  of  columella 
only  Enerthenema 

b.  Sporangium   wall   somewhat  persistent,   irides- 
cent. Lamproderma 


10  COWRADO  COIXEGE  PUBLICATION. 

BB.  Spores  variously  colored,  never  violet 

a.  Capillitium  wanting,  or  not  forming  a  system  of 
uniform  threads. 

♦  Sporangium-wall  with  granular  deposits,  netted 
above,  except  in  LindbladicL  (Heterodermaceae) 
§  Sporangia  sessile,  compacted  Lindbladia 
§§Sporangia  stalked 

Network  irregular  Cribraria 

Network  of  parallel  ribs  extending  longitudi- 
nally from  base  to  apex  Dictydium 
**  Sporangium-wall    without    granular    deposits; 
sporangia  tubular,  compacted  (Tubulinaceae) 
Sporangia  without  columdla  Tubulina 
***  Sporangia  combined  into  an  aethalium  (Retic- 
ulariaceae). 

Sporangium-walls  represented  by    4-6    straight 
threads  extending  from  base  to  apex. 

Dictyditpthaiium, 
Sporangium-walls  with  large  round  perfora- 
tions. Enteridium. 
Sporangium-walls  incomplete,  frayed  out. 

Reticularia. 

b.  Capillitium  present,  a  system  of  uniform  threads. 

♦  Capillitium  marked  with  spirals.     (Trichiaceae) 
§  Capillitium  of  free  elaters.  Trichia 
§§  Capillitium  combined  into  a  net.  Hemitrichia. 
§§§  Capillitium  of  fasciculate  threads,  repeated- 
ly bifurcating.                                   Prototrichia 

**  Capillitium  abundant,  marked  with  cogs,  half- 
rings,  spines  or  warts  (Arcyriaceae) 
§  Sporangia  stalked,  wall  evanescent.      Arcyria, 
§§  Sporangia  sessile,  wall  persistent,  thick. 

Perichina. 
***  Aethalioid.  Capillitium  of  smooth  or  wrin- 
kled tubes.  Lycogala 


CERATIOMYXA.  Schroder. 

Ceratiomyxa  mucida,  (Pers,)  Schroet. — ^This  com- 
mon species  occurs  everywhere  throughout  the  region  ex- 
plored. The  following  localities  indicate  the  range: — Bear 
Creek  Canon,  Colorado  Springs,  (Hall) ;  Boulder,  (Bethel 
&  Sturgis);  Tolland,  (Bethel);  San  Juan  Mts.,  (Bethel); 
Ouray,  (Bethel). 

The  so-called  var.  porioides,  A.  &  S.  has  not  been  re- 
ported from  Colorado,  a  fact  which  adds  weight  to  the  view 
that  the  two  forms  are  specifically  distinct. 

BADHAMIA,  BerkdeV- 

Badhamia  panicea,  (Fr,)  Rost  According  to  Mac- 
bride,  "this  seems  to  be  a  purely  western  species."  Wher- 
ever fallen  logs  of  cottonwood  or  box-elder  are  found  in 
damp  situations,  the  whitish  Plasmodium  occurs  in  abun- 
dance, developing  into  the  small,  gray,  crowded  or  scattered 
sporangia.  At  Boulder  the  species  is  especially  abundant, 
occurring  in  company  with  B.  populina,  List,  and  related 
forms.  It  has  also  been  collected  at  Fort  Collins,  (Bragg), 
and  a  limeless  form  has  been  found  at  Golden,  (Bethel). 

The  specimens  on  box-elder  usually  show  smaller  and 
more  densely  clustered  sporangia  than  those  on  cottonwood. 
Occasionally  the  sporangia  are  stipitate,  and  more  rarely 
forms  occur  in  which  the  capillitium  shows  a  few  short  hya- 
line threads  connecting  the  lime-knots  as  is  noted  by  Lister 
(Mon.  p.  34)  in  the  case  of  the  varietal  form  B.  vema,  Rost, 

Badhamia  populina.  List,  During  the  summer  of 
1906  numbers  of  specimens  of  a  Badhamia  were  sent  in  by 
Mr.  Bethel,  chiefly  from  Denver  and  Boulder.  The  white, 
gray  or  pinkish  sporangia  occurred  usually  in  dense  clusters, 
rarely  as  separate  individuals,  on  the  bark  of  cottonwood 
and  box  elder.  In  most  cases  the  sporangia  were  supported 
on  long,  membranous,  straw-colored  stalks.  These  feat- 
ures, together  with  the  fact  that  the  spores  were  in  clusters 
of  eig^t  to  fifteen  or  more  individuals,  were  so  distinctive  of 
Badhamia  capsulifera,  (Bull.)  Berk.,  that  the  specimens 
were  at  once  referred  to  that  species.  Upon  closer  exam- 
ination, however,  the  spores  were  found  to  exhibit  a  peculiar 
feature,  being  marked  with  more  or  less  distinct  bands  or 


12  Colorado  College  Publication. 

ridges  dividing  the  surface  into  three  or  four  triangular 
areas  and  a  corresponding  polygonal  area  at  the  broader  end. 
This  feature  was  not  always  apparent,  the  specimens  on  box- 
elder  showing  only  occasional  and  very  faint  bands.  At 
first  these  bands  were  taken  to  be  mere  pressure-ridges  pro- 
duced by  the  mutual  compression  of  the  spores  as  they 
formed  in  the  clusters,  but  on  looking  over  the  literature  it 
was  found  that  Mr.  Lister  had  described,  under  the  name 
Badhamia  populina,  a  species  similar  to  B.  capsulifera  but 
distinguished  from  it  by  a  white  instead  of  a  chrome-yellow 
Plasmodium  and  spores  banded  precisely  as  in  our  specimens. 
(Joum.  of  Botany:  Vol.  42,  May,  1904,  p.  129.)  This  led  to 
a  personal  investigation  of  the  Plasmodium,  when  the  latter 
was  found  to  be  uniformly  of  a  whitish  color  without  a  tinge 
of  yellow.  Specimens  were  submitted  to  Mr.  Lister  and 
were  determined  by  him  as  B.  poputinck 

Were  the  banded  spores  the  only  feature  in  which  our 
specimens  differ  from  B.  capsulifera,  they  might  not  serve  as 
a  distinctive  feature,  but  taken  in  connection  with  the  white 
Plasmodium  it  seems  at  present  advisable  to  follow  Lister  in 
regarding  B.  populina  as  a  distinct  species.  As  to  its 
occurrence  in  this  country,  it  is  probably  more  widely 
spread  than  is  at  present  supposed,  having  been  collected 
as  B.  capsulifera.  The  color  of  the  Plasmodium  is  usu- 
ally overlooked  by  collectors  and,  in  the  present  instance, 
the  banding  of  the  spores  becomes  apparent  only  with  high 
magnification.  Macbride  makes  no  mention  of  the  color  of 
the  Plasmodium  in  either  B.  capsulifera  or  in  the  related 
species,  (a  variety,  according  to  Lister),  B,  papaveracecL 
Under  date  of  October  27th,  1906,  Mr.  Lister  writes :  "We 
have  never  received  our  typical  European  form  of  B.  hych 
Una  (B.  capsulifera)  from  America.  We  have  had  var.  B. 
papaveracea  sixteen  times.  All  you  have  sent  from  Colorado 
with  white,  heaped-up  sporangia  and  white  or  cream-colored 
Plasmodium,  are,  we  believe,  B.  populina."  As  above  re- 
marked, while  it  may  seem  probable  that  in  B.  populina  we 
have  only  a  marked  variety  of  B.  capsulifera,  there  can  be 
no  certain  conclusion  unless  specimens  are  found  showing  a 
yellow  Plasmodium  and  banded  spores,  and  for  the  present 
the  name  B.  populina  is  retained  for  the  form  with  white 
Plasmodium  and  more  or  less  distinctly  banded  spores.  It 
has  thus  far  been  collected  at  Boulder,  (Bethel  and  Sturgis)  ; 
Morrison,  (Bethel) ;  Denver,  (Bethel)  and  Fort  Collins, 
(Bragg). 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  13 

Badhamia  versicolor.  List.  "This  interesting  species 
was  first  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  at  Boulder  in  July,  1906, 
and  later  by  Mr.  Bethel  and  the  present  writer  in  the  same 
locality.  In  both  instances  it  occurred  on  the  bark  of  box- 
elder,  often  in  company  with  B,  populina.  Specimens  were 
submitted  to  Mr.  Lister  and  determined  by  him.  Since  it 
has  not  before  been  reported  from  America  and  the  original 
description  is  not  readily  accessible,  the  latter  is  here  given  in 
full. 

"Plasfnodiumf  Sporangia  sessile,  sub-globose,  0.3-0.5 
mm.  diam.,  pure  grey  or  grey  with  a  tinge  of  flesh-colour, 
scattered  or  in  small  groups;  sporangium-wall  hyaline,  with 
innate  clusters  of  lime-granules,  the  lime  sometimks  scanty 
or  wanting;  columella  none;  capillitium  a  coarse  network 
of  broad  or  narrower  bands  densely  charged  throughout 
with  lime;  in  some  sporangia  the  granules  contained  in  the 
capillitium  are  white,  in  others  apricot-coloured;  spores 
ovoid  or  somewhat  cuneate,  arranged  in  clusters  of  ten  to 
forty  or  more,  purple-brown  and  minutely  warted  on  the 
broad  end,  pale  and  smooth  elsewhere,  10  x  8 — 12  ;r  7  /* 
(Jour,  of  Bot.,  March,  1901,  p.  81.) 

The  small  size  of  the  sporangia  would  readily  cause 
this  species  to  be  overlooked,  were  it  not  that  they  are  gre- 
garious, giving  the  appearance  of  minute  whitish  beads 
sprinkled  thickly  over  the  bark.  The  sporangia  are  rugose 
or  wrinkled;  the  base  is  thickened  and  of  a  dark  brown 
color ;  the  lime-knots  as  well  as  the  sporangium-wall  usually 
show  a  distinctly  yellowish  color.  The  only  difference  be- 
tween the  Boulder  specimens  and  those  described  by  Lister 
is  that  in  the  latter  the  spores  are  in  larger  clusters. 

The  species  is  closely  related  to  B.  capsulifera,  irom 
which,  however,  it  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  habit  and 
the  minute  size  of  the  sporangia. 

Badhamia  nitens.  Berk,  This  rare  species  has  been 
hitherto  reported  only  from  England  and  it  is  interesting  to 
find  it  occurring  in  typical  form  in  the  mountains  of  Colorado. 
The  specimens  before  us  were  all  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  in 
August,  1905,  on  the  bark  of  Abies  concolor  at  Ouray,  Colo. 
The  greenish-yellow  color  of  the  lime  in  the  sporangium- 
wall  and  capillitium  render  it  easily  distinguishable  among 
the  Badhamias  with  clustered  spores. 

Badhamia  orbiculata.  Rex,  Some  confusion  has,  in 
the  past,  existed  regarding  this  species.  It  is  undoubtedly 
related  to  both  B.  panicea  and  B.  nuicrocarpa,  indeed  Mr. 


14  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Lister  placed  it  as  a  variety  of  the  latter  species  *(Mon.  p. 
34),  though  in  a  letter  to  the  writer  dated  Dec.  15th,  1906,  he 
states  that  this  view  was  mistaken,  being  based  on  insufficient 
material.  It  is  undoubtedly  an  autonomous  species,  differing 
from  B,  panicea  in  the  short  blackish  staUcs  of  the  stipitate 
sporangia,  but  especially  in  the  discoid  or  annulate  form  of 
the  sporangia.  The  smaller,  paler  spores  serve  to  distinguish 
it  from  B.  macrocarpa.  The  latter  species  has  not  yet  been 
reported  from  Colorado  and  seems  to  be  very  rare  through- 
out the  United  States. 

The  specimens  of  5.  orbiculata  before  us  were  all  gath- 
ered in  Boulder  in  September,  1906,  by  Mr.  Bethel  and  the 
writer.  They  occurred  uniformly  on  the  bark  of  cotton- 
wood.  With  the  typical  form  there  occurred  in  some  abun- 
dance a  form  consisting  of  small,  sessile,  very  much  ap- 
pressed  plasmodiocarps  with  a  capillitium  of  straight,  aaite- 
ly-branching,  calcareous  rods  uniting  the  lower  and  upper 
surfaces  of  the  plasmodiocarp.  So  marked  were  these  feat- 
ures that  they  appeared  at  first  to  indicate  a  specific  distinc- 
tion, but  further  examination  showed  the  presence  of  inter- 
grading  forms  apparently  connecting  the  plasmodiocarps 
and  the  typical  sporangia.  So  different,  however,  are  these 
two  forms  in  appearance  and  in  the  structure  of  the  capilliti- 
um, that  it  is  quite  possible  that  future  gatherings  may  prove 
the  applanate  forms  to  be  worthy  of  at  least  a  varietal  posi- 
tion under  B,  orbiculata. 

Badhamia  utricularis,  (Bull.)  Berk.  This  species  is 
included  in  a  list  of  Myxomycetes  from  Colorado  in  the 
herbarium  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  furnished  by 
Professor  Macbride.  A  scanty,  immature  specimen  was 
found  by  Mr.  Bethel  at  Tolland,  in  September,  1906. 

PHYSARUM,  Pmoon. 

Physarum.viride,  (Bull.)  Pers.  This  species  occurs 
commonly  throughout  the  State  and  in  all  of  the  three  vari- 
eties, luteum,  aurantium  and  incanum.  The  last-named  vari- 
ety very  closely  resembles  P.  nutans,  Pers. 

The  var.  aurantium  has  been  collected  at  Colorado 
Springs,  (Shantz)  ;  Tolland,  (Bethel);  Glen  Park,  (Stur- 
gis).  Var.  luteum  at  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis)  ;  Boulder  and 
Tqlland,  (Bethel).  Var.  incanum  at  Boulder  and  Tolland, 
(Bethel),  and  Manitou  Park,  (Sturgis). 

Physarum  nutans^  Pers.  Much  difficulty  attends  the 
definition  of  this  species  owing  to  the  extreme  diversity  of 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  15 

views  held  by  the  various  authorities  regarding  this  and  re- 
lated species. 

Typical  P.  nutans  is  not  difficult  to  recognize.  The 
slender,  non-calcareous  stipe,  the  nodding  sporangia,  the 
white  lime-knots  and  the  rather  pale,  violet-brown,  almost 
smooth  spores,  are  sufficiently  diagnostic.  This  form  is  the 
Tilmadoche  atba,  (Pers.)  of  Macbride's  "Slime-Moulds," 
and  is  represented  in  our  collection  by  specimens  from  Colo- 
rado Springs,  (Shantz);  Tolland,  (Bethel);  Boulder, 
(Bethel  and  Sturgis)  ;  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis). 

It  grades  almost  imperceptibly  into  a  form  with  larger 
spherical  sporangia  erect  upon  slender  or  stout  sulcate  stipes 
free  from  lime  and  yzrying  in  color  from  pale  brownish  to 
almost  black,  and  with  dark,  purplish-brown,  rather  spinu- 
lose  spores.  This  is  the  P.  compressum,  A.  &  S.  of  Lister's 
Monograph,  of  which  var,  ^  is  the  common  form  in  this 
country.  It  is  also  the  P.  nephroideum,  Rost,  of  Macbride's 
"Slime-Moulds,"  although  that  name  is  taken  by  that  author 
to  include  forms  with  stalks  charged  throughout  with  lime, 
as,  e.  g,  in  Ell.  &  Ev.,  N.  A.  F.  2694.  Between  these  two 
extremes  occur  a  multitude  of  forms  some  of  which  are 
placed  by  Lister  as  varieties  of  P.  nutans,  while  other  author- 
ities regard  them  as  species.  Thus.  Lister  relegates  the  name 
P.  leucophaeunt,  Fr,  to  varietal  rank,  whereas  Macbride 
maintains  the  validity  of  the  species,  though  there  is  an  irrec- 
oncilable difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  that  name  really 
applies  to.  Lister  applies  it  to  an  erect  form  with  globose 
densely  calcareous  sporangia;  Macbride  to  a  delicate  form 
with  scanty  deposits  of  lime  represented  by  Ell.  &  Ev.,  N.  A. 
F.  2693.  That  specimen,  however,  with  its  nodding  sporan- 
gia and  pale  spores,  appears  to  be  typical  P.  nutans  with  less 
lime  than  usual,  possibly  var.  viotascens,  Rost.  Still  more 
nearly  approaching  P.  nephroideum  is  Lister's  var.  robustum 
with  densely  calcareous  sporangia  on  stout,  erect  stalks  and 
with  lai^er,  more  distinctly  warted  spores.  AH  of  theste  varie- 
ties agree  in  their  rather  pale  violet-brown  spores  as  con- 
trasted with  the  dark  purplish-brown  spores  of  P.  nephroid- 
eum. Evidently,  however,  this  is  a  distinction  in  which  the 
personal  equation  plays  altogether  too  important  a  part.  In 
many  cases  it  is  quite  impossible  for  two  observers  to  agree 
as  to  the  placing  of  a  certain  form  under  one  or  the  other  of 
the  two  extremes  mentioned  above.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  only  possible  course  is  to  recognize  the  two  cen- 
tres P.  nutans  and  P.  nephroideum  and  to  arrange  the  inter- 


i6  CowRADo  College  Publication. 

mediate  forms  under  whichever  centre  they  seem  to  approach 
most  nearly. 

A  form  occurs  rather  abundantly  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Boulder,  which  differs  considerably  from  normal  P. 
nutans  but  which  we  include  under  that  species.  The  spor- 
angia are  globose  or  sub-globose,  clear  gray  with  patches  or 
lumps  of  pure  white  lime  on  the  surface,  and  measure  0.4-0.5 
mm.  in  diameter.  They  are  erect  on  slender  or  stout,  taper- 
ing, black  stalks,  devoid  of  lime.  The  capillitium  consists  of 
an  abundance  of  very  slender  threads,  with  few  and  small  or 
many  and  larger  fusiform  or  rounded  lime-knots.  The 
spores  measure  9-11  fi,  are  almost  smooth  or  minutely  warted 
and  of  a  clear  violet-brown  or  almost  claret-color. 

Another  form  is  similar,  but  the  sporangia  are  rather 
larger,  measuring  as  high  as  0.7  mm.  in  diameter.  They  are 
either  sessile  or  possess  short,  furrowed  stalks  of  a  dirty 
yellowish  color.  The  capillitium  is  more  robust  but  the 
spores  are  identical  with  those  of  the  form  described  above. 

Both  of  these  are  certainly  forms  of  P,  nutans  as  under- 
stood by  Lister,  and  are  placed  under  his  var,  robustunk 
They  have  been  collected  at  Fort  Collins,  (Bragg)  ;  Boulder, 
(Bethel  and  Sturgis)  ;  Ouray,  (Bethel). 

Physarum  nephroideum,  Rost,  This  name  is  adopted 
in  place  of  the  P,  compressutn,  A.  &  S.  of  Lister's  Mono- 
graph, for  the  reasons  given  by  Macbride,  ("Slime- 
Moulds",  p.  40),  which  seem  to  the  writer  amply  sufficient. 
The  species,  readily  distinguished  by  its  dark,  purplish 
brown,  usually  rather  spinulose  spores,  appears  to  be 
common  throughout  the  State.  It  has  been  collected 
at  Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Sturgis) ;  Grand  Mesa,  Ouray,  Tol- 
land, and  Fort  Collins,  (Bethel).  The  Fort  Collins  gather- 
ing shows  a  remarkable  approach  to  Physarum  nodulosum, 
Cke.  &  Balf.,  in  the  reddish-brown  stalk,  merging  into  the 
concolorous  and  persistent  base  of  the  sporangium,  but  the 
dark,  spinulose  spores  leave  no  doubt  as  to  its  proper  posi- 
tion. 

Physarum  cinereum,  (Batsch)  Pers,  Mr.  Bethel  finds 
this  species  ocurring  abundantly  on  grass,  leaves  and  fallen 
twigs  at  Boulder  and  Golden.  All  of  the  gatherings  are  typ- 
ical in  habit  and  in  detail. 

Physarum  contextum,  Pers,  This  species  is  recog- 
nizable at  sight  by  its  densely  aggregated  habit  and  pale  yel- 
low, calcareous  sporangia,  often  encrusting  or  sheathing  the 
fallen  twigs,  leaves  and  bits  of  bark  on  which  it  occurs.    It  is 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  17 

reported  frcmi  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis)  ;  Palmer  Lake  and  Gold- 
en, (Bethel)  ;  Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Sturgis). 

Physarum  vernum,  Sommerf.  In  September,  1906, 
Mr.  Bethel  collected  near  Denver  a  small  quantity  of  a  form 
bearing  a  marked  resemblance  to  Physarum  cinereum.  The 
gray,  isolated  or  gregarious  sporangia  (occasionally  plas- 
modicarps)  are  very  small  (0.4-0.6  mm.  diam.)  and  are  ses- 
sile upon  a  dead  herbaceous  stem.  The  fragile,  single  spor- 
angium-wall easily  breaks  away,  exposing  the  persistent 
white  capillitium  and  black  spore-mass.  The  capillitium 
consists  of  very  abundant  small  rounded  lime-knots  with  del- 
icate connecting  threads.  The  spores  measure  lo-ii  /*  diam. 
and  are  very  dark  purplish-brown  (a  color  which  also  faintly 
tinges  the  sporangium-wall),  and  distinctly  spinulose. 

Macbride  lists  three  species  to  which  this  form  is  some- 
what similar — P,  cinereum,  P.  plumbeum  and  P.  atrum^ 
From  P.  cinereum  it  certainly  differs  in  the  color  and  sculp- 
ture of  the  spores,  and  since  the  former  feature  is  apparently 
repeated  in  the  other  two  species  mentioned,  the  identity  of 
the  form  under  consideration  with  either  of  them  is  pre- 
cluded, even  if  it  were  not  for  differences  in  other  points 
and  the  very  doubtful  validity  of  both  P:  plumbeum  and  P, 
atrum. 

Except  for  the  smaller  size  and  the  generally  globose 
form  of  the  sporangia,  the  Denver  gathering  corresponds  to 
a  specimen  of  P,  vemum  in  the  writer's  herbarium,  collected 
in  England  and  determined  by  Mr.  Lister  after  an  examina- 
tion of  Sommerfelt's  type.  Regarding  this  species  Mr, 
Lister  writes  (Joum.  of  Botany,  Vol.  35,  p.  210,  June  1897), 
"On  the  one  hand  it  is  allied  to  Physarum  cinereum,  which  it 
resembles  in  the  sessile  plasmodiocarps  as  well  as  in  the  cap- 
illitium. On  the  other  hand  it  is  allied  to  Physarum  com- 
pressum  (P.  nephroideum)  in  the  dark  spores.  Before  re- 
ceiving Sommerfelt's  type  I  had  contemplated  publishing 
an  account  of  the  form  as  a  dark-spored  variety  of  Phy- 
sarum cinereum,  which  is  normally  characterized  by  its  pale 
spores ;  it  is  satisfactory  however,  to  be  able  to  trace  it  to  a 
species  already  named,  for  notwithstanding  the  intermediate 
pJace  which  it  holds  between  its  two  companions,  rendering 
some  gatherings  difficult  to  determine,  yet  the  main  charac- 
ters are  constant." 

This  species  has  not  been  before  reported  from  Amer- 
ica and  is  represented  by  the  single  gathering  referred  to. 


i8  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Physarvm  Diderma,  Rost  A  peculiar  form  of  this 
species  occurs  at  Boulder  and  has  been  collected  on  two  dif- 
ferent occasions  by  Mr.  Bethel  and  the  writer.  It  consists 
almost  entirely  of  rather  long  sinuous  plasmodiocarps  resem- 
bling Physarum  sinuosum,  (Bull.)  Weinm.  These,  however, 
are  not  laterally  compressed  as  in  that  species,  nor  do  they 
split  open  along  the  upper  edge.  The  inner  wall  of  the 
sporangia  shows  the  purplish  tint  characteristic  of  P.  Did- 
ertna  and  the  spores  are  dark  purplish-brown  in  color, 
strongly  spinulose  on  one  side  and  measure  9-10.2  fi  diam. 
The  spores  of  P.  sinuosum  are  paler,  smaller  and 
less  coarsely  but  more  evenly  warted.  Undoubtedly,  how- 
ever, the  two  species  are  very  closely  allied. 

Physarum  sinuosum,  (Bull.)  Weinm.  This  common 
species  occurs  abundantly  throughout  Colorado.  Specimens 
are  before  us  from  Buena  Vista,  Golden,  Tolland,  Boulder, 
and  Palmer  Lake,  all  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel.  The  com- 
pressed sporangia,  the  outer  wall  splitting  irregularly  not 
rolling  back  from  the  persistent  inner  wall,' the  character  of 
the  spores,  and  the  more  regular  rod-like  capillitium  with 
branching  rather  than  rounded  lime-knots,  are  features 
which  serve  to  distinguish  this  species  from  the  preceding 
one. 

Physarum  didermoides,  (Ach.)  Rost.  The  typical 
form  of  this  species,  with  ovoid  or  cylindrical  sporangia  sup- 
ported on  white  or  yellowish  membranous  stalks,  has  not 
been  reported  from  Colorado. 

A  specimen  has  been  received  from  Boulder,  (Bragg) 
showing  small,  crowded,  spherical  and  sessile  sporangia, 
somewhat  resembling  Physarum  cinereum.  The  sporangium 
wall  is,  however,  double  and  the  spores  are  dark  purplish- 
brown,  spinulose,  and  measure  11. 7- 12.8  fi  in  diameter.  In 
these  features  the  gathering  accords  perfectly  with  P.  dider- 
moides. The  shape  of  the  sporangia  in  that  species  is  a  very 
variable  character. 

Physarum  testaceum,  n.  s.  In  August,  1905,  Mr. 
Bethel  collected  at  Ouray,  Colo.,  a  peculiar  Physarum,  iden- 
tical with  a  number  of  forms  in  the  writer's  collection  which 
had  been  placed  provisionally  under  the  name  Physarum  did- 
ermoides,  var.  lividum,  (Rost.)  List.,  (Jour,  of  Bot.,  May, 
1898,  p.  I.).  Specimens  of  this  gathering  were  sent  to  Mr. 
Lister  and  were  confirmed  by  him,  with  the  suggestion,  how- 
ever, that  the  variety  showed  so  many  points  of  difference 
from  typical  P.  didermoides  that  it  might  well  be  considered 


The  Myxomyobtes  of  Colorado.  19 

worthy  of  specific  rank.    The  Ouray  specimens  may  be  de- 
scribed as  follows: 

Plasmodium?  Sporangia  sub  globose,  closely  gregari- 
ous, or  clustered  and  polygonal  from  mutual  compression, 
0.7  mm.  diam.,  sessile.  Sporangium-wall  usually  double; 
the  outer  white,  smooth  or  wrinkled,  delicate  and  shell-like; 
the  inner  membranous,  colorless.  Capillitium  of  numerous 
large  or  small,  branching,  angular,  white  lime-knots,  con- 
fhected  by  delicate,  hyaline  threads.  Spores  dark  violet- 
brown,  spinulose,  but  distinctly  darker  and  more  strongly 
spinulose  on  one  side;  8-10.2  /*  diam.  On  bark  of  Abies 
concolor;  Ouray,  Colo.,  leg.  Bethel,  Aug,  1905. 

Except  in  the  purer  white  of  the  sporangia,  this  species 
has  a  certain  resemblance  to  Badhamia  panicea.  The  plas- 
moduim  was  not  seen  but  Lister  (I.  c.)  gives  the  color  as 
white.  FrcMn  P.  didermoides,  the  form  under  consideration 
differs  in  the  shape  of  the  sporangia,  the  absence  of  a  stalk, 
the  usually  shell-like  double  wall,  the  larger  angular  lime- 
knots,  and  the  unequal  thickness  of  the  spore-wall.  In  the 
last-named  feature  it  differs  (teste  Lister  in  titt.)  from  P.  liv-, 
idum,  Rost.,  in  which  the  spores  are  equally  dark  and  spin- 
ulose all  over.  The  sporangium-wall  is  usually  double,  but 
the  two  layers  may  be  so  closely  united  as  to  be  inseparable. 

In  the  writer's  collection  is  a  specimen  collected  at  Ar- 
lington, Mass.,  showing  a  single  sporangium-wall  less  densely 
charged  with  lime,  but  agreeing  in  every  other  respect  with 
the  Ouray  gathering. 

Under  the  name  P.  testaceum  the  writer  also  includes  a 
specimen  received  from  Mr.  A.  P.  Morgan  of  Preston,  Ohio, 
marked  Physarum  concinnum,  B.  &  C,  and  the  "Physarum 
Diderma,  Rost"  of  Macbride's  North  American  Slime- 
Moulds.  These  two  specimens  consist  of  closely  aggregated 
groups  of  sporangia  with  white,  densely  calcareous,  outer 
walls.  As  pointed  out  by  Lister  (Journ.  of  Bot.,  June  1897, 
p.  212),  the  name  Diderma  concinnum,  B  &  C.  refers  to 
Chondrioderma  radiatum,  (L.)  Rost.  Macbride's  P.  Did- 
erma appears  to  be  a  very  different  thing  from  Rostafinski's 
species  as  understood  by  Lister  and  from  the  specimens  men- 
tioned above  (p.  18)  under  that  name,  with  cylindrical  sin- 
uous plasmodiocarps.  It  is  worth  noting  in  this  connection 
that  a  specimen  received  from  Mr.  N.  L  Gardner  of  Berke- 
ley, Cal.,  identical  with  P.  Diderma  as  described  above,  was 
submitted  by  the  writer  to  Prof.  Macbride  who  confirmed 
the  determination.    If  such  specimens  represent  the  true  P. 


20  Colorado  Coluge  Publication. 

Didemuh  as  Lister  believes,  it  is  difficult  to  include  under 
that  name  the  form  described  by  Macbride.  Finally,  a  num- 
ber of  specimens  of  P.  didermoides,  var.  lividum,  received 
from  Mr.  Lister,  show  the  same  divergences  from  P.  dider- 
moides, as  do  the  American  gatherings,  and  these  speci- 
mens, as  well  as  Morgan's  P.  concinnum,  ( B:  & 
C.)  and  Macbride's  P.  Diderma,  Rost,  are  therefore  included 
under  the  name  Physarum  testaceum,  Sturgis.  Whether  or 
not  that  name  wiU  stand  depends  on  the  stability  of  the  spore- 
characters.  Should  future  gatherings  show  that  the  unequal 
thickness  of  the  spore-wall  is  a  varying  character  and  that  in 
other  respects  P,  testaceum  approaches  P.  liTMdum  too  closely 
to  be  always  distinguishable  from  it,  the  latter  name  must 
stand.  But  in  any  case,  it  seems  fairly  certain  that  this  form 
can  not  be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  P.  didermoides, 

Physarum  pallidum,  (B.  &  C.)  List.  This  rare  but 
very  characteristic  species  is  rejM^sented  by  a  single  gather- 
ing obtained  by  Mr.  Bethel  at  Tolland  in  October,  1906. 

The  name  is  based  on  two  American  specimens,  one  in 
the  Kew  Collection,  from  South  Carolina,  marked  Diderma 
pallidum,  B.  &  C;  the  other  in  the  British  Museum  Collec- 
tion from  Ravenel  under  the  same  name,  (Lister  in  Joum. 
of  Bot.,  April  1898,  p.  5.).  It  is  also  the  same  (teste  Lister, 
1.  c,  p.  10)  as  a  specimen  collected  in  Java  by  Raciborski 
and  named  by  him  Physarum  bogoriense,  n.  s.  Technically 
the  latter  name  should  be  regarded  as  valid,  since  no  descrip- 
tion of  their  species  was  ever  published  by  Berkeley  and  Cur- 
tis. But  inasmuch  as  Berkeley  (Greznllea,  II.  p.  52)  refers 
to  the  specimen  in  the  Kew  Collection  under  the  name 
Diderma  pallidum,  it  seems  advisable  to.  retain  that  name. 
The  species  is  related  to  Physarum  sinuosum  which  it  re- 
sembles in  the  shape  of  the  plasmodiocarps  and  the  manner 
of  dehiscence.  The  outer  wall,  however,  is  smooth,  of  a 
brownish  or  tawny  color,  densely  charged  on  its  inner  surface 
with  white  lime,  and  of  a  somewhat  cartilaginous  texture. 
The  capilHtium  consists  of  numerous  small,  rounded,  white 
lime-knots  connected  by  long  delicate  threads.  The  spores 
are  clear  violet-brown  in  color,  minutely  spinulose,  and  meas- 
ure 8-9  ft  in  diameter. 

Inasmuch  as  P.  pallidum  has  heretofore  been  reported 
only  from  Pennsylvania,  the  Southern  States  and  the  trc^ics, 
it  is  especially  interesting  to  note  its  occurrence  at  high  alti- 
tudes in  Colorado. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  21 

Physarum  lateritium,  (Berk.  &  Br.)  Rost.  This  spe- 
cies occurs  only  once  in  our  Colorado  gatherings,  having 
been  collected  at  Boulder  by  Mr.  Bethel  and  the  writer.  The 
specimen  resembles  the  descriptions  of  Physarum  rubigi- 
nosum,  Fr.  in  the  elongated  branching  capillitial  knots,  but 
the  single  sporangiimi-wall  heavily  encrusted  with  brilliant 
orange-red  deposits  of  lime,  and  the  uniformly  sessile  habit, 
lead  to  its  reference  to  the  species  quoted.  It  is  the  same  as 
P.  inaequale,  Pk.,  differing  from  typical  specimens  of  that 
species  only  in  the  character  of  the  lime-knots.  A  specimen 
received  from  the  late  Dr.  G.  A.  Rex  and  compared  by  him 
with  Peck's  type  shows  rounded  lime-knots,  yellow,  with 
red  centres.  In  other  specimens  this  bi-coloration  is  much 
less  pronounced  and  the  lime-knots  are  angular  and  branch- 
ing. Macbride  fails  to  see  this  feature  in  any  of  the  speci- 
mens examined  by  him.  The  Boulder  specimen  shows  a 
darker  color  in  the  centre  of  the  lime-knots  but  it  is  appar- 
ently due  merely  to  the  greater  density  of  the  central  por- 
tions of  the  knots,  and  not  to  the  presence  of  amorphous 
plasmodic  matter  as  in  the  case  of  the  type-specimen  of  P. 
inaequale,  (Cf.  Sturgis,  Trans.  Conn.  Acad,  of  Arts  &  Sc, 
Vol.  X,  p.  468).  The  double  coloration  therefore,  can  hardly 
be  considered  as  a  diagnostic  feature. 

Physarum  auriscai^pium,  Cke.  This  species  has  been 
collected  in  small  quantities  at  Palmer  Lake  and  in  the  San 
Juan  Mts.,  (Bethel)  ;  at  Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Sturgis)  ;  and 
near  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis).  Though  varying  much 
in  habit,  from  long-stalked  to  sessile  forms,  it  maintains  its 
distinctive  characters — the  globose  yellow  sporangia ;  stalks, 
when  present,  brownish  and  translucent ;  capillitium  of  many 
branching  yellow  lime-knots ;  spores  violet-brown,  minutely 
warted. 

Physarum  Berkeleyi,  Rost.  A  gathering  made  near 
Colorado  Springs  in  September,  1906  has  been  placed  here, 
though  it  might,  with  almost  equal  propriety,  be  included  un- 
der the  preceding  species.  It  is  distinguished  by  the  uni- 
formly stipitate  habit,  the  longer  stalks,  and  the  less  abun- 
dant lime  of  the  capillitium.  (Cf.  Lister,  Joum.  of  Bot., 
April,  1898,  p.  3.) 

Physarum  Newtoni,  Macbr.  This  exquisite  species, 
"easily  recognized  by  its  almost  sessile,  rose-purple,  generally 
umbilicate  sporangium,"  is  described  by  Macbride  (N.  A. 
Slime  Moulds,  p.  37)  from  a  single  gathering  collected  in 


22  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Colorado  by  Prof.  Newton.  It  has  not  been  met  with  by 
the  writer. 

Physarum  citrinum,  Shumacher,  This  species  is 
reported  from  Colorado  by  Prof.  Macbride  in  litt.  Among 
the  yellow,  stipitate  species  of  Physarum  it  is  distinguished 
by  its  yellow  stalk,  charged  throughout  with  lime,  the  yel- 
low lime-knots  of  the  capillitium,  and  the  presence  of  a  colu- 
mella. 

Physarum  compactum,  (Wing,)  List,  The  writer  has 
not  met  with  this  species,  but  it  is  included  in  Prof.  Mac- 
bride's  MS.  list  of  Colorado  Myxomycetes  referred  to  above 

FUUGO,  HaUer. 

FuLiGo  SEPTiCA,  (L.)  Gmel.  Common  everywhere. 
Specimens,  varying  in  color  from  pale  yellow  to  brick-red 
and  brown,  are  present  from  Arrowhead,  Ouray,  Pagosa, 
the  South  Platte,  Tolland,  Boulder,  Golden  and  Palmer 
Lake,  all  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  or  the  writer.  The  large 
size  of  the  aethalia,  the  yellowish  lime-knots,  and  the  rather 
small,  nearly  smooth  spores  are  characteristic  features. 
Prof.  Macbride  writes  (in  litt.),  "A  Colorado  variety  occurs 
with  somewhat  larger  spores,  12-13  fi."  This  may  referable 
to  the  following  species.  The  specimens  are  difficult  to  pre- 
serve owing  to  the  attacks  of  a  small  beetle  of  the  genus 
Enicmus.  Bisulphide  of  carbon  has  been  found  useful  in  re- 
ducing the  damage  done  by  this  pest. 

FuLiGo  ELLiPSOSPORA,  (Rost,)  List,  To  this  species  has 
been  referred  a  single  specimen  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  at 
Tolland.  The  pure  white  color  of  the  large,  much-weath- 
ered aethalium  and  of  the  capillitial  knots,  and  the  rather  pale, 
violet-brown,  minutely  warted  and  usually  oval  spores,  dis- 
tinguish it  from  F,  septica.    The  spores  measure  13x11/1. 

CIENKOWSKIA,  Rostafimki. 

ClENKOWSKIA  RETICULATA,    (Alb,   &  Schw.)    Rost,      A 

remarkable  species  easily  recognized  by  the  creeping  and 
amastomosing  plasmodiocarps  of  a  brownish  color,  marked 
with  dull  scarlet  bosses.  Two  small  specimens  were  collected 
by  Mr.  Bethel  and  the  writer,  at  Boulder,  in  September,  1906. 

CRATERIUM,  Trcntepohl 

Craterium  leucocephalum,  (Pers.)Ditm.  Widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  State.      Reported    from  Boulder, 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Cowrado.  23 

(Bethel  &  Sturgis)  ;  Tolland  and  'Golden,  (Bethel)  ;  Colo- 
rado Springs,  (Sturgis).  At  Boulder  it  occurred  in  extra- 
ordinary abundance  on  dead  leaves  and  twigs,  in  bramble- 
patches,  often  in  company  with  Didymium  nigripes,  Fr, 

Craterium  minutum  (Leers)  Fr.  This  species  was 
found  in  abundance  at  Boulder  by  Mr.  Bethel  and  the  writer 
in  September,  1906,  but  has  not  been  reported  from  elsewhere 
in  the  State.  General  usage  would  seem  to  warrant  the  adop- 
tion of  the  name  C.  pedunculatum,  Trent,,  for  this  spe- 
cies, but  Fries  (Syst.  Myc.  Ill,  p.  151)  writes  "Peziza  mi- 
nuta,  Leers^  descriptio  eximia,"  and  though  he  adds 
"Medium  inter  Cr.  peduncul.  et  Cr,  leucocephalum,  verum 
abunde  distinctum,"  yet  his  own  description  of  C.minutum 
leaves  no  room  to  doubt  that  it  is  the  same  as  the  C  pedun- 
culatum of  TrentepohL  Where  the  law  of  priority  is  so 
plainly  justified,  it  seems  necessary  to  follow  it. 

LEOCARPUS.  Link. 

Leocarpus  fragilis,  (Dicks.)  Rost.  Specimens  of  this 
striking  species  are  present  from  Tolland  and  Palmer  Lake, 
(Bethel) ;  Glen  Park  and  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis).  The 
large,  rich  brown,  highly  polished  sporangia  can  hardly  be 
taken  for  anything  else. 

Leocarpus  fulvus,  Macbr.  This  very  rare  species  is 
represented  by  a  single  gathering  made  by  Mr.  Bethel  in 
June  1896,  "on  living  willow  growing  in  snow,  at  11,000  ft. 
alt.  Loveland  Pass,  Colo."  It  is  well  developed  and  pre- 
sents the  following  characters. 

Sporangia  globose  or  turbinate,  0.8-1.2  mm.  diam.,  gre- 
grarious  or  scattered,  pale  yellow  or  tawny,  sessile  or  stalked. 
Stalks,  when  present,  pale  yellow,  membranous,  being  mere- 
ly extensions  of  the  membranous  hypothallus.  Wall  carti- 
laginous with  scanty  deposits  of  minute  yellow  lime-gran- 
ules. Capillitium  a  dense  mass  of  very  delicate  hyaline 
threads,  expanded  at  the  angles,  the  expansions  occasionally 
filled  with  yellow  lime.  Spores  dark  purplish  brown,  spin- 
ulose,  11-12.5  ft  diam.  The  double  wall  mentioned  by  Mac- 
bride  (N.  A.  Slime-Moulds,  p.  82)  is  not  apparent  in  our 
specimen;  otherwise  it  agrees  perfectly  with  the  descrip- 
tion. Another  specimen  from  Mr.  Bethel  marked  ''Leocar- 
pus, On  leaues  of  Abies  lasiocarpa,  under  willows  at  tim- 
ber line,  Yankee  Doodle  Lake,  Sept.  '06,"  may  be  this  spe- 
cies, but  it  is  so  immature  that  the  characters  can  not  be  made 


24  Colorado  Coixege  Publication. 

out  with  certainty.    The  gross  appearance  is  that  of  Leocar- 
pus  fuhnis. 

In  this  connection  much  interest  attaches  to  two  spec- 
imens in  the  writer's  collection  marked  Physarum  albes- 
cens, Phillips,  and  received  some  years  ago  from  Mr.  Har- 
old Wingate  of  Philadelphia.  One  is  from  the  Rex  herbar- 
ium and  was  collected  in  Iowa  by  Mr.  E.  W.  D.  Hoi  way. 
The  other  is  from  Ellis's  herbarium  and  was  collected  by 
Mr.  Langlois  in  Louisiana.  The  Louisiana  specimen  agrees  in 
every  detail  with  Macbride's  Leocarpus  fulvus.  The  Iowa 
specimen  is  the  same,  except  that  the  sporangia  srre  more  uni- 
formly sessile  and  the  spores  are  pale  violet-brown,  minutely 
warted,  and  measure  only  8.6-9  /*  i"  diameter.  The  capilli- 
tium,  too,  shows  more  abundant  lime-knots.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that  they  are  both  the  same  thing  and  that 
they  are  identical  with  Macbride's  Leocarpus.  If  the  origin 
of  the  name  Physarum  albescens,  PhilL  could  be  traced,  it 
would  take  precedence  of  the  name  given  by  Macbride,  but  no 
mention  of  it  can  be  found  in  the  literature  of  the  subject.  So 
far,  therefore,  as  the  literature  is  concerned,  it  is  a  nomen 
nudum,  but  the  fact  remains  that  there  are  specimens  bear- 
ing the  name  Physarum  albescens,  PhilL  We  leave  it  to  ex- 
perts to  decide  which  name  should  be  adopted,  but  we  mark 
the  Iowa  and  Louisiana  specimens  Leocarpus  fulvus,  Macbr. 

DIDERMA,  Pmoon. 

DiDERMA  STELLARE,  (Schrad.)  Pers,  This  species  oc- 
curs abundantly  on  decayed  cottonwood.  Specimens  have 
been  received  from  Tolland  and  Palmer  Lake,  (Bethel)  ; 
Glen  Park  and  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis);  Boulder, 
(Bethel  &  Sturgis).  The  short-stipitate,  rarely  sessile  spor- 
angia, ashen  or  pale  brown  in  color  and  marked  with  paler 
lines  of  dehiscence ;  and  the  stout,  usually  pale  stalk,  serve  to 
mark  the  species.  As  to  the  specific  name,  radiatum  seems 
to  be  properly  excluded  (cf.  Macbride,  N.  A.  Slime-Moulds, 
p.  105).  Schrader's  description  and  figures  of  Didymium 
stellare  may,  without  too  severe  a  strain  upon  the  imagina- 
tion, be  taken  to  refer  to  the  species  under  consideration, 
and  that  name  is  therefore  adopted  here. 

DiDERMA  SPUMARioiDES,  Fr.  This  species  is  fairly  com- 
mon, forming  an  effused  whitish  crust  on  dead  leaves,  grass- 
es, &c.  The  white  Plasmodium  often  creeps  up  on  living 
grass-stems  and  forms  sporangia  at  a  height  of  several 
inches  above  the  ground. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  CoIvOrado.  25 

Reported  from  Boulder,  and  the  San  Juan  Mts.,  (Beth- 
el), and  fr(Mn  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis). 

DiDERMA  MiCHEur^  (Lib.)  A  rare  species  reported 
but  once  from  Colorado.  It  was  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  at 
Aurora  in  August,  1906.  The  discoid  sporangia  with  pure 
white  fragile  outer  wall  and  flattened  or  almost  obsolete 
columella  of  a  pinkish  brown  color  are  its  distinguishing 
characteristics.  The  Aurora  gathering  shows  usually  sessile 
sporangia;  here  and  there  however,  occur  sporangia  with 
short,  stout,  yellowish  stalks. 

The  synonomy  of  the  species  is  perplexing.  Bulliard 
(Hist,  des  Champ,  de  Fr.,  I,  p.  93,  PL  446,  fig.  i)  describes 
and  figures  Reticulttria  hemisphcerica,  but  gives  the  color 
of  the  sporangia  as  '*brun-noiratre."  Sowerby  (English 
Fungi,  PL  12)  gives  an  admirable  figure  of  our  species  un- 
der the  name  Reticularia  hemisphcerica,  Bull,,  but  Rostafin- 
ski,  giving  the  synonomy  of  Ws  Chondrioderma  Michelii, 
writes  "Reticularia  hemisphcerica,  Sow.  non  Bull.,"  and 
refers  Bulliards  figures  to  species  of  Didymium  (Mon.  pp. 
172  and  386).  Libert  issued  specimens  of  Didymium  Mich- 
elU  and  Corda  (Icon.  Fung.  v.  p.  57,  Taf.  Ill,  fig.  33)  de- 
scribes what  is  unquestionably  the  form  under  consideration 
and  refers  to  Libert's  specimens.  The  validity  of  the  specific 
name  Michelii  therefore,  rests  upon  actual  specimens  as  well 
as  upon  excellent  descriptions  and  figures,  while  a  consider- 
able degree  of  doubt  exists  regarding  the  form  described*  by 
Bulliard  under  the  specific  name  hemisphcerica. 

DiDERMA  TREVEI.YANI,  (Grev.)  Fr.  This  species  is  re- 
ported from  Colorado  by  Macbride,  and  it  occurs  in  our  col- 
lection, specimens  having  been  found  at  Golden  and  Boul- 
der by  Mr.  Bethel.  It  is  characterized  by  sub-ovoid  sporan- 
gia of  a  yellowish  brown  color  marked  by  pale  lines  of  de- 
li riscence  extending  from  the  apex  to  the  base.  At  maturity 
the  wall  splits  open  in  revolute  lobes  exposing  the  inner  sur- 
face which  is  white  from  the  prescence  of  coarse  crystalline 
masses  of  lime.  The  stalks  are  short  and  brown,  and  there 
is  no  columella. 

DiDERMA  TESTACEUM,  (Schrad.)  Pers.  A  single  small 
gathering  made  by  the  writer  near  Colorado  Springs  in  Sep- 
tember, 1906,  has  been  somewhat  doubtfully  refered  to  this 
common  species.  The  sessile  sporangia  are  more  depressed 
than  usual  and  are  pure  white  instead  of  flesh-colored,  thus 
resembling  sessile  forms  of  D.  Michelii,  but  on  the  whole  it 
seems  referable  to  the  species  quoted. 


26  Colorado  College  Publication. 

DiDERMA  GLOBOSUM,  Pers.  This  species  was  found  in  a 
rather  immature  condition  at  Boulder  by  Mr.  Bethel  and  the 
writer.  The  poorly  developed,  dirty-white  sporangia  are 
seated  upon  a  densely  calcareous,  concolorous  hypothallus. 
The  dark  spores  measure  12.5  /x  in  diameter. 

Prot  Macbride  lists  Diderma  crustaceum,  Pk,  from 
Colorado.  In  the  writer's  opinion  this  is  the  same  as  Di- 
derma globosum,    (See  Trans.  Conn.  Acad.  Arts,  Sc.  Vol.  x, 

p.  473).  _ 

Diderma  niveum,  (Rost.)  Macbr,    This  rare  species  is 

represented  by  a  single  specimen  collected  by  Mr.  Bethd, 
submitted  to  Prof.  Macbride  and  marked  by  him  "Diderma 
LyaUii,  Mass,,  Colo.  '02."  The  specimen  consists  of  a  clus- 
ter of  40-50  large  subglobose  sporangia  sessile  upon  or  rising 
on  delicate  whitish  stalks  from  a  membranous,  rather  scanty 
hypothallus.  The  sporangium-wall  is  white  and  shows  a  yel- 
lowish inner  wall.  The  columella  is  pale  brown  and  promi- 
nent. The  capillitium  consists  of  coarse  brown  threads  with 
paler  tips.  The  spores-  are  very  dark  and  spinulose,  and 
measure  12.5-14.5  /x  diam. 

Under  date  of  Oct.  30th,  1905  Mr.  Lister  writes,  re- 
garding a  collection  of  Myxomycetes  gathered  in  Switzer- 
land by  Miss  Lister.  "Also  Chondrioderma  Lyallii,  Mass, 
in  interesting  variety,  -showing  that  it  is  the  same  species  as 
Rostafinski's  Chondrioderma  niveum.  It  was  found  in  sev- 
eral places  at  the  Bel  Alp  close  to  the  melting  snow ;  some 
of  it  exactly  matching  with  the  type  of  C.  niveum  in  the 
Strassburg  collection  marked  *neben  der  schmeltzenden 
Schnee — some  with  densely  calcareous  sporangium-wall, 
and  others  black  without  lime." 

Diderma  Sauteri,  (Rost.)  Macbr.  Prof.  Macbride 
records  this  species  as  occurring  in  Colorado.  It  is  not  in- 
cluded in  our  collection. 

DIACHAEA.  Fries. 

DiACHAEA  leucopoda,  (Bull,)  Fr.  Very  abundant  local- 
ly at  Boulder,  covering  dead  leaves  over  a  large  area,  in 
shady  thickets. 

DIDYMIUM.  Schrader. 

Didymium  farinaceum,  Schrad,  This  and  the  next 
species  are  mong  the  most  common  of  Colorado  Myxomy- 
cetes, D.  farinaceum  is  readily  recognized  by  its  crystalline 
wall,  and  its  dark  brown  stalk  and  columella. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  27 

Specimens  are  before  us  from  Colorado  Springs,  (Stur- 
gis) ;  Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Sturgis)  ;  and  Tolland,  (Bethel). 

DiDYMiUM  SQUAMUU)SUM,  (Alb,  &  Schw.)  Fv,  Abun- 
dant throughout  the  State  in  favorable  situations;  Boulder, 
Denver,  Fort  Collins,  Aurora,  Tolland,  (Bethel)  ;  Colorado 
Springs,  (Sturgis).  The  stipitate  forms  resemble  D,  fori- 
naceum,  but  differ  in  the  snow-white  stalk  and  columella. 
Sessile  forms  with  globose  sporangia  and  very  dark  spores 
measuring  10.5-12  /x  are  frequently  met  with.  The  Aurora 
specimen  is  of  this  type  and  closely  approaches  D,  crusta- 
ceum. 

DmVMIUM     SQUAMULOSUM^   VOT.    CLAVIFORME,     ft,     VOT. 

Sporangia  stipitate,  disc-shaped,  0.4-0.5  mm.  diam.,  0.2  mm, 
or  less  thick,  snow-white,  rugose,  deeply  umbilicate  and  yel- 
lowish beneath,  umbilicate  cS?ove.  Stalk  0.3-0.5  mm,  long, 
white,  furrowed.  Columella  hemispherical  or  depressed, 
white.  Capitlitium  of  delicate,  Aexuous,  hyaline  threads, 
with  occasional  sfnall  fusiform  expansions.  Spores  g-12  fi 
diam,,  rather  dark  violet-brown,  irregularly  warted. 

On  dry  fruits  of  Echinocystis  lobata.  Bethel  leg.,  Den- 
ver, Colo.,  September,  1906. 

This  form  resembles  a  minute  Didymium  Clavus,  from 
which  however,  it  is  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  col- 
umella and  the  character  of  the  spores.  From  all  normal 
forms  of  D.  squamlosum  it  differs  in  the  shape  of  the  sporan- 
gia, while  agreeing  with  that  species  in  all  other  respects. 
The  spores  are  peculiar  in  their  marking,  the  minute  warts 
being  here  and  there  collected  in  small  clusters  as  in  Coma- 
tricha  typhoides, 

Didymium  anellus.  Morg,  ("The  Myxomycetes  of 
the  Miami  Valley,  Ohio,"  p.  64,  1894).  This  extremely 
delicate  and  characteristic  species  was  found  by  Mr.  Bethel 
at  Boulder  in  September  1906,  growing  upon  dead  leaves. 
A  little  later  the  present  writer  collected  it  near  Colorado 
Springs,  on  the  inner  bark  of  decayed  cottonwood  logs,  in 
company  with  Perich^ena  corticalis,  (Batsch)  Rost, 

Morgan  describes  the  species  perfectly,  as  follows : 

"Plasmodiocarp  in  smalt  rings  or  links,  then  confluent 
and  elongated,  irregularly  connected  together,  bent  and  Aex- 
uous,  resting  on  a  thin  venulose  hypothatlus;  the  wall  firm, 
dark-colored,  with  a  thin  layer  of  stellate  crystals  of  lime,  ir- 
regularly ruptured.  Columella  merely  a  thin  layer  of  brown 
scales,     Capillitium  of  slender,  dark-colored  threads  which 


28  Colorado  Colusge  Publication. 

extend  from  base  to  wall,  more  or  less  branched,  and  com- 
bined into  a  loose  net.  Spores  globose,  very  minutely  warted, 
Violaceous,  8-9  mic.  in  diameter/' 

The  Boulder  specimen  corresponds  in  every  respect  with 
this  description.  Those  from  Colorado  Springs  are  in  the 
form  of  extremely  thin  grayish  crusts,  the  plasmodiocarps 
being  only  indicated  by  depressions  in  the  surface.  The 
capillitium  threads  are  straighter  and  coarser  than  in  the 
Boulder  gathering,  and  the  spores  are  darker  and  larger, 
measuring  12-13  /x  diam.  Occasionally  distinct  sporangia 
occur  in  the  Boulder  gathering,  but  they  are  always  sessile, 
much  flattened  and  often  umbilicate  aJ)ove  or  even  annulate. 

Lister  (Joum.  of  Bot.,  June,  1897,  P-  214  and  April, 
1899,  P-  5)  described  this  form  under  the  name  Didymium 
effusum,  Link,  var.  tenue,  List.  It  seems  however,  to  be 
abundantly  worthy  of  specific  rank  and  Morgan's  name  takes 
precedence. 

Didymium  nigripes,  (Link)  Fr,  A  single  small  and 
poorly  developed  specimen  collected  by  the  writer  near  Colo- 
rado Springs  represents  the  typical  form  of  this  species,  with 
dark  brown  stalk  and  columella. 

The  common  form  in  Colorado  is  the  var.  eximium, 
(Pk.)  List.,  (Didymium  eximium,  Pk).  This  has  been  col- 
lected in  quantity  at  Colorado  Springs,  (Bethel  &  Sturgis), 
and  at  Bonder,  (Bethel).  It  shows  irregularly  globose  spor- 
angia of  a  yellowish  gray  color,  a  large  pale  brown  colu- 
mella, and  capillitium  of  pale,  branching  and  anastomosing 
threads,  expanded  toward  the  surface  of  the  columella  and 
showing  here  and  there  fusiform  expansions  with  yellowish 
contents.  The  spores  average  9  /x  in  diameter.  The  writer's 
reasons  for  following  Lister  in  making  this  form  a  variety  of 
D.  nigripes,  have  been  sufficiently  stated  elsewhere.  (Trans. 
Conn.  Acad.  Arts  &  Sc,  Vol.  x,  p.  478  e.  s.) 

Didymium  difforme,  (Pers.)  Duby.  This  species  is 
readily  distinguished  by  its  much  appressed  sporangia  or 
plasmodiocarps,  with  smooth,  fragile,  white  walls,  the  lime 
being  in  the  form  of  crystalline  masses,  not  in  spherical 
granules  as  in  the  genus  Diderma.  It  is  represented  in  our 
collection  by  specimens  gathered  at  Denver  by  Mr.  Bethel, 
on  dead  leaves  and  twigs  and  on  bits  of  glass. 

Didymium  clavus,  (Alb.  &  Schw.)  Rab.  Listed  by 
Macbride  (in  MS.)  as  a  Colorado  species.  It  is  not  repre- 
sented in  our  collection. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Cowrado.  29 

SPUMARIA,  Persoon. 

Spumaria  alba,  (Bull.)  DC,  This  occurs  in  abun- 
dance and  in  extraordinarily  varied  forms.  At  Boulder  the 
normal  form  was  found,  with  ragged  aethalia  forming  on 
g^ass-stalks  and  on  the  stems  of  shrubby  plants.  At  Pagosa 
Springs  and  again  at  Palmer  Lake  a  form  occurs  in  abun- 
dance in  which  the  sporangia  are  less  closely  associated  and 
are  seated  upon  a  dense  white  hypothallus  forming  a  crust 
upon  wood  and  only  occasionally  on  twigs  and  grass-stems. 
But  the  most  remarkable  forms  are  represented  by  specimens 
gathered  at  Boulder  and  Denver  by  Mr.  Bethel.  At  first 
sight  they  would  unhesitatingly  be  placed  under  Fuligo  sep- 
tica,  judging  only  by  the  habit  and  gross  appearance.  They 
occur  uniformly  on  the  bark  of  fallen  logs,  usually  of  Cot- 
tonwood, and  are  in  the  form  of  massive  aethalia  often  4-5 
cm.  in  diameter  and  2-2.5  cm.  in  thickness,  covered  with  a 
very  thick  crust  of  cream-white  lime  which  is  either  spongy 
ill  appearance  or  smoother  and  pulverulent,  as  though  the 
spongy  crust  had  been  rubbed  down  with  the  finger.  Some- 
times the  spongy  crust  falls  away  in  large  flakes  exposing  the 
pulverulent  layer  beneath.  In  these  cases  the  lime  is  in  minute 
crystals  combined  into  small  masses.  Again  the  aethalia  are 
flatter  and  cake-like,  covered  with  a  dense  white  coating  of 
lime  but  very  solid  in  texture  beneath,  the  sporangia  being 
inextricably  intertwined.  Such  specimens  are  usually  found 
growing  in  company  with  the  flat  purplish  athalia  of  Fuligo 
ellipsospora,  often  so  intimately  as  to  be  partially  superim- 
posed. There  is  undoubtedly  an  extreme  divergence  in  both 
appearance  and  structure  between  these  massive  forms  and 
the  effused  forms  collected  at  Pagosa  Springs  and  elsewhere 
in  which  the  separate  sporangia  occur  in  a  single  layer  and 
are  plainly  distiguishable.  The  capillitium  of  the  former  also 
differs  markedly  from  that  of  normal  S.  alba  and  the  spores 
are  smaller.  On  the  whole  it  seems  advisable  to  consider 
this  as  a  well-marked  variety,  and  it  is  so  designated,  as  fol- 
lows. 

Spumaria  alba,  var.. souda  n.  var.  Plasmodium  milk- 
white.  Aethalia  massive,  4-5  cm.  in  diameter,  1-2.5  ^^^ 
thick,  covered  with  a  very  thick  spongy  or  pulverulent  coat- 
ing of  cream-white  lime;  the  lime  usually  in  the  form  of 
small,  crystalline  mas^<es.  Capillitium  scanty,  of  delicate, 
hyaline,  anastomosing  threads,  with  occasional  fusiform  ex- 
pansions filled  with  dark  matter.      Spores,  dark    purplish 


3c  Colorado  Coixegb  Publication. 

brown,  rather  minutely  spinulose,  8-11  /i  dianu  On  the 
outer  bark  of  fallen  cottonwood  logs.  Denver,  Boulder  and 
Palmer  Lake,  (Bethel),  May  to  September,  1906. 

STEMONITIS.  CltdiUch. 

Stemonitis  Fuse  a.  Roth.  We  here  place  the  common 
dusky  or  smoky-brown  form,  with  more  or  less  reticulated 
spores,  so  ccwnmon  in  this  country.  Macbride  ("Slime- 
Moulds,"  p.  115)  characterizes  this  species  as  having  spores 
"smooth  or  more  or  less  warted,  but  not  reticulate,"  and  ap- 
plies the  name  5*.  maxima,  Schw.  to  the  common  form  with 
reticulate  spores.  The  late  Dr.  Rex  distributed  specimens 
(Ell.  &  Ev.  N.  A.  F.  2697)  labelled  "Stemonitis  maxima, 
Schw.,  Compared  with  the  type  in  Herb.  Schw."  These 
have  reticulated  spores.* 

There  is  no  question  therefore,  about  the  spores  of  the 
Schweinitz  species-  Of  Roth's  species  there  is,  so  far  as  is 
known,  no  type  in  existence,  and  we  have  to  fall  back  on 
Rostafinski.  Macbride  writes  (1.  c.)  "Specimens  iden- 
tified by  Rostafiinski  in  1875  as  S.  fusca  have  the  spores 
slightly  warted  when  viewed  under  a  Zeiss  1-12." 
What  these  specimens  are  we  do  not  know,  but  in 
what  we  call  5*.  fusca  the  reticulation  shows  much  variation 
and  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  Rostafinski  would  have  been 
able  to  distinguish  between  a  punctate  reticulation  and  a 
minute,  even  warting  of  the  surface.  Moreover  according  to 
Lister  (Mon.  p.  iii)  Rostafinski *s  specimens  of  S.  fusca  in 
the  British  Museum  and  the  Strassburg  Museum,  have 
faintly  reticulated  spores.  In  correspondence  with  the  writer 
Mr.  Lister  also  says  "There  are  more  than  20  specimrens 
marked  S.  fusca  in  the  Kew  and  British  Museum  collections, 
examined  by  Rostafinski;  all  of  these  have  reticulated 
spores."  As  noted  above,  it  is  highly  improbable  that  Rosta- 
finski would  have  been  able,  with  the  lenses  at  his  command, 
to  recognize  a  more  or  less  faint  and  broken  reticulation ;  in 
fact  he  describes  the  spores  of  his  specimens  as  smooth  when 
we  now  know  that  they  are  reticulated.  When,  in  addition, 
a  large  number  of  specimens  marked  S.  fusca  and  which 
were  examined  by  Rostafinski,  are  found  to  have  reticulated 

*  There  is  another  specimen  (No.  1119)  in  the  same  collection,  labeled  5<mi- 
otUtis  fusea^  Roth,  collected  by  Dr.  Rex.  This  has  spores  showing  a  broken  punctate 
reticulation.  In  the  box  containing  this  specimen  there  is.  at  least  in  the  writer's 
set.  a  fine  specimen  of  Comatricha  ktterotpora^  Rev.  The  non-identity  of  the  two 
specimens  was  evidently  overlooked  by  Dr.  Rex. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Cou)rado.  31 

spores,  we  are  surely  justified  in  placing  specimens  showing 
this  character  under  the  name  S.  fusca.  What  to  do  with 
the  somewhat  similar  form,  with  smooth  or  faintly  and 
evenly  warted  spores,  is  another  question.  Lister  calls  it 
5".  splendens,  Rost,  It  is  rare  in  Europe,  but  occurs,  cwn- 
monly  in  this  country. 

In  connection  with  normal  5*.  fusca,  mention  should  be 
made  of  certain  specimens  collected  at  Boulder  by  Mr.  Bethel 
and  the  writer  in  October,  1906.  They  show  small  clusters  of 
purplish  or  reddish  brown  sporangia,  cylindrical,  2-3.5  mm. 
in  height  and  very  short-stalked,  rising  from  a  thin  hypothal- 
lus.  .The  capillitium  shows  an  imperfect  surface-net  with 
many  long  free  tips,  especially  toward  the  apex  of  the  spor- 
angium. The  spores  are  rather  pale  reddish-brown  and  ap- 
pear smooth;  under  a  Leitz  1-12  however,  a  faint  reticula- 
tion can  be  seen.  They  measure  8-9  /&  in  diameter.  These 
specunens  very  closely  resemble  Comatricha  heterospora, 
Rex  (C.  typhoides,  var.  heterospora  of  Lister's  Monograph), 
their  only  distinguishing  feature  being  the  large  spores. 
They  belong  undoubtedly  to  Lister's  var,  rufescens  of  Stem- 
ontis  fusca,  and  serve  to  show  how  closely  connected  are  the 
genera  Stemonitis  and  Comatricha. 

S.  fusca,  Roth,  as  defined  above,  occurs  in  our  Colorado 
collection  from  Tolland,  (Bethel)  ;  Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Stur- 
gis,)  and  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis). 

Stemonitis  splendens,  Rost.  This  species  closely  re- 
sembles the  preceding,  but  is  distinguished  from  it  by  the 
nearly  smooth  or  minutely  and  evenly  warted  spores.  It  is 
frequently  found  on  the  edges  of  board-walks  and  on  rail- 
way ties.  It  has  been  found  at  Denver,  Palmer  Lake,  Boul- 
der and  Ouray,  (Bethel).  Specimens  from  Palmer  Lake 
and  Boulder  show  Lister's  var.  flaccida,  with  adherent  spor- 
angia, capillitium  without  a  surface-net  and  with  remnants 
of  the  sporangium-wall  in  the  shape  of  pale  brown  flakes. 
The  var.  confluens  has  been  found  at  Denver,  though  in  poor 
condition. 

Stemonitis  herbatica,  Pk.  This  name  rather  repre- 
sents a  convenient  centre,  around  which  to  group  forms  not 
easily  referable  elsewhere,  than  a  species  with  definite  limits. 
In  a  previous  paper  (Trans.  Conn.  Acad,  of  Arts  and  Sc, 
Vol.  X,  p.  482)  the  writer,  after  examining  Peck's  type  of  S. 
herbatica,  said  "I  cannot  with  any  certainty  distinguish  be- 
tween S.  herbatica,  Pk.  and  5*.  ferruginea,  Bhr."  This  state- 
ment still  expresses  the   writer's    opinion.      Nevertheless, 


32 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


though  the  two  species  are  connected  by  many  intergrading 
forms,  it  seems  convenient  to  make  a  distinction  between 
them  as  centres.  In  a  general  way  what  we  call  S.  herbatica 
is  distinguished  by  its  color,  neither  as  dark  and  purplish  as 
S.  fusca  and  S.  maxima  nor  as  ferruginous  as  S.  ferruginea. 
The  surface-net  is  composed  of  small  meshes  but  they  are 
neither  as  small  nor  as  pale  as  in  5".  fcrruginea,  and  the  spores 
(7.5-8  fi  diam.)  are  rather  larger  and  darker  than  those  of 
5*.  fcrruginea.  Specimens  are  before  us  from  Colorado 
Springs,  (Shantz)  ;  Tolland,  the  San  Juan  Mts.,  Glen  Park 
and  Boulder,  (Bethel). 

Stemonitis  ferruginea,  Ehr.f  In  a  recent  paper  (Ab- 
handl.  d.  Bot.  Vereins  d.  Prov.  Brandenburg,  XLV,  p.  164) 
Dr.  E.  Jahn  publishes  the  resuks  of  his  studies  of  the  ferru- 
ginous species  of  Stemonitis,  Two  forms  are  recognized,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  color  of  the  Plasmodium.  One  has  a  white 
plasmoduim  and  includes  5*.  fcrruginea,  Ehr,,  S.  microspora, 
List.,  and  S,  Smithii,  Macbr.  The  other  has  a  yellow  Plas- 
modium and  to  this  form  Jahn  gives  the  name  S.  flavogenita. 
It  includes  the  form  called  by  Fries  S.  fcrruginea, 
since  that  form  had  (teste  Fries)  a  yellow  Plasmodium.  If 
we  accept  Jahn's  conclusions  it  is  evidently  necessary  to 
know  the  color  of  the  Plasmodium  before  we  can  decide  with 
certainty  whether  our  common  ferruginous  species  is  really, 
as  it  has  always  been  called,  S.  fcrruginea,  Bhr,  (S,  Smithii, 
Macbr.)  or  whether  we  have  to  do  with  Jahn's  5*.  flavogenita. 
The  size  of  the  spores  does  however,  furnish  another,  though 
not  always  very  reliable,  clue  to  the  species,  those  of  S.  fcrru- 
ginea being  somewhat  the  smaller.  Mr.  Lister,  who  has 
made  a  careful  comparative  study  of  these  two  forms  and  the 
related  S.  herbatica  Pk,  suggests  (in  litt.)  the  following  key. 


5.  ferrugineay  Ehr. 

syn .  S.  microspora ,  List . 
S.  Stnithtt,  Macbr. 


Spores 


Plasmodiam 


Surface -net 


4-5/* 
rusty 


White  or 
white  with  a 
green  tinge 


UsuaUy  firm 
and  close 


S.flavozenita,  Jahn. 
syn.  S.  fcrruginea,  Fr. 


6-8  M 
rusty 


Translucent 
Citron -yellow 


Delicate,  not 
very  close 


5.  herbatica^  Pk. 


6.5-8 /A 

pale  purplish 

gray- 


White,  cream - 

color,  lemon 

yellow 


Usually  firm 


Whether  future  investigations  will  justify  the  above 
scheme,  remains  to  be  seen.  The  whole  subject  is  a  con- 
fused and  difficult  one.     We  have  here  placed  under  the 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  33 

name  5*.  ferruginea  specimens  from  Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Stur- 
gis)  ;  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis);  Tolland  and  the  San 
Juan  Mts.,  (Bethel).  They  are  all  ferruginous  in  color,  but 
the  size  of  the  spores  varies.  In  some  they  measure  4.5  /& 
diam.,  in  others  as  high  as  6.5  /a.  There  is  also  great  varia- 
tion in  stature,  from  4  mm.  to  1.5  cm.  If  5*.  Smithii,  Macbr. 
is  recognized  as  a  species  distinct  from  S.  ferruginea,  Bhr., 
the  larger  forms  might  be  placed  under  the  former  name. 

COMATRICHA.  Prtms. 

Com  ATRICHIA  NIGRA,  (Pers.)  Schroet.  The  common 
form  of  this  species — the  only  one  recognized  by  Macbride 
as  rightly  belonging  under  this  name — occurs  abundantly 
throughout  Colorado.  It  is  usually  found  on  coniferous 
wood  and  is  easily  recognized  by  its  more  or  less  globose  or 
ovoid  sporangia  erect  on  long  delicate  stalks.  Mr.  Bethel 
has  collected  it  in  abundance  at  Palmer  Lake,  Tolland,  Den- 
ver, Ouray,  and  Boulder.  It  occurs  also  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis).  Specimens  gathered 
on  Pike's  Peak  by  Mr.  Shantz  show  exceptionally  long 
stalks,  and  sporangia  larger  and  darker  in  color  than  usual. 

var.  SuKSDORFii,  BIL  &  Bv.  (ut.  sp.).  This  form  is  ap- 
parently common.  Our  collection  includes  specimens  from 
Tolland,  Arrowhead,  Granby  and  Yankee  Doodle  Lake,  all 
gathered  by  Mr.  Bethel.  In  its  typical  form  it  bears  little 
resemblance  to  the  species,  showing  a  densely  gregarious 
habit,  elongate-ovoid  sporangia  almost  black  in  color,  very 
short  stalks,  dense  and  dark  capiUitium,  and  dark  spores  10- 
II  ft  in  diameter.  Other  gatherings,  however,  show  the  spor- 
angia scattered,  more  or  less  globose,  mounted  on  stalks 
equalling  or  exceeding  the  height  of  the  sporangia,  and  with 
large  spores  (10-13  /n  diam.).  Stich  specimens  vary  in  color 
from  grayish  to  almost  black,  in  the  latter  case  bearing  a 
very  close  outward  resemblance  to  Lamproderma  or  even 
Bnerthenema.  Intermingled  with  these  are  often  found 
forms  quite  indistinguishable  from  typical  C  nigra,  so  that 
the  gatherings  show  every  gradation  between  that  species 
and  C.  Suksdorfii.  With  only  the  two  extremes  of  this  series 
in  mind,  Macbride  accords  specific  rank  to  both.  Lister,  on 
the  other  hand,  emphasizing  the  connecting  links  in  the 
series,  refuses  even  varietal  rank  to  C.  Suksdorfii  In  the 
writer's  opinion,  convenience  seems  to  warrant  some  sort  of 
distinction  between  the  two  extremes  of  such  a  series,  while 


34  Colorado  College  Publication. 

not  losing  sight  of  their  manifest  relationship.     The  name 
SuksdorHi  is  therefore  given  varietal  rank. 

var.  Aequalis,  Pk,,  (ut  sp.).  As  in  the  preceding  case, 
Macbride  retains  this  name  as  applying  to  a  distinct  species, 
while  Listei^ merges  it  with  C.  nigra.  Only  one  specimen  has 
been  collected  in  Colorado.  It  was  found  by  Mr.  Bethel  at 
Boulder.  Most  of  the  sporangia  are  of  the  typical  cylindri- 
cal shape  and  large  size,  but  they  vary  much  in  size,  the 
smaller  ones  being  identical  with  robust  forms  of  C.  nigra. 
The  examination  of  a  large,  series  of  specimens,  including 
Peck's  type,  leads  the  writer  to  regard  C,  aequalis  as  merely 
a  well-marked  variety  of  C.  nigra. 

Com  ATRICHIA  LAXA,  Rost.  Except  for  its  lax  and  rather 
open  capillitium,  this  species  closely  resembles  small,  erect 
forms  of  C,  nigra.  Mr.  Bethel  has  collected  it  at  Boulder, 
Tolland,  Aurora  and  Mammoth. 

CoMATRiCHA  TYPHiNA  (Wigg.)  Rost.  Among  the  cyl- 
indrical forms  of  Comatricha,  this  species  is  readily  recog- 
nized by  its  small,  pale  spores,  almost  smooth  except  for  a 
few  small  clusters  of  minute  papillae.  Occasionally  these 
clusters  or  warts  are  connected  by  a  delicate  broken  reticula- 
tion, and  in  rare  cases  the  reticulation  alone  is  present  with 
no  sign  of  the  warts.  To  specimens  exhibiting  such  reticu- 
lated spores  Rex  gave  the  varietal  name  heterospora. 

Both  the  species  itself  and  its  variety  (the  latter  pre- 
dominating) have  been  collected  at  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis)  ; 
Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Sturgis)  ;  Palmer  Lake,  Tolland,  Ouray, 
and  the  San  Juan  Mts.,  (Bethel). 

Com  ATRICHIA  irregularis.  Rex.  This  species,  easily 
mistakable  for  a  Stemonitis,  occurred  abundantly  in  August, 
1906,  at  Boulder  on  fallen  logs  of  cottonwood.  The  densely 
gregarious,  purplish  black  sporangia  are  characteristic. 
Specimens  have  also  been  receive!  from  Fort  Collins. 

Comatricha  Persoonii,  Rost.  A  single  gathering  of 
this  rather  uncommon  species  was  made  by  Mr.  Bethel  in  the 
San  Juan  Mts.,  in  July,  '97.  The  small,  reddish-brown,  cyl- 
indrical or  ovoid  sporangia  were  found  in  some  abundance 
on  dead  leaves. 

ENERTHENEMA.  Boipman. 

Enerthenema  papillata,  (Pers.)  Rost.  Occurs  rather 
rarely  and  in  small  quantity.  Specimens  are  present  from 
near  Colorado  Springs,  (Shantz,  Sturgis) ;  Boulder  and  Tol- 
land, (Bethel). 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  35 

LAMPRODERMA,  Rostafimki. 

Lamproderma  violaceum,  (Fr,)  Rost  Only  two  spec- 
imens of  this  species  occur  in  our  collection,  one  from  Ouray, 
(Bethel),  the  other,  also  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel,  but  only 
labelled  "Colorado,  '02."  They  are  both  very  scanty.  The 
species  is  undoubtedly  rare. 

Lamproderma  Sauteri,  Rost.  By  Lister  this  is  re- 
garded as  a  variety  of  the  preceding  species.  Macbride  re- 
gards it  as  specifically  distinct,  and  with  this  view  the  writer 
is  inclined  to  agree.  The  persistent  base  of  the  sporangium- 
wall,  the  more  regular  capillitium  with  very  delicate  hyaline 
tips,  and  especially  the  larger,  rougher  spores,  seem  to  differ- 
entiate it  from  L,  violaceum.  We  have  but  one  specimen 
from  Colorado.  This  was  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  in  1902, 
but  the  exact  locality  is  not  noted. 

LINDBLADIA.  Fries. 

LiNDBLADiA  EFFUSA,  (Bhr.)  Rost.  Mr.  Bethel  has  col- 
lected this  species  twice,  at  Palmer  Lake  and  at  Golden. 
Both  specimens  are  in  the  form  of  an  effused  one  or  two- 
layered  crust  of  delicate,  closely  aggregated  sessile  sporan- 
gia. 

CRIBRARIA,  Ptrsoon. 

Cribraria  argillacea,  Pers.  Fairly  common.  Speci- 
mens are  present  from  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis)  ;  Boulder, 
(Bethel  &  Sturgis)  ;  Tolland,  (Bethel).  Some  of  the  Boul- 
der specimens  are  of  peculiar  interest  as  exhibiting  the  close 
relationship  existing  between  this  species  and  the  var.  sim- 
plex of  Lindbladia  effusa;  indeed  the  two  genera  intermin- 
gle at  this  common  point. 

Cribraria  minutissima,  Schw.  This  species  is  usually 
found  abundantly  when  once  seen,  but  its  mintue  size  ren- 
ders it  liable  to  be  overlooked.  It  has  been  collected  in  the 
mountains  near  Colorado  Springs,  (Shantz  and  Sturgis); 
and  at  Boulder,  (Bethel).  It  is  probably  very  widely  dis- 
seminated in  mountainous  regions. 

Cribraria  macrocarpa,  Schrad,  A  single  gathering 
of  this  species  was  made  by  the  writer  at  Glen  Park,  in  Au- 
gust, 1905. 

Cribraria  aurantiaca,  Schrad.  Found  in  small  quan- 
tity by  the  writer  at  Glen  Park,  and  by  Mr.  Shantz  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Colorado  Springs. 


36  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Cribraria  intricata,  Schrad.  In  the  MS.  list  of  Col- 
orado Myxomycetes  referred  to  above,  Prof.  Macbride  in- 
cludes this  species,  under  the  name  C.  dictydioides,  Cke,  & 
Balf,  In  the  present  writer's  opinion  these  two  species  are 
identical.  This  opinion  was  shared  by  the  late  Dr.  Rex  who 
wrote,  (in  litt.,  Feb.  22nd,  1893^,  "C,  intricata  and  C  dicty- 
dioides  are  undoubtedly  the  same,  the  size  or  absence  of  the 
calyculus  having  no  specific  value."  Lister  (Mon.  p.  144) 
places  the  latter  as  a  variety  of  C.  intricata, 

Cribraria  elegans,  B.  &  C.  Prof.  Macbride  also  lists 
this  species  as  a  Colorado  form.  It  is  not  included  in  our 
collection. 

Cribraria  violacea.  Rex,  Probably  rare,  though  liable 
to  escape  observation  owing  to  its  minute  size  and  dark  color. 
The  writer  obtained  it  in  considerable  quantity  on  the  inner 
bark  of  cottonwood  logs  in  a  damp  canon  near  Colorado 
Springs,  September,  1906. 

DICTYDIUM.  SchradtT. 

DicTYDiUM  CANCELLATUM,  (Batsch)  Macbf.  Common 
everywhere;  Denver,  Golden,  Tolland,  Arrowhead,  on  the 
South  Platte  and  in  the  San  Juan  Mts.,  (Bethel) ;  Colorado 
Springs,  (Shantz);  Manitou  Park  and  Glen  Park,  (Stur- 
gis).  The  specimens  from  Glen  Park  frequently  show  the 
abnormal  form  called  by  Rostafinski  Heterodictyon,  the 
sporangium-wall,  especially  in  the  upper  part,  showing  an 
irregular  net  with  large,  angular  nodes,  closely  resembling 
Cribraria.  Below,  the  strong  ribs  connected  by  delicate  par- 
allel threads,  are  usually  apparent.  The  spores  too,  are  iden- 
tical with  those  of  Dictydium. 

TUBULINA.  Ptrsoon. 

Tubulin  A  cylindrica,  (Bull.)  Rost.  Collected  in  small 
quantities  at  Tolland  and  on  the  South  Platte,  (Bethel),  and 
at  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis).  The  synonomy  of  the  species  is  so 
hopelessly  cbnfused  and  the  earlier  observers  were  so  little 
able  to  distinguish  between  this  and  forms  resembling  it  in 
outward  appearance,  that  it  seems  permissible  in  this  case  to 
ignore  rules  of  strict  priority  and  to  use  the  name  selected  by 
Rostafinski. 

DICTYDI/ETHALIUM.  Rostafinski. 

DiCTYDIiETHALIUM   PLUMBEUM,     (Sckum.)  Rost.      This 

peculiar  species,  with  its  extremely  appressed  aethalia,  ap- 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  37 

pears  to  be  rather  rare.  Specimens  are  before  us  from  Pal- 
mer Lake  and  Boulder,  both  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel.  One 
other  specimen,  also  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel,  but  with  no 
locality  other  than  "Colorado",  shows  a  marked  divergence 
from  the  normal  form,  in  that  th^  threads  representing  the 
angles  of  the  contiguous  sporangia  are,  in  most  cases,  more 
or  less  connected  by  delicate  cross-ribs.  The  normal  form 
also  occurs  in  the  same  specimen. 

ENTERIDIUM.  Ehrenberg. 

Enteridium  olivaceum,  Ehr.  A  single  specimen  of 
this  rare  species  was  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  at  Palmer  Lake 
in  June,  1901.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  thin,  effused  aethalium,  3 
cm.  long  and  about  1.5  cm.  wide.  The  clustered  spores  and 
the  appressed  form  of  the  aethalium  distinguish  it  from  the 
following  species. 

Enteridium  Rozeanum,  Wing.  Our  collection  con- 
tains two  specimens  of  this  species,  both  collected  by  Mr. 
Bethel.  One  of  these  was  collected  at  Boulder,  and  is  in  the 
form  of  a  pulvinate  aethalium,  3  cm.  in  diameter.  The  other 
bears  merely  the  locality-ljbel  "Colorado,  '02."  It  is  a  very 
large  aethalium,  6x3  cm.,  atid  with  a  firm,  brown,  outer 
crust. 

Prof.  Macbride,  (N.  A.  Slime  Moulds,  p.  151),  substi- 
tutes for  the  specific  name  Rozeanum,  the  name  splendens 
given  to  this  species  by  Morgan,  on  the  ground  that  the 
specimens  on  which  Wingate  based  the  specific  name  given 
by  him  "are' no  longer  to  be  consulted."  Mr.  Wingate,  a 
most  accurate  observer,  satisfied  himself  that  certain  Euro- 
pean specimens  collected  by  Roze  were  identical  with  our 
American  species  of  Enteridium,  and  named  them  E,  Roze- 
anum.  Inability  to  verify  Wingate's  conclusions  should  not 
invalidate  the  name  which  he  gave. 

RETICULARIA.  Bulliard. 

Reticularia  Lycoperdon,  Bull,  This  species  appears 
tr>  be  common  throughout  the  State  and  often  attains  a  very 
large  size,  four  to  five  inches  in  diameter.  It  occurs  fre- 
quently on  decorticated  portions  of  living  trees  and,  with  its 
silvery-white  cortex,  forms  a  very  conspicuous  object. 

TRICHIA.  Halter. 

Trichia  persimius,  Karst.  This  and  the  next  follow- 
ing species  are  among  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  Myxo- 


38  Colorado  College  Pubucation, 

mycetes,  owing  to  their  abundant  and  closely  crowded  spor- 
angia and  their  brilliant  yellow  color.  T.  persimilis  is  repre- 
sented in  our  collection  by  specimens  from  the  San  Juan 
Mts.,  the  South  Platte  and  Ouray,  (Bethel)  ;  and  from  Gkn 
Park,  (Sturgis). 

Trichia  affinis,  DBy.  Hardly  to  be  distinguishe<l 
from  the  preceding  species ;  indeed  Macbride  unites  the  two 
under  the  name  T.  persimilis.  The  somewhat  paler,  brighter 
color  of  the  sporangia  in  T.  afUnis  and  the  more  complete  re- 
ticulation of  the  spore-sculpture  are  fairly  constant  features 
and  serve  to  differentiate  it  from  T,  persimilis.  All  of  our 
specimens  are  from  the  San  Juan  Mts.  and  were  collected  by 
Mr.  Bethel. 

Trichia  contorta,  Rost 

var,  iNCONSPicuA,  Rost,  Common  on  the  inner  bark 
of  Box  Elder,  throughout  the  State.  Specimens  are  before  us 
from  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis)  ;  Fort  Collins,  (Bragg)  ; 
Silver  Lake,  (Watts)  ;  Ouray,  Boulder  and  Denver,  (Beth- 
el). Mr.  Bethel  describes  the  Plasmodium  as  "light  pink 
turning  yellow,  then  black." 

Macbride  follows  Rostafinskr  in  separating  T.  incon- 
spicua  from  T.  contorta  on  the  ground  of  the  less  aggregate 
habit  of  the  latter  and  its  iregular  capillitium ;  but  consider- 
ing the  variability  of  these  characters  in  all  of  the  Trichiaceae, 
they  can  not,  in  the  present  writer's  opinion,  be  regarded  as 
distinctive  features.  In  the  specimens  before  us  sporangia 
are  found  in  which  the  elaters  ate  combined  to 'form  a  net, 
and  are  irregular  with  bulbous  expansions,  the  spirals  incon- 
spicuous or  wanting;  while  in  other  cases,  sometimes  even 
in  the  same  colony,  the  separate  elaters  are  regularly  cyl- 
indrical, and  show  distinct  and  even  spirals  and  bulbous  or 
evenly  tapering  tips.  The  character  of  the  elaters  seems  de- 
pendent on  the  conditions  during  development  rather  than 
on  any  specific  differences. 

Trichia  fall  ax,  Pers.  Very  common  and  readily  rec- 
ognized by  its  usually  gregarious  habit  and  its  stipitate,  tur- 
binate sporangia.  Not  infrequently  the  elaters  are  branched 
and  even  tend  to  form  a  net  as  in  the  genus  Hemitrichia. 
Found  in  abundance  at  Colorado  Springs  and  Glen  Park, 
(Sturgis);  Breckenridge,  Tolland,  Yankee  Doodle  Lake 
and  in  the  San  Juan  Mts.,  (Bethel). 

Macbride  (N.  A.  Slime-Moulds,  p.  218)  writes  "T.  de- 
cipiens  (Pers,/'    This  name  antedates  ''fdlax^'  by  a  year, 


Thb  Myxomycbtes  of  Coumrado.  39 

but  the  latter  has  the  sanction  of  universal  usage  for  a  cen- 
tury and  may  well  be  allowed  to  stand. 

Trichia  varia,  (Pers,)  Rost,  Common  everywhere. 
Distinguished,  amcMig  the  species  with  papillate  spores,  by  its 
elaterS  which  are  marked  with  only  two  loose  spirals. 

Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis) ;  Denver,  Boulder  and 
Ouray,  (Bethel). 

Trichia  Botrytis,  (Pers.)  This  is  apparently  a  rather 
rare  species  in  Colorado.  A  single,  scanty  gathering  was 
made  by  the  writer  near  Colorado  Springs  in  September, 
1906.  The  scattered  sporangia  are  turbinate  and  of  a  dark 
olivaceous  brown  color,  marked  with  paler  lines  of  dehis- 
cence ;  the  elaters  and  spores  are  dull  yellow. 

HEMITRICHIA.  Rostafimki. 

Hemitrichia  CI.AVATA,  (Pers,)  Rost  The  specimens 
of  this  common  species  contained  in  our  collection  are  re- 
markable for  the  varying  features  which  they  exhibit.  Ex- 
ternally they  are  of  the  familiar  type;  stalked  sporangia, 
turbinate  in  shape  and  of  a  bright,  shining,  yellow  color.  A 
large  gathering  made  by  the  writer  and  Mr.  Bethel  at  Boul- 
der in  August,  1906,  exhibits  marked  peculiarities  in  its 
minute  features.  The  threads  of  the  capillitium,  instead  of 
being  spirally  banded  as  usital,  are  minutely  and  densely 
spinulose ;  the  spores  are  also  abnormal,  being  marked  with 
a  very  delicate  and  incomplete  reticulation.  We  should  be 
inclined  to  make  this  gathering  the  basis  of  a  new  variety, 
were  it  not  that  other  specimens  from  the  same  locality  show 
only  the  one  abnormality  of  reticulated  spores.  Others  again, 
also  with  normal  capillitium,  show  spores  either  smooth,  or 
minutely  warted,  or  reticulated,  from  sporangia  otherwise 
normal  and  in  the  same  colony. 

Specimens  are  present  from  Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Stur- 
gis) ;  Ouray,  Tolland,  and  Arrowhead,  (Bethel). 

Hemitrichia  ovata,  (Pers.)  Macbr.  This  is  the  H. 
Wigandii  of  Rostafinski  and  of  Lister's  Monograph.  Why 
the  former  abandoned  the  name  given  by  Persoon  is  not  ap- 
parent (Cf.  Macbride,  N.  A.  Slime-Moulds,  p.  203.).  The 
species  is  not  common,  though  fairly  widely  distributed. 
Specimens  are  present  from  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis, 
Shantz)  ;  Palmer  Lake,  Ouray  and  Yankee  Doodle  Lake, 
(Bethel). 


40  Colorado  College  Publication. 

ARCYRIA.  Hill. 

Arcyria  incarnata,  Pers.  A  fairly  common  species 
distinguished  by  its  pinkish  color  and  the  loose  attachment 
of  the  capillitium  to  the  calyculus.  Frequently  the  whole 
capillitium  is  blown  or  weathered  away,  leaving  only  the 
stalks  and  empty  cup-like  bases  of  the  sporangia.  The  cap- 
illitium of  this  species  exhibits  a  certain  degree  of  variation 
in  its  markings.  Normally  the  latter  are  in  the  form  of  cogs, 
transverse  ridges  or  partial  rings,  but  occasionally  specimens 
occur  in  which  the  capillitium  is  minutely  spinulose  through- 
out. 

Represented  in  our  collection  by  specimens  from  Colo- 
rado Springs,  (Sturgis,  Shantz,  Hall);  Boulder  and  Tol- 
land, (Bethel). 

Arcyria  punicea,  Pers.  This  is  hardly  more  than  a 
variety,  and  not  a  very  well  marked  variety  at  that,  of  the 
preceding  species,  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  character  of 
the  capillitium  which  is  more  firmly  attached  to  the  calyculus 
and  sho\vs  very  few,  if  any,  loose  ends.  Both  species  show  a 
tendency  to  change  color,  after  maturity,  to  dull  brown.  In 
Colorado  A.  punicea  seems  to  be  less  common  than  A.  incar- 
nata,  only  scanty  specimens  being  present  from  Colorado 
Springs,  (Sturgis)  and  the  San  Juan  Mts.,  (Bethel). 

Arcyria  pomiformis^  (Leers.)  Rost,  This  minute  spe- 
cies is  easily  recognized  by  its  scattered,  globose,  dull  yellow, 
shortly  stipitate  sporangia.  It  appears  to  be  fairly  common, 
but  does  not  occur  anywhere  in  great  abundance  and  easily 
escapes  notice.  Mr.  Lister  considers  it  to  be  a  variety  oi  A. 
cinerea,  (Bull.)  Pers.  (A.  albida,  Pers.),  but  the  features  in 
which  it  differs  from  that  species  are  so  constant  that  it 
seems  advisable  to  regard  them  as  specific  even  though  there 
may  be  intermediate  forms.  Certainly  our  specimens  from 
Colorado  are  as  distinct  as  two  species  could  well  be,  and 
show  no  connecting  forms. 

The  present  species  is  represented  by  specimens  from 
Colorado  Springs,  (Shantz);  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis);  Boul- 
der, (Bethel  &  Sturgis)  ;  Ouray  and  Denver,  (Bethel). 

Arcyria  cinerea,  (Bull.)  Pers.  Specimens  are  before 
us  from  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis)  ;  Colorado  Springs,  (Shantz)  ; 
Boulder,  (Bethel).  They  are  of  the  normal  type,  pale  gray 
sporangia,  cylindrical,  short-stalked,  and  either  scattered  or 
gregarious. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  41 

Arcyria  stipata,  (SchwJ  List.  This  species  is  evi- 
dently rare  in  Colorado  for,  notwithstanding  its  conspicuous 
habit,  it  is  represented  in  our  collection  by  only  a  single  spec- 
imen collected  by  Mr.  Bethel  and  marked  "Colo.  '02."  The 
original  carmine-brown  color  has  faded  to  a  dull  brown,  but 
the  densely  crowded,  short-stalked  sporangia,  and  the  trian- 
gular capillitium-threads  marked  on  the  edges  with  blunt 
cogs  and  throughout  with  faint  spirals,  are  characteristic 
features.  Macbride  refers  this  species  to  the  genu^  Henti- 
trichia  because  of  the  spiral  markings  on  the  capillitium. 
It  is  certainly  a  connecting  link  between  that  genus  and  Ar- 
cyria. 

Arcyria  nutans,  (Bull.)  Grev.  This  is  the  common- 
est and  most  striking  species  of  the  genus  in  Colorado. 
Masses  of  the  pale  yellow  capfllitium  occur  everywhere,  usu- 
ally on  fallen  logs  of  Pittus.  So  evanescent  is  the  connec- 
tion between  the  capillitium  and  the  short-stalked  calyculus 
that  they  are  seldom  found  united.  Boulder,  Ouray,  Tol- 
land, on  the  South  Platte  and  in  the  San  Juan  Mts.,  (Beth- 
el);    Colorado  Springs,  (Shantz);    Glen  Park,  (Sturgis). 

Arcyria  vitellina,  Phili  A  most  beautiful  species 
characterized  by  its  pyriform  or  clavate  sporangia  of  a  clear, 
shining,  chrome-yellow  or  dull  olivaceous  color,  resembling 
Hemitrichia  clavata.  The  threads  of  the  abundant  capilli- 
tium are  normally  closely  and  minutely  spinulose  or  warted ; 
occasionally  however,  they  show  short  transverse  ridges  in 
addition.  Mr.  Bethel  has  collected  it  in  considerable  abun- 
dance at  Arrowhead,  Tolland,  and  in  the  San  Juan  Mts. 

Lister  (Mon.  p.  185)  writes  *' Arcyria  versicolor,  Phill." 
and  gives  A.  vitellina  as  a  synonym.  A  strict  interpretation 
of  the  law  of  priority  compels  the  use  of  the  latter  name, 
since  although  Phillips  described  both  forms  on  the  same 
page  of  the  same  publication,  the  description  of  A.  vitellina 
precedes  the  other. 

PERICHAENA,  Frits. 

Perichaena  depressa.  Lib.  Occurs  commonly  on  the 
inner  bark  of  Cottonwood  and  Willows  in  damp  situations, 
but  liable  to  be  overlooked  by  reason  of  its  much  depressed 
sporangia  and  dull  purplish  brown  or  almost  black  color. 
After  the  falling  away  of  the  lid-like  upper  portion  of  the 
sporangia,  however,  the  bright  yellow  mass  of  spores  and 
capillitium  is  striking. 


42  Coix)RADo  College  Publication. 

Collected  in  abundance  at  Colorado  Springs,  (Sturgis)  ; 
Boulder,  (Bethel  &  Sturgis)  ;  Denver,  (Bethel). 

Perichaena  corticalis,  (Batsch)  RosL  Commonly 
found  in  the  same  situaticms  as  the  preceding  species,  but 
distinguished  from  it  by  its  somewhat  more  globose  sporan- 
gia, smaller  in  size  and  less  densely  crowded,  its  scanty  cap- 
illitium,  and  its  usually  larger  spores. 

Common  at  Palmer  Lake  and  Denver,  (Bethel)  ;  Colo- 
rado Springs,  (Sturgis). 

PROTOTRICHIA,  Rostafinsh. 

Prototrichia  flagellifera,  (B.  &  Br,)  Rost  This  re- 
markable species  is  reported  from  various  parts  of  the  State 
but  the  specimens  are  all  scanty.  The  globose  sporangia  are 
either  sessile  or  stalked,  and  vary  in  color  from  cinnamon- 
brown  to  a  much  darker  shade  with  metallic  iridescence. 
The  spore-mass  is  olivaceous.  The  branching,  tapering,  spir- 
ally banded  capillitium-threads  are  quite  unique. 

Specimens  are  present  from  Tolland,  Yankee  Doodle 
Lake  and  Arrowhead,  all  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel. 

LYCOGALA,  Michdi 

Lycogala  epidendrum,  (Buxb.)  Fr,  The  commonest 
of  all  Myxomycetes  everywhere.  Collected  in  Colorado  at 
Colorado  Springs  and  Glen  Park,  (Sturgis) ;  Palmer  Lake, 
Arrowhead,  and  on  the  South  Platte,  (Bethel). 

Lycogala  flavo-fuscum,  (Bkr,)  Rost.  The  large 
spherical  sethalia  of  this  species  are  commonly  found  grow- 
ing singly  or  in  clusters  of  three  or  four  on  fallen  logs  and 
stumps.  It  is  a  much  larger  form  than  the  preceding,  some- 
timjes  attaining  a  diameter  of  5  cm.  The  cortex  before  ma- 
turity is  horny  and  covered  with  minute  translucent  warts; 
at  maturity  the  surface  is  minutely  areolated  and  varies  in 
color  from  tawny  to  brownish  black.  All  of  our  specimens 
are  from  Boulder  and  were  collected  by  Mr.  Bethel. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  43 

In  ccmclusion  the  writer  desires  to  express  his  indebt- 
edness to  the  many  persons  who  have  made  his  work  pos- 
sible by  furnishing  specimens  and  notes.  Especially  is  such 
recogniticMi  due  to  the  writer's  collaborator,  Mr.  Bethel, 
whose  indefatigable  zeal  and  unusual  powers  of  observation 
have  enabled  him  to  secure  the  greater  number  of  specimens 
recorded  in  this  paper. 

Thanks  are  also  due  to  Prof.  H.  L.  Shantz,  now  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska;  Mr.  M.  C.  Hall,  formerly  a  stu- 
dent at  Colorado  College;  Mr.  L.  C.  Bragg,  of  Fort  Col- 
lins; Messrs.  H.  F.  Watts  and  D.  M.  Andrews,  of  Boulder; 
Mr.  W.  Heustis,  of  Denver;  and  Mr.  Geo.  Osterhout,  of 
New  Windsor,  all  of  whom  have  contributed  specimens. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  state  that  the  writer  is  un- 
der deep  obligation  to  Mr.  Arthur  Lister,  F.  R.  S.  and  to 
Miss  G.  Lister,  of  London,  as  well  as  to  Professor  T.  H. 
Macbride,  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  whose  inval- 
uable advice  and  opinion  has  at  all  times  been  ^  freely 
given  as  asked. 


No.  52.     The  Wm.  J.  Palmer  Library  of  Astronomy  and  Meteorology. — F. 
H.  Loud. 
53.     Review  of  La  Theorique  des  Cieux  et   sept  Planetcs    .     .     .    par 
Oronce  Fine,  Paris,  1607. — Mary  A.  Sahm. 

Social  Science  Series. 
No.  5.        The  Cripple  Creek  Strike,  1893-4— B.  M.  Rastall. 

Language  Series. 

No.  15.      A  Note  Upon  Dryden's  Heroic  Stanzas  on  the  Death  of  Crom- 
well.— Edward  S.  Parsons. 
*^    16.     Some  Defects  in  the  Teaching  of  Modem  Languages. — Starr 

Willard  Cutting,  University  of  Chicago. 
"17.     A  Plea  for  More  Spanish  in  the  Schools  of  Colorado. — Elijah 

Clarence  Hills. 
"     18.      The  Evolution  of  Maeterlinck's  Dramatic  Theory. — Elijah  Clarence 
HUls. 

Engineering  Series. 

No.    I.      The  Fusibility  and  Fluidity  of  Titaniferous  Silicates. — L.  C. 
Lennox  and  C.  N.  Cox,  Jr. 
"     2.      The    Design   of   a   Low-Tension    Switch-Board. — Vernon    T. 
Brigham. 


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Comparative  Temperatures,  Colorado  Springs  and 
Lake  Moraine,  1906. 


January. 


April. 


Colo.  Springs   t^- 


fiiike  Moraine  '■^. 


r----'''-rri-i^:'--i::.iiiTmTtTl 

1      6      12     6      12      1      6      12     6      12     1      6      12     6      12     1      6     12     6      12 

A.M.  P.M.  A.M.  P.M.  A.M.  P.M.  A.M.  P.M. 

January.  April.  July.  October. 

In  the  upper  diagram,  the  dotted  line  indicates  the  Lake  Moraine  temi)era- 
tures;  the  full  line,  those  at  Colorado  Springs. 


STELLAR  VARIABILITY  AND  ITS  CAUSES. 


By  F.  H.  Loud. 


That  the  brightness  of  certain  stars  is  subject  to  change 
is  a  fact  which  has  been  known  for  hundreds  of  years,  or  since 
the  earliest  dawn  of  modem  astronomy.  Indeed,  the  recog- 
nition of  this  truth  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  striking 
of  the  minor  features  distinguishing  science  in  its  present 
sense  from  the  thought  of  ancient  and  mediaeval  times.  To 
the  old  view,  the  fixed  stars  present  the  perfect  type  of  im- 
mutability. On  the  Earth,  all  is  transitory.  The  Moon,  the 
lowest  planet,  waxes  and  wanes  periodically.  Mercury  and 
Venus,  her  next  companions,  are  less  changeful,  though  they 
have  their  seasons  of  unaccustomed  brilliancy.  The  Sun,  next 
beyond  them,  is  so  uniform  in  his  transcendent  lustre,  that 
to  accuse  him  of  harboring  now  and  then  a  dark  spot  upon  his 
disk  must  be  regarded  as  no  less  than  impious.  But  when, 
passing  all  the  planetary  spheres,  we  come  upon  that  of  the 
constellations,  we  have  left  behind  all  vicissitude;  the  sublime 
beings  which  move  in  these  highest  courses  enjoy  an  un- 
assailable glory  and  an  eternal  calm. 

It  was  David  Fabricius,  a  German  pastor  in  East  Friesland, 
and  father  of  Johann  Fabricius,  celebrated  as  the  pioneer  in 
the  investigation  of  sun  spots,  who  made  the  initial  observation 
which  has  led  to  the  knowledge  of  variable  stars.  In  October, 
1596,  he  noted — no  doubt  to  his  intense  surprise— that  a  star 
was  missing  from  the  place  where  he  himself,  in  the  preceding 
August,  had  seen  it  shining  with  a  lustre  of  the  third  magnitude. 
Later  observers  for  half  a  century  confirmed  first  one,  then  the 
other,  of  the  seemingly  contradictory  observations,  until  at 
length,  when  the  object  was  fully  proved  to  undergo  tolerably 
regular  alternations  between  obscurity  and  splendor,  it  was 
named Mira,  "the  wonderful."  The  star  still  retains  this  des- 
ignation; and  I  suppose  that  the  astronomers  of  today,  despite 


46  Colorado  College  Publication. 

all  that  has  been  learned  of  similar  instances,  are  as  willing  to 
concede  that  the  title  is  well  deserved  as  were  the  contempor- 
aries of  Hevelius,  the  Polish  astronomer,  who  bestowed  it. 

Seventy-three  years  after  Fabricius  discovered  Mira, 
Montanari  of  Bologna  observed  a  hardly  less  wonderful 
variable  in  Perseus.  It  was  rediscovered  a  century  later 
(1782)  by  John  Goodricke,  a  deaf  mute  of  York,  England,  and 
a  youth  of  only  about  eighteen  years  of  age.  His  sagacity 
^  was  as  keen  as  his  observation,  for  he  not  only  noted  the  fact 
of  variation,  but  conjectured  a  cause  for  it;  and  after  still 
another  century  had  gone  by,  the  correctness  of  the  deaf  boy's 
theory,  now  defended  by  the  arguments  of  Pickering,  was 
substantially  demonstrated  in  1889  by  the  measurements  of 
Vogel. 

There  are  those  who  see  in  the  name  of  this  latter  star,  Algol, 
an  allusion  to  its  variability.  This  name  is  much  older  than 
Montanari's  discovery,  and  was  given  by  the  Arabs.  The 
first  syllable  is  the  Arabic  article,  as  in  algebra,  alchemy, 
Alkoran,  and  the  second  is  the  same  word  as  ghovJ,  and  means 
a  demon.  So  these  modem  seekers  after  the  picturesque 
have  styled  this  star  "The  Winking  Demon."  As  a  descrip- 
tive title,  the  name  is  good  enough,  but  the  implied  theory, 
that  the  Arabs  knew  of  the  ''winking,"  is  almost  certainly 
false.  Their  names  for  stars,  nine  times  out  of  ten,  refer 
solely  to  the  position  of  the  latter  in  the  constellations  which 
they  learned  from  the  Greeks;  and  in  this  case,  in  perfect 
accordance  with  their  custom,  they  gave  the  name  Algol, 
"the  demon,"  to  the  chief  of  the  group  which  Ptolemy  had 
described  as  the  head  of  the  Gorgon  Medusa,  carried  in 
Perseus'  hand.  Those,  therefore,  who  will  connect  the  star's 
name  with  its  now  well-known  peculiarity  of  behavior,  must 
suppose  that  the  latter  was  observed  in  the  earliest  age  of 
astronomical  history,  to  be  forgotten,  and  lie  embalmed  in 
myth,  during  the  whole  period  of  the  Greeks  and  their  mediae- 
val followers.    To  those  who  can  hold  this  view,  it  may  be  a 


Stellar  Variability  and  its  Causes.  47 

confinnatory  item  that,  in  the  legend,  Medusa  was  indeed 
'*  winking,"  or  rather  napping,  when  Perseus  obtained  his 
fatal  advantage. 

Mira  and  Algol  are  now  known  to  share  their  property  of 
variability  with  a  goodly  number  of  companions.  Miss  Annie 
J.  Cannon's  "Second  Catalogue  of  Variable  Stars,"  recently 
issued  from  the  Harvard  College  Observatory,  includes  1265 
entries.  But  this  is  not  a  complete  census,  for  a  cluster 
containing  variables  counts  in  this  catalogue  as  a  single  object, 
while  Professor  Solon  I.  Bailey,  of  the  same  Observatory, 
has  shown  that  the  number  of  the  separate  variables  to  be 
found  in  a  single  cluster  sometimes  mounts  into  the  hundreds. 
No  wonder  that  under  the  title  "Variable  Stars"  there  is 
comprised  a  large  chapter  of  the  current  study  of  astronomy. 

Not  only  do  the  variables  thus  constitute  a  numerous  class, 
but  it  is  also  a  very  heterogenebus  one.  It  is  far  from  showing 
the  character  of  a  natural  group,  whose  members  should 
possess  a  similarity  of  constitution,  underlying  their  common 
phenomena.  The  question,  "Why  does  the  brightness  vary?" 
raised  by  each  single  instance,  is  capable  of  a  number  of 
possible  answers;  and  it  would  appear  as  if  every  cause  which 
might  conceivably  produce  such  an  effect  exists  somewhere  in 
the  universe  of  stars,  and  results  in  the  production  of  a  sub- 
class of  variables. 

The  first  natural  partition  of  the  class  will  be  made  when 
we  separate  those  stars  which  actually  emit  more  light  at  one 
time  than  at  another  from  those  which  merely  appear  brighter 
or  fainter  at  intervals,  in  consequence  of  some  advantageous 
position  as  seen  from  the  earth.  Mira  belongs  to  the  first  of 
these  divisions,  Algol  to  the  second.  The  belief,  that  Mira's 
variability  is  due  to  changes  taking  place  in  the  star  itself, 
rests  upon  several  lines  of  evidence.  It  will  suffice  to  mention 
two,  viz. :  That  the  quality  of  the  light  varies  with  the  quan- 
tity, and  that  the  successive  periods,  from  one  light  maximum 
to  the  next,  exhibit  marked  individual  differences,  both  in  their 


48  Colorado  College  Publication. 

length,  and  in  the  intensity  of  brightness  attained.  The  first 
of  these  facts  is  surely  very  significant.  The  spectroscope 
analyzes  the  light  of  the  star,  and  proves  that  a  dense  en- 
veloping atmosphere  exerts  at  all  times  a  notable  amount  of 
absorption,  whose  selective  action  on  the  different  wave- 
lengths or  colors  of  light  produces  a  marked  red  hue  and  a 
highly  characteristic  type  of  spectrum.  But  when  the  star's 
maximum  brightness  is  approaching,  the  character  of  the 
spectrum  suffers  change,  and  bright  lines  appear,  indicative 
of  unabsorbed  radiation  from  incandescent  hydrogen  and  other 
gases.  This  affords  evidence  that  the  increase  of  light  is 
associated  with  physical  changes,  to  which  we  must  naturally 
look  for  its  cause.  Again  the  fact  that  the  periods  are  of 
uncertain  duration,  longer  and  shorter  following  one  another  in 
an  apparently  capricious  succession,  shows  that  they  are  not 
caused  by  rotations  or  orbital  revolutions,  for  these,  by  me- 
chanical necessity,  must  either  remaia  constant  as  regards  the 
time  required  for  their  execution,  or  at  most  undergo  a  slow 
progressive  change.  Now,  since  rotations  and  revolutions, 
either  of  the  body  itself  or  of  some  other,  furnish  the  only 
causes  which  can  be  imagined  to  produce  periodic  recurrences 
of  advantageous  position  for  visibility  from  the  earth,  it 
follows  that  a  variability  whose  periods  are  irregular  in  length 
must  be  one  of  intrinsic  brightness.  In  both  these  ways,  then, 
Mira  is  proved  to  belong  to  the  first  of  the  two  suggested 
classes. 

Just  what  the  physical  changes  may  be  which  produce  the 
star's  alternations  of  brilliancy,  is  of  course  a  large  question. 
It  has  been  customary  to  associate  this  problem  with  that  of 
sun-spots.  The  Sun, — which  is  merely  that  star  which,  by 
reason  of  comparative  nearness,  is  the  most  important  to  the 
human  race  and  the  most  accessible  to  study, — exhibits  at 
intervals  of  about  eleven  years  a  great  increase  in  the  number 
of  spots  spread  over  its  surface.  Were  this  periodic  invasion 
of  the  spots  to  be  augmented  scores  or  hundreds  of  times,  it 


Stellar  Variability  and  its  Causes.  49 

might  make  the  Sun  a  noticeably  variable  star.  The  eleven- 
year  period,  however,  though  it  presents  the  same  inconstancy 
in  duration  which  has  been  discussed,  is  always  far  longer 
than  these  stars  are  wont  to  show;  moreover,  the  phenomena 
of  sun-spots,  examined  spectroscopically,  while  agreeing 
in  broad  outline  with  the. general  character  of  the  stellar 
variation,  present  discrepancies  in  details.  On  the  whole, — as 
is  perhaps  to  be  expected, — the  analogy  sought  between  the 
Sun  and  Mira  is  so  far  incomplete  as  to  raise  questions  quite 
as  abundantly  as  it  answers  them. 

The  investigation  of  the  physical  conditions  of  Mira  is 
practically  that  of  a  large  proportion, — perhaps  a  majority, — 
of  all  the  variables.  For  while  in  many  cases  the  whole 
amount  of  the  light  received  from  the  body  is  so  small  that 
spectroscopic  examination  cannot  be  made  nearly  so  thorough, 
yet,  in  a  host  of  them,  whatever  can  be  thus  learned,  or 
deduced  from  photometric  study,  presents  a  family  resem- 
blance to  the  traits  of  the  type  star.  Indeed,  a  general  agree- 
ment with  Mira's  spectrum, — resulting,  as  it  naturally  does, 
in  a  similar  reddish  tinge, — is  so  commonly  associated  with 
variability,  as  to  have  repeatedly  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
latter  in  stars  not  previously  known  to  exhibit  it.  The 
periods  of  these  bodies  are  all  to  be  reckoned  in  months; — in 
fact,  that  of  Mira,  which  averages  331  days  and  a  fraction,  is 
very  nearly  of  the  length  which  stars  of  the  same  type  most 
numerously  affect.  The  irregularity  of  time,  noted  in  Mira 
and  in  the  Sun,  exists  in  practically  all  these  cases,  and  in 
some  is  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the  periodic  character 
is  entirely  lost. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  a  star  is  found  to  undergo  light- 
changes  in  a  period  of  uniform  length,  such  a  period  is  apt  to 
be  much  shorter.  Some  stars  run  through  the  entire  course  of 
variations  in  a  few  hours;  more  commonly  three  or  four  days 
or  a  week  is  required;  rarely,  if  ever,  more  than  a  month.  The 
characteristic  regularity  affords  a  strong  presumption  that. 


50  Colorado  College  Publication. 

with  these  bodies,  a  rotation  or  a  revolution  in  an  orbit  is 
concerned;  and  in  cases  when  the  star  is  bright  enough  to 
allow  of  an  accurate  examination  of  the  spectrum,  jt  has  been 
found  possible  to  verify  this  presumption  by  actual  measure- 
ment. For  it  Hes  within  the  power  of  that  wonderful  instru- 
ment, the  spectroscope,  not  only  to  analyze  the  light  of  a  star 
so  as  to  detect  the  absorbent  actions  of  specific  metallic  vapors 
existing  in  its  atmosphere,  and  by  their  modifications  to 
judge  of  the  temperature  and  pressure  existing  there,  but  also 
to  determine  whether  the  body  is  approaching  or  receding 
from  the  Earth,  and  at  what  rate.  This  is  accomplished  by 
noting  a  minute  shift  of  the  spectral  lines,  in  one  direction  or 
the  opposite,  when  these  are  compared  with  the  lines  of 
spectra  having  a  solar  or  terrestrial  source.  If  it  is  thus 
found  that  a  variable  star  has  an  alternating  movement,  the 
approach  and  recession  together  occupying  just  the  time  of 
a  Ught-period,  the  indication  is  distinct  that  the  explanation 
of  the  variation  is  to  be  sought  in  some  effect  of  the  revolution. 

This,  however,  does  not  amount  to  asserting  that  the 
variability  of  light  is  in  all  these  cases  merely  apparent;  for 
there  is  still  to  be  considered  the  possibility  that  revolution  in 
an  orbit  may  induce  recurrent  physical  changes.  Here 
arises  the  problem,  how  much  may  be  attributed  to  the 
action  of  tides.  The  study  of  this  subject  has  been  brought 
into  prominence  by  the  investigation  of  George  H.  Darwin, 
the  son  of  the  great  naturalist;  and  subsequently  by  those  of 
See  and  others. 

Whenever  two  bodies,  as  the  Earth  and  Moon,  or  the  Sun 
and  Earth,  are  subjected  to  one  another's  attraction,  the 
mechanical  result  will  include  not  only  a  revolution  about 
the  common  center  of  gravity,  but  also  a  tendency, 
depending  upon  the  difference  of  attraction  on  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  body,  to  deform  the  latter,  elongating  that 
one  of  its  diameters  which  points  toward  the  companion.  The 
nearer  the  bodies  are  to  one  another,  the  more  rapid  will  be 


Stellar  Variability  and  its  Causes.  51 

the  revolution,  and  at  the  same  time  the  stronger  will  be  the 
tidal  strain.  The  latter,  acting  upon  a  semi-fluid  or  yielding 
body,  will  in  time  modify  both  the  revolution  and  rotation  of 
the  latter,  and  at  last  reduce  these  two  movements  to  an 
equality  of  period,  so  that  a  permanently  lengthened  diameter 
will  always  point, — ^as  in  the  case  of  the  Moon, — within  a 
moderate  angle  of  the  exact  direction  of  the  attracting  mass. 

Now,  it  is  supposed  that,  in  the  case  of  two  stars  moving  in 
elongated  orbits,  and  at  times  very  close  together,  the  strains 
occurring  in  this  process  may  be  so  violent  as  to  bring  about 
effects  in  temperature  and  perhaps  in  electrical  state,  which 
might  manifest  themselves  in  a  variation  of  light,  having  the 
same  period  as  the  revolution. 

It  is  clear  that  stars  which  should  be  induced  in 
this  way  to  manifest  variability  in  the  amount  of  light 
might  be  expected  to  show  also,  in  the  course  of  the 
period,  some  modification  of  its  spectroscopic  character, 
— changes  in  the  relative  intensity  of  different  parts  of 
the  spectrum,  or  perhaps  the  occurrence  of  bright  lines. 
Nor  are  such  instances  altogether  wanting, — instances, 
I  mean,  in  which  a  short  and  strictly  regular  period  is 
marked  by  qualitative  as  well  as  quantitative  light-change. 
But  they  are  not  so  numerous  as  perhaps  might  be  expected, 
and,  so  far  as  my  acquaintance  with  their  literature  extends, — 
notably  in  Beta  Lyrae, — the  causes  of  variability  thus  account- 
ed for  appear  to  exist  merely  as  accompaniments,  relatively  of 
minor  importance,  to  others  of  a  different  nature.  The 
existence  of  some  tidal  action  in  all  cases  of  short-period 
revolution  must  be  regarded  as  certain,  but  even  in  com- 
paratively close  pairs  it  seems  to  fall  short  of  producing 
physical  changes  so  great  as  to  result  in  variation.  In  the 
nov(B  or  temporary  stars, — bodies  whose  rise  to  extraordinary 
briUiancy  is  a  unique  occurrence  in  their  history, — there 
should,  according  to  a  theory  but  recently  prevailing,  be  found 
the  most  favorable  field  for  the  study  of  tidal  effects  in  an 


52  Colorado  College  Publication. 

extreme  development.  The  extraordinary  phenomena  of 
these  stars  were  thought  to  be  caused  by  the  falling  together 
of  two  independently  moving  masses,  which  rush  almost  into 
collision,  and  then  part  from  one  another  along  hyperbolic 
curves.  But  the  explanation  has  not  proved  satisfactory, 
and  the  problem  of  the  navce  still  awaits  solution.  Perhaps 
it  may  be  found  that  each  member  of  this  class  must  assume 
an  individual  responsibility  for  its  own  outbreak,  independently 
of  any  effect  of  companionship  or  environment. 

Environment,  on  the  other  hand,  is  conspicuously  a  de- 
termining factor  in  variables  of  the  "cluster-type,"  but  the 
method  according  to  which  it  operates  remains  unknown. 
These  are  stars  which  agree  in  remaining  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  time  at  the  low-water  mark  of  their  luminosity,  with 
a  sudden  leap  into  maximum  bri^tness  and  a  more  gradual, 
but  yet  a  rapid  decline; — the  whole  series  of  changes  being 
repeated  with  absolutely  unvarying  regularity  in  a  period  of 
the  briefest  extent,  measured  not  in  days  but  hours.  With 
three  or  four  exceptions,  the  stars  which  vary  in  this  fashion 
are  components  of  clusters.  Other  stars,  their  near  neighbors, 
equally  entangled  as  they  are  in  the  thicket  of  suns,  retain 
a  steady  light.  What  difference  in  the  stars  themselves  lies 
back  of  this  diversity,  who  can  say?  The  possibility  may  be 
admitted,  that  no  such  difference  exists, — that  the  variation 
is  due  to  some  effect  of  surrounding  matter  on  a  radiation 
originally  uniform.  If  so,  the  cluster  variables  would  belong 
to  the  second  rather  than  the  first  of  our  proposed  pair  of. 
grand  divisions.  Let  us  then  pass  at  this  point  to  that  second 
category. 

Stars  whose  observed  variation  in  light  is  to  be  regarded 
as  due  to  no  actual  change  in  their  own  shining,  but  merely  to 
our  point  of  view, — the  Earth  being  at  one  time  more  favorably 
situated  to  receive  their  radiation  than  at  another, — must, 
according  to  what  has  ah-eady  been  noticed,  bear  at  least  two 
distinctive  marks, — their  light  will  show  no  important  change 


Stellar  Variabilitv  and  its  Causes.  53 

in  quality  coinciding  with  the  variation  in  brightness,  and  the 
period  of  the  latter  will  show  a  marked  regularity  in  length. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  period  should  be  absolutely  un- 
varying, so  that  its  duration  now  is  the  same  to  a  second  as  a 
century  ago;  but  tf  a  change  of  length  occurs  this  will  proceed 
by  a  progressive  modification,  not  by  haphazard  divergencies. 
The  reason,  as  ah-eady  stated,  is  that  such  regularity  must 
characterize  all  movements  of  revolution,  on  which  move- 
ments the  recurrence  of  differing  aspects  must  depend. 

There  are  two  classes  of  short-period  variables  which 
exhibit  the  two  marks  just  mentioned.  The  first  consists  of 
the  eclipse-stars,  of  which  Algol  is  the  well-known  type.  In 
these  cases,  two  bodies  revolve  in  orbits  about  their  common 
center  of  gravity,  and  the  plane  in  which  the  motion  takes 
place  happens  to  pass  nearly  through  the  Earth.  Twice  in  each 
revolution,  therefore,  the  two  are  in  line,  as  seen  from  our 
view-point;  and,  at  one  or  both  of  the  passages,  one  star  is 
partly  hidden  by  the  other.  Both  bodies  may  be  luminous, 
and  then  the  minimum  brilliancy  can  be  no  lower  than  that  of 
the  eclipsing  star.  Or  one  may  be  dark,  as  in  the  case  of 
Algol,  and  then  a  total  obscuration  would  be  conceivable, 
though  no  such  instance  is  on  record. 

The  suggestion,  that  Algol's  variation  is  thus  brought  about, 
is  due,  as  already  mentioned,  to  one  of  the  discoverers  of  the 
variability.  It  had  much  to  recommend  it  from  the  first. 
For  Algol  and  similar  stars  are  distinguished  from  all  other 
variables  by  the  fact  that  the  brightness  remains  constant  at 
maximum  value  during  the  greater  part  of  the  period,  but 
drops  suddenly  to  minimum,  and  after  a  brief  interval  is  as 
suddenly  restored.  This  interval,  of  course,  is  that  of  the 
passage  of  the  dark  satellite.  This  character  of  the  variation 
is  expressed  in  a  diagram  by  the  so-called  light  curve.  This  is 
merely  the  well-known  device,  so  common  in  the  presentation 
of  statistics  of  every  kind,  in  which,  for  instance,  the  varying 
price  of  some  commodity  b  exhibited  by  the  marking  off  on 


54 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


a  base  line  a  number  of  points  representing  dates,  at  intervals 
proportional  to  the  time  elapsing  from  one  to  another,  and 
then  drawing  a  curve  so  that  its  height  above  each  of  the 
successive  points  of  the  base  shall  indicate  the  price  of  the 
article  at  the  corresponding  date. 

In  the  light-curves,  the  brightness  of  the  star,  as  o.bserved 
from  hour  to  hour  of  the  period,  takes  the  place  of  the  price  of 
the  commodity,  in  this  illustration.  The  Ught-curve  of  Algol 
will  accordingly  have  the  form  shown  in  the  figure  below.* 


4^ 


1 


Light-curve  of  Algol. 


That  such  a  light-curve  is  to  be  expected  in  eclipsing 
variables,  is  evident.  But  the  eclipse  theory  was  not  regarded 
as  proved,  until  the  spectroscope  had  confirmed  the  existence 
of  varying  movement  in  the  line  of  sight,  thus  enabling  us  to 
compare  the  light-curve  with  a  velocity-curve.  In  the  latter, 
the  speed  with  which  the  body  is  receding  from  the  Earth 
takes  the  place  which  in  the  light-curve  is  assumed  by  the 
brightness.  There  is  a  zero-line,  representing  the  absence  of 
movement,  whether  of  approach  or  recession;  and  wherever 
the  curve  dips  below  this  line,  a  proportionate,  speed  of 
approach  is  indicated  for  the  corresponding  part  of  the  period, 
or  where  the  curve  rises  above  the  zero-level,  a  proportionate 
speed  of  departure.  The  average  height  may  not  be  the  same 
as  the  zero-line,  because  the  revolving  system  may  be  con- 
tinuously drifting  toward  us  or  away.     Now  the  velocity- 

*The  two  diagrams  illustrating  this  article,  are  taken,  with  some 
change,  the  first  from  Prof.  C.  A.  Young's  "Manual  of  Astronomy,*' 
the  second  (originally  due  to  Prof.  Campbell)  from  Miss  Gierke's 
"Problems  in  Astrophysics." 


Stellar  Variability  and  its  Causes.  55 

curve  of  an  Algol  variable  shows  the  existence  of  a  change  in 
speed  along  the  line  of  sight,  recurring  in  the  same  period  as 
that  of  the  light- variation;  and  a  comparison  of  the  two 
curves  shows  furthermore  that  the  light-minimum  occurs 
at  the  same  instant  in  the  period  with  an  average  velocity  in 
the  line  of  sight, — ^that  is,  at  the  instant  in  which  neither 
body  of  the  revolving  pair  has  any  motion,  toward  or  from 
us,  except  such  as  is  due  to  the  continuous  drift  already 
mentioned.  The  instant  thus  signalized  is  the  one  in  which 
the  orbital  movements  of  the  two  bodies  are  directly  across 
the  line  of  sight,  one  being  between  us  and  the  other.  This 
coincidence  is  held  to  establish  beyond  reasonable  doubt  the 
truth  of  the  explanation  by  eclipses. 

The  admission  of  this  explanation  at  once  affords  the 
astronomer  several  interesting  measures  in  relation  to  the 
variable,  such  as  can  be  obtained  for  no  other  bodies  in  the 
universe  outside  the  solar  system.  Still  other  figures  are 
gotten  by  making  some  simple  hypothesis,  as,  for  instance, 
that  of  Vogel,  that  the  two  components  are  of  equal  density. 
That  this  should  be  exactly  true  in  the  case  of  Algol  must  be 
admitted  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  improbable,  since  the 
bodies  are  under  so  different  physical  conditions  that,  while 
one  is  dark,  the  other  is  of  greater  intrinsic  brightness  than  the 
Sun.  The  hypothesis,  however,  serves  for  the  calculation  of 
results  of  approximate  validity.  Without  taking  time  here 
to  separate  the  figures  which  depend  on  this  hypothesis  from 
those  which  do  not,  it  will  suffice  to  state  the  inferences 
drawn, — viz.,  that  the  luminous  component  is  the  larger  body, 
having  a  diameter  of  about  a  million  miles,  while  the  dark  one 
cannot  be  less  than  three-quarters  of  a  million  miles  in  dia- 
meter, and  is  more  likely  five-sixths  of  a  million.  The  distance 
between  their  centere  is  about  three  and  a  quarter  million. 
The  space  between  the  system  of  Algol  and  that  of  the  Sun 
is  believed  to  be  something  like  six  hundred  millions  of 
millions  of  miles.    If  so,  its  surface  is  fifty  times  as  brilliant 


56  Colorado  College  Publication. 

as  the  Sun's,  while  the  masses  of  the  two  bodies  are  respectively 
only  four-ninths  and  two-ninths  as  great  as  his.  A  very 
slow  change  in  the  length  of  the  period,  alternately  increasing 
and  diminishing  the  latter  within  narrow  limits,  may  be 
explained, — as  by  Chandler, — by  assuming  a  third  component, 
another  dark  body,  at  a  distance  from  its  companions  of  about 
a  thousand  million  miles;  or  otherwise, — as  by  Tisserand, — 
as  produced  by  the  combined  effect  of  an  oblate  form  and 
elliptical  orbit  assumed  to  characterize  the  bright  and  dark 
menjbers  respectively  of  the  binary  system. 

The  number  of  known  variables  classed  as  similar  in 
character  to  Algol  appears  from  Miss  Cannon's  Second  Cata- 
logue to  be  thirty-seven.  Twenty  of  them  are  bright  enough 
to  have  been  classified  in  respect  to  spectra,  and  of  these  all 
but  two, — R  Canis  Majoris  and  Z  Herculis, — arc  of  the  so- 
called  Sirian  type,  which  is  believed  to  indicate  an  earlier 
stage  of  development  than  that  of  the  Sun,  and  reveals  an' 
atmosphere  in  which  hydrogen  and  helium  predominate, 
while  absorbing  metallic  vapors  are  nearly  absent.  They 
are  thus  in  constitution  almost  as  much  as  possible  opposed 
to  the  long-period  variables  of  the  type  of  Mira. 

There  remains  a  second  class  of  short-period  variables, 
which  has  for  its  type-star  Delta  Cephei.  These  resemble 
the  Algol  family  not  only  in  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
variation  is  completed,  but  in  the  two  suggestive  character- 
istics on  which  emphasis  has  already  been  laid, — the  virtual 
absence  of  (|ualitative  light  change,  and  the  regularity  of 
the  successive  periodic  times.  The  orbital  revolution  which 
the  second  of  these  characters  suggests  is  proved  by  the* 
spectroscope  to  exist  in  all  the  cases, — now  ten  in  number, — in 
which  the  brightness  is  great  enough  to  have  thus  far  invited 
the  ap{)lication  of  the  recjuisite  tests.  From  three  to  four 
times  as  many  fainter  stars  may  be  {)resumed  to  resemble  the 
specin)ens  examined. 

Thus  far  extend  the  resemblances  to  Algol;  the  remaining 
qualities   present  no   less   important   contrasts.     While  the 


Stellar  Varl^bility  and  its  Causes.  57 

Algol  stars  remain  during  most  of  their  period  at  a  uniform 
lustre,  these  continuously  change  in  brilliancy.  While  the 
former  usually  lose  and  gain  their  brightness  in  approximately 
equal  times,  the  latter  with  a  very  few  exceptions  require  a 
much  longer  time  to  fade  from  maximum  to  minimum  than 
to  kindle  from  the  latter  to  the  former  phase.  The  ratio  of 
the  times  occupied  by  the  two  processes  is,  in  the  case  of  Delta 
Cephei,  about  as  twelve  to  five,  but  larger  discrepancies  are 
not  infrequently  met.  Very  commonly  the  longer  of  these 
two  segments  is  interrupted  by  a  slackening  or  pause  in  the 
descent  of  the  light; — sometimes,  in  fact,  by  an  actual  partial 
recovery  of  brightness.  With  pronounced  unanimity,  the 
stars  of  this  class  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  Sirian  type 
of  spectrum  affected  by  Algol  and  that  clan;  but  exhibit,  on 
the  other  hand,  atmospheric  conditions  much  more  nearly 
resembling  those  of  the  Sun,  and  frequently  belonging  to  a 
stage  of  evolution  more  advanced  than  his,  though  never 
attaining  to  the  extreme  so  characteristic  of  the  ruddy 
congeners  of  Mira.  They  are  therefore  probably  more  com- 
pact than  stars  of  the  Sirian  type,  and  are  to  be  regarded  as 
exhibiting  a  fair  degree  of  consolidation. 

Finally,  a  most  important  contrast  with  the  Algol  variables 
is  closely  connected  with  the  principal  point  of  resemblance. 
The  spectroscope  shows  in  both  cases  that  the  variation  is 
brought  about  by  orbital  revolution,  but  while  in  Algol  and 
all  its  kin,  the  minimum  brightness  occurs  always  when  the 
movement  of  the  components  is  across  the  line  of  sight,  thus 
proving  the  existence  of  eclipse,  in  the  tril)e  of  Delta  Cephei  it 
never  occurs  at  this  stage,  and  accordingly  eclipses  are  wholly 
out  of  the  question.  In  the  attempt  to  find  some  other 
cause  to  take  their  place,  it  was  early  sug«;ested  that  on  the 
supposition  of  eccentric  orbits,  there  might  be  some  influence* 
exerted  at  the  periastron  or  point  of  closest  approach, — some 
effect  either  in  the  way  of  extraordinary  heating  or,  more 
likely,    of    intensified    tidal    action, — which    should    induce 


58 


Colorado  College  Publication.   . 


greater  intrinsic  brightness.  A  more  extensive  acquaintance 
with  the  stars  in  question  has  developed  a  three-fold  refutation 
of  this  hypothesis.  First,  there  is  no  such  pronounced  change 
in  the  quality  of  light  as  should  accompany  a  great  physical 
modification;  second,  the  orbits  are  often  of  but  moderate 
eccentricity,  thus  presenting  no  occasion  for  such  physical 
modifications  of  the  bodies  revolvmg  in  them;  third,  there 
is  no  constant  relation  between  the  positions  of  the  periastron 
and  the  point  of  maximum  brightness. 

To  Dr.  Sebastian  Albrecht  is  due  the  credit  of  pointing  out 
the  orbital  position  which  is  always  coincident,  in  this  class, 
with  the  rise  to  maximum  brilliancy.  This  most  significant 
coincidence  becomes  apparent  as  soon  as  the  light-curve  is 
brought  into  comparison  with  the  curve  of  velocity  in  the 
line  of  sight.  The  summit  of  the  one  curve  always  approxi- 
mately coincides  with  the  lowest  point  of  the  other.  Otherwise 
stated,  the  greatest  brightness  of  every  such  star  is  attained 
when  the  latter  is  most  directly  approaching  the  Earth;  or, 
in  still  other  words,  the  star  looks  brightest  to  us  when  we  see 
that  face  which  forms  the  advancing  front  of  the  body  in  its  onward 
motion  along  its  orbit. 


Zeta  Geminorum :  Light-curve. 


Zeta  Geminorum :  Velocity  curve. 

The  conclusion  is  hardly  avoidable  that  the  moving  body 
is  constantly  brightest  in  front,  and  that  the  change  in 
brilliancy  as  observed  from  the  Earth,  while  possibly  modified 


Stellar  Variability  and  its  Causes.  59 

a  little  by  actual  inequalities  of  luminosity,  occurring  from  time 
to  time,  depends  in  the  main  upon  the  varying  advantage  of 
our  position,  as  the  bright  side  is  turned  more  or  less  fully 
toward  us.  To  account  for  the  extra  brightness  of  the  front 
side,  the  easiest  supposition  is  that  the  star  is  making  its  way 
through  a  cloud  of  particles,  whose  impact  heats  the  face  upon 
which  they  beat,  raising  it  to  incandescence. 

So  far,  the  explanation  of  the  star's  variation  is  not 
altogether  new;  it  has  been  suggested  by  more  than  one 
speculator;  but  until  Dr.  Albrecht's  discovery  that  the  co- 
incidence of  greatest  brightness  with  most  rapid  approach 
occurs  not  in  one  or  two  variables  only,  but  in  all  of  this  class, 
the  evidence  previously  existing  for  the  hypothesis  was  not 
sufficient  to  secure  it  general  favor.  Even  now  it  cannot  be 
said  to  be  accepted  on  all  hands;  it  is  a  plausible  conjecture, 
still  on  trial. 

Our  confidence  in  its  validity  will  properly  be  enhanced 
if  we  see  that  it  will  reasonably  account  for  some  of  the  usual 
features  of  variation  in  this  class,  as  they  have  been  already 
recounted. 

And  first,  we  may  note  as  not  without  significance  to  the 
hypothesis  that  this  species  of  variables  contains  no  stars  of 
the  Sirian  type.  Those  tenuous  bodies  are  quite  possibly 
without  any  surface  coherent  enough  to  be  heated  in  the  way 
supposed.  Particles  colliding  would  penetrate  deeply  into  the 
interior,  and  heat  the  whole  mass  rather  than  the  exposed  face. 
The  greater  solidity  indicated  by  the  solar  spectrum  is  thus 
a  requisite  to  this  type  of  variability,  just  as  statistics  indicate. 
To  picture  the  conditions  required  for  the  production  of  a 
variable  Uke  Delta  Cephei,  we  may  in  the  first  place  look 
for  the  simplest  possible  conception,  upon  which  such 
modifications  as  may  be  necessary  can  afterward  be  im- 
jx)sed.  Let  us  then  imagine  a  collection  of  innumer- 
able particles,  devoid  of  any  central  mass.  In  the  interior, 
the    gravitative    effects    are    balanced    on    all    sides,    and 


60  Colorado  College  Publication. 

there  is  little  tendency  to  motion,  but  a  firm  pressure  on  each 
particle  to  maintain  it  in  position.  Into  such  a  cloud,  of  an 
extent  far  surpassing  the  dimensions  of  the  solar  system,  let 
us  suppose  that  two  large  external  bodies,  one  much  greater 
than  the  other,  drift  in  company.  We  will  figure  them  as 
(lark,  solid  spheres.  Their  advance  into  the  interior  is  too 
slow  to  heat  either  to  brightness;  but  the  smaller  is  revolving 
about  the  larger,  and  this  motion  suffers  resistance.  The  well- 
known  effect  will  be  that  the  revolution  will  be  forced  into 
narrower  compass,  and  so  will  become  more  rapid.  Gradually 
the  orbit  contracts,  the  speed  increases,  and  the  resulting  heat 
augments.  The  tidal  action  has  been  such  as  to  induce  an 
equality  between  the  times  of  rotation  and  revolution  of  the 
satellite,  and  this  means  that  as  one  face  is  always  turned 
toward  the  primary,  so  one  face  is  always  presented  in  the 
front  of  the  orbital  motion,  where  the  impact  of  particles 
chiefly  takes  place.  This  face,  constantly  hotter  than  the 
rest  of  the  surface,  gradually  becomes  luminous.  Meanwhile, 
the  effect  of  the  resistance,  in  diminishing  the  time  of  revolu- 
tion, destroys  the  equality  of  this  period  with  that  of  rotation. 
The  tidal  influence  seeks  to  restore  the  agreement;  and  in  the 
conflict  of  these  two  tendencies,  it  inevitably  results  that  the 
revolution  remains  a  very  little  more  rapid  than  the  rotation. 
In  consequence  of  the  lag  of  rotation,  the  bright  spot  already 
generated  upon  the  revolving  body  is  no  longer  stationary  on 
its  surface,  and  no  longer  round.  It  advances  slowly  along  the 
equator,  and  takes  on  an  unsymmetrical  form,  having  one 
superlatively  hot  and  bright  end, — ^the  part  upon  which  the 
rain  of  meteoric  particles  is  most  rapid  at  the  moment, — with 
a  less  vivid  extension,  in  the  direction  of  the  part  which  was 
most  exposed  some  hours  ago. 

As  the  body,  thus  unevenly  heated,  is  viewed  from  a 
distant  point,  such  as  the  Earth,  the  brightest  end  of  the 
bright  spot  comes  first  into  view, — causing  a  rapid  increase 
in  the  apparent  brilliancy, — followed  by  the  trail  of  cooling 


Stellar  Varlvbility  and  its  Causes.  61 

surface,  which  mamtams  the  Ught  at  a  slowly  diminishing 
intensity,  thus  prolonging  the  visible  decline.  In  this  way 
the  characteristic  inequality  of  the  rising  and  faUing  segments 
of  the  light-curve  results  as  a  necessary  consequence  from 
conditions  which  can  hardly  fail  to  exist. 

For  the  sake  of  simpUcity,  the  surface  of  the  imagined  body 
has  been  assumed  to  be  rigid.  It  cannot,  however,  become 
luminous  without  becoming  more  or  less  volatilized;  hence 
an  absorbing  atmosphere  of  metallic  vapors  will  be  created, 
producing  the  effect  of  the  Frauenhofer  lines  in  the  spectrum. 
This  atmosphere  may  vary  in  its  constitution  and  density  in  dif- 
ferent regions;  thus  a  certain  limited  qualitative  change  of  light 
from  one  part  of  the  period  to  another  is  quite  possible  under 
the  hypothesis.  And  indeed,  a  change  of  just  the  character  to 
be  expected, — marked  especially  by  a  varying  proportionate 
intensity  of  light  of  high  refrangibility, — does  in  fact  exist. 
The  general  absorption,  again,  may  slightly  outstrip  the  increase 
of  Ught,  causing  the  brightest  point,  as  seen  from  outside  the 
atmosphere,  to  fall  a  little  in  advance  of  the  heat  center,  in- 
stead of  being  drawn  in  the  opposite  direction  toward  the 
elongated  trail  of  cooling  matter.  Thus  the  light-maximum 
would  precede  by  a  short  interval  the  moment  of  most  rapid 
approach  to  the  Earth;  and  this  seems  to  be  often  the  fact, 
particularly  in  the  case  of  Y  Ophiuchi,  whose  period,  being  of 
the  unusual  length  of  seventeen  and  an  eighth  days,  permits 
a  closer  examination  of  this  point  than  is  ordinarily  practicable. 

Thus  the  saUent  features  common  to  variables  of  the  type 
of  Delta  Cephei  find  their  natural  explanation  in  connection 
with  the  main  hypothesis,  except  that  interruption  of  the 
decUne  of  brightness  which  has  been  picturesquely  described 
by  one  writer  as  a  ''hump  in  the  light-curve."  Can  this  be 
similarly  brought  into  relation  to  the  rest?  In  an  attempt  to 
do  so,  one  naturally  turns  to  that  feature  of  the  orbit  to  which 
early  theorists  appealed, — though  with  no  great  success, — to 
account  for  the  main   variation.     I   mean,   of   course,   the 


62  Colorado  College  Publication. 

ellipticity,  in  virtue  of  which  the  part  of  the  orbit  near  or 
just  succeeding  the  periastron  may  be  expected  to  present 
some  phenomena  distinct  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  curve. 

From  the  point  of  view  furnished  by  our  hypothesis,  these 
phenomena  would  be  somewhat  complex.  First,  the  extra 
speed  in  the  neighborhood  of  periastron  would  increase  the 
frequency  of  collisions  and  so  augment  the  total  heating 
eflFect.  But  the  point  of  greatest  heating  would  move  more 
rapidly  along  the  surface, — ^the  lag  of  rotation  being  now  more 
pronounced, — and  consequently  the  luminous  area  would  be 
drawn  out  into  a  longer  oval,  and  the  extra  heat  distributed 
over  a  greater  space.  This  longer  oval  would  take  more  time 
in  being  carried  by  rotation  across  the  face  visible  from  the 
earth.  To  calculate  the  totality  of  the  eflFect  upon  the 
variation  of  the  star's  apparent  brightness  would  be  a  matter 
of  much  difficulty,  more  especially  as  some  of  the  factors 
involved  in  the  process  of  causation  must  be  quite  unknown. 
This  much,  however,  in  comparing  one  star  with  another, 
we  might  expect, — ^that  the  disturbance  in  the  fall  of  bright- 
ness should  be  found  to  show  some  correspondence  of  magni- 
tude to  the  ellipticity,  and  certainly  in  a  precisely  circular 
orbit  should  be  altogether  wanting.  No  accurately  circular 
orbit  is  known,  but  some  of  quite  moderate  eccentricity  have 
been  measured,  and  it  cannot  be  said  that  these  present  less 
well-marked  "humps''  in  the  light  curve  than  others  where 
the  eccentricity  is  greater.  At  present,  therefore,  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  the  elliptical  form  of  the  orbit  produces  any 
eflfect  at  all  upon  the  light- variation. 

There  is  also  to  be  considered  the  possible  result  of  currents 
in  the  cloud  of  particles,  and  inequalities  in  its  density.  The 
condition  supix)sed  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  amounting  to  a 
practical  uniformity  and  immobility  of  the  resisting  swarm, 
may  be  possible,  but  there  is  little  reason  to  suppose  that 'it 
would  often  be  realized.  Streaming  motions  are  much  more 
likely,  and  olniously  are  capable  of  producing  any  sort  of 


Stellar  Variability  and  its  Causes.  63 

irregularity  in  the  light-variation.  In  fact,  it  is  a  weakness  of 
the  fundamental  hypothesis  that  it  should  so  easily  admit  an 
element  of  capricious  uncertainty  into  the  explanation  of  a 
set  of  phenomena  which  on  the  whole, — comparing  the  stars 
with  one  another, — exhibit  so  good  a  degree  of  uniformity  in 
their  outcome. 

There  are  some  stars  classed  with  this  type,  which,  while 
going  through  their  light-changes  with  all  the  punctuality  as 
to  time  which  characterizes  other  members  of  the  well  regulated 
fa^mily,  are  in  no  way  to  be  depended  upon  as  to  the  extent  of 
variation.  In  some  periods  they  will  achieve  a  notable 
brightness,  in  others  they  will  remain  mediocre  throughout, 
and  this  diversity  is  subject  to  no  apparent  law.  In  these 
cases,  if  the  main  hypothesis  be  sound,  we  may  recognize  the 
eflFects  of  inequalities  and  motions  in  the  cloud  of  particles, 
while  the  ordinary  example,  in  which  each  period  substantially 
reproduces  its  predecessor,  appears  to  require  the  simpler 
but  theoretically  less  acceptable  supposition,  that  the  cloud 
is  like  a  fog-bank,  without  motion  and  everywhere,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  variable,  of  about  equal  density. 


It  cannot  have  been  unobserved  that  some  parts  of  the 
explanation  here  given  for  short-period  variability  rest  on  much 
better  evidence  than  others.  To  the  writer  it  appears  that  the 
primary  notion,  of  frontal  heating, — wherein  he  has  no  claim 
to  priority, — is  almost  certain  to  be  included  in  the  complete 
theory,  when  that  shall  be  obtained.  He  knows,  indeed,  that 
it  is  accepted  by  at  least  one  astronomer  whose  individual 
authority  would  be  recognized  by  all  as  unsurpassed.  Whether, 
on  the  admission  of  this  part,  any  of  the  subordinate  explana- 
tions, dealing  with  such  matters  as  the  unsymmetrical  division 
of  the  light  curve,  etc.,  may  be  also  regarded  as  plausible,  is 
a  question  which  he  respectfully  submits  to  the  critical 
reader. 


ON  THE  TRANSFORMATION 


OF 


ALGEBRAIC  EQUATIONS 

BY 

ERLAND  SAMUEL  BRING 

[In  Lund.  Sweden.  1786) 


Translated  from  the  Latin  and  Annotated  b}f 

FLORIAN  CAJORI.  Ph.  D. 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Colorado  College 


On  the  Importance  of  Brino's  and  Jerrard's  Trans- 
formation OF  THE  QUINTIC  EQUATION  TO 

THE  Trinomial  Form. 


Ce  r^ultat  remarquable  .  .  .  est  le  pas  le  plus  impor- 
tant qui  ait  ^t^  fait  dans  la  th^orie  alg^brique  des  Equations 
du  cinqui^me  degr^,  depuis  qu*  Abel  a  d^montr^  qu*il  ^tait 
impossible  de  les  r^soudre  par  radicaux. 

Hermite. 


Un  g^om^tre  anglais,  M.  Jerrard,  avait  ramen^  toute 
Equation  du  cinqui^me  degr^  k  une  Equation  k  trois  termes 
dont  un  seul  coefficient  reste  ind^termiD^.  C'^tait  un 
grand  pas  dans  la  th^rie,  puisque  toute  Equation  pouvait 
d^  lors  6tre  r^solue  k  Taide  d'une  table  k  simple  entree. 
M.  Hermite  s*est  appliqu^  k  r^soudre  T^quation  r^duite  de 
M.  Jerrard,  en  introduisant  comme  auxiliaire  la  fonction 
qui  exprime  les  relations  entre  le  module  d'une  fonction 
elliptique  et  le  rapport  des  deux  p^riodes. 

J.  Bkrtrand. 


B.*  cum  D. 

Meletemata  quaedam  Mathematica 

CIBCA 

TRANS  FOR  MAT  I  ON  EM 

AEQUATIONUM 

ALGEBRAICARUM 


QUAE 
CONSENT.  AmPLISS.   FaCULT.   PhILOS. 

IN  Regia  Academia  Carolina. 
Praeside 

D.  ERLAND  SAM.  BRING, 

Hist.  Profess.  Reg.  &  Ord. 

Publico  ^ruditorum  Examini 

modeste  8ubjicit 

SVEN  GUSTAF  SOMMEUUS 
Stipendiarius  Regius  &  Palmcreutzianus 

lundensis. 

Die  XIV  Decemb.  MDCCLXXXVI 
L.  11.  Q.  S. 


LUNDAE 
Typis  Berlingianis. 


•  [♦For  obvious  reasons,  the  title  page,  and  the  names  and  titles  of  the 
persons  to  whom  the  introduction  is  addressed,  are  reprinted  here  in  the  origi- 
nal.—F.  C] 


S:  AE  R:  AE  M:  tis 

Magnae  Fidbi  Viro 
NoBiLissiMo  Domino 


SVEN  LAGERBRING 

J.  U.  D. 

Regtae  Cancellariae  Constliario  Dignissimo 

HiSTOR.  ad  Reg.  Acad.  Carol.  Professort  Celeberrimo 

Acad.  Reg.  E.  E.  L.  L.  Membro  Meritissimo 

Acad.  Carolinae  Seniort  Maxime  VenerabilI 

Carisstmae  Matris  meae  avuncutx)  Optimo  alteriqur 

PaRENTI  INDULGENIISSIMO 

S:  AE  R:  AE  M:  tis 

Magnae  Fidei  Viro 
NoBiLissiMo  Domino 

CAROLO  A.  HALLENBORG 
IN  Regio  Dicasterio  Aboenbi 

CONSILIARIO  CONSULTISSIMO,  GrAVISSIMO 

Viro  Nobiijssimo  &  Amplissimo 
Domino 

MAGNO  HALLENBORG 

IN  Regio  Dicasterio  Junecopensi 

Assessori  Celeberrimo,  Aequissimo 

Viro  Nobilissimo  ac  strenuissimo 

Domino 

ADOLPHO  HALLENBORG 

IS  Reg.  Legione  Scaniae  Australi 
Centurioni  Equestri  Maxime  Inclyto  : 


I  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  seek  anxiously  for  Mae- 
cenases nor  to  have  recourse  to  doubtful  patrons  under  whose 
patronage  this  academic  treatise  may  be  published,  while  I 
am  at  liberty,  along  with  many,  to  show  my  esteem  and  rev- 
erence for  you,  most  noble  gentlemen,  as  the  surest  patrons. 
And  although  it  contributes  most  to  your  fame  to  show  such 
a  general  kindness  to  men  of  learning  as  to  be  called  and 
truly  regarded  as  their  chief  favorites,  yet  this  kindness  which 
I  have  with  others  I  shall  honor  [merely]  in  dutiful  silence, 
since  there  are  other  things  that  touch  me  more  closely.  For 
such  is  the  multitude  of  your  kindnesses  toward  my  father's 
household,  and  such  the  greatness  of  your  unexampled  good- 
will, that,  as  a  son  whose  parents  make  frequent  mention  of 
them,  I  could  not  be  unmindful  of  those  favors,  and  lest  I 
should  seem  so  to  be,  ought  publicly  to  recall  them.  I  there- 
fore do  recall  them,  and,  in  proof  of  the  power  of  this  grateful 
recollection,  I  have  resolved  to  make  this  dissertation  the 
public  testimonial  of  my  sincere  devotion  and  allegiance  to 
you,  my  great  patrons.  I  earnestly  pray  and  beseech  you, 
therefore,  to  permit  your  most  illustrious  names  to  be  in- 
scribed upon  this  little  work;  and  permit  it  the  more,  most 
urgently  do  I  entreat  you,  because  I  owe  to  you  the  begin- 
nings of  my  rising  fortunes,  and  to  you  belongs,  and  rightly 
too,  this  account  of  my  studies.  And  yet,  do  not  merely 
tolerate  my  presentation  of  these  first  fruits  to  you,  but 
gracioTisly  deign,  with  your  customary  kindness,  to  accept  the 
presenter,  your  humble  client,  who  yields  to  none  in  his  loyal 
devotion.  If,  in  accordance  with  your  usual  practice,  you  will 
kindly  do  this,  you  will  not  only  put  me  under  obligation  by 
a  new  pledge  of  friendship,  but  also  give  me  occasion  for 
great  self-congratulation.  Henceforth  I  humbly  pray  the 
Supreme  Deity,  in  his  infinite  goodness,  to  keep  you  long, 
O  most  greatly  beloved  patrons,  in  the  uninterrupted  course 
of  happiness  and  in  every  form  of  prosperity.  As  long  as  I 
live  I  shall  remain  most  dovotcHlly  attached  to  your  most  noble 
persons. 

SvEN  Gust.  Sommelius. 


70  Colorado  College  Publication. 

§1 

There  is  nothing  in  algebra  usually  more  desired,  than  the 
general  resolution  of  equations  into  their  roots.  But,  so  far 
as  the  efforts  of  mathematicians  have  gone  in  the  matter,  this 
resolution  is  still  so  remote  that,  unless  approximations  are 
accepted  as  sufficient,  the  general  method  of  resolving  equa- 
tions of  the  fifth  degree  is,  as  yet,  enveloped  in  darkness.  Of 
the  artifices  which  have  been  employed  to  remove  this  diffi- 
culty, that  must  be  least  despised,  in  which  the  attempt  is 
made  to  transform  the  proposed  equation  into  another  admit- 
ting of  easier  solution. 

For  example,  let  the  quadratic  equation  2*+7nz+n=0,  to 
be  called  A,  be  proposed  for  solution.  Certainly  nothing  is 
easier  than  the  formation  of  another  equation  5,  in  which  a 
new  quantity  y  is  introduced  by  the  relation  z^^y^-a;  for, 
upon  substitution  in  equation  A  of  the  value  y—a  for  the 
unknown  z,  A  is  changed  into  an  equation  of  this  form: 


^\^f)y+a'-ma+n^O=^B. 


This  transformation  being  accomplished,  I  believe  it  to  be 

clear  to  all  that  the  solvable  equation  B  can  be  disposed  of 

without  trouble.     For,  since   I   have  assumed  the  equation 

z^y—a  and  have  left  it  within  our  power  to  fix  the  value  of  the 

letter  a,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  so  determine  this  letter,  that 

the  second  term  vanishes  in  equation  B,  or  that  — 2a+tw=0, 

lit 
that  is,  that  a=-^.     Accordingly,  substitute  for  a  its  value 

-^  in  equation  B.     The  result  is: 

+  n 
Since  the  second  term  in  this  equation  has  vanished,  as  de- 
sired, and  is  the  only  intermediate  term  in  an  equation  of  the 
second  degree,  the  solution  is  obtained  without  much  labor; 
for,  necessarily  


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations.  71 

From  this  follows  easily  the  solution  of  equation  A ;  for,  as 
z^y-^a^y — x-,  we  have  necessarily 

z^~±^}/m'--4.n.     Q.  E.  D. 

This  solution  of  equation  A  is  precisely  the  same  as  those 
taught  in  books  on  algebra,  however  different  the  mode  of 
procedure.  Moreover  it  is  made  plain  from  this  example  not 
merely  what  transformation  of  an  equation  means,  but  also 
how  very  fruitful  [the  process]  may  be  in  solving  equations. 

§n. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  the  above  transformation  will  hold 
good  in  equations  of  any  degree,  but  it  is  equally  clear  that, 
since  only  one  letter  is  used,  not  more  than  one  term  can  be 
eliminated  in  this  manner.  Let  the  proposed  cubic  equation 
z*+m2'+nz+|3=0=^  be  transformed,  by  the  assumption 
z=y— a,  into 

Now,  in  this  new  equation,  the  extermination  of  either  the 
second  or  the  third  term,  whichever  one  may  wish,  is  easy;  but, 
except  in  very  rare  instances,  both  terms  can  by  no  means 
vanish  simultaneously.  For,  to  effect  the  extermination  of 
the  second  term,  it  is  necessary  that  —  3a+w=0,  that  is,  that 

771 

a=-^.  To  remove  the  third  term,  it  is  necessary,  however, 
that3a'— 2ma+w=0,or  a=q- q-V'rn*— 3w.    But  the  eval- 


m 


nation  of  the  letter  a,  according  to  which  a«-Q-»  differs  en- 
tirely  from  the  evaluation  of    the  very  same   r/,  by  which 

a=s-o ^V^m*— 3n.     Nor  can  these  evaluations  agree  with 

m      m  +  1 


eachother,exceptinthespecialcasewhen-o-  =  -q-  —  -q- V  w*— 37<, 


72  Colorado  Collegb:  Publication. 


that  is,  when  lu^— 8//=0,  or  //=-t^.     If,   therefore,    the    pro- 

ij 

posed  equation  should  be  z^  +  mz^ -\—^z-\- p^O^  then,  without 
doubt,  by  putting  ^=i/— — ,  it  can  be  transformed  into 


3 
8 


h// 


"27"^  "9" 


=0,  or 


^—  ^  +y>=0,  in  which  equation  not  only  the  second  term, 

but  also  the  third  has  disappeared.  But  the  case  in  which 
a  possibility  of  this  sort  arises  is  indeed  rare;  so  that,  since 
the  demand  is,  first  of  all,  for  a  general  method  of  removing 
the  terms,  the  consideration  on  hand  is  altogether  irrelevant. 
Therefore,  since  of  the  aforementioned  results,  the  one 
nearly  always  excludes  the  other,  and  there  remains  after  the 
removal  of  either  term  nothing  in  the  equation  to  be  deter- 
mined, by  the  evaluation  of  which  still  another  term  could  be 
removed,  it  is  very  clear  that  generally  but  one  term  can  be 
removed  by  the  aid  of  this  transformation.  Since  this  is  so, 
a  cubic  equation  cannot  as  yet  be  resolved  by  the  extermina- 
tion of  both  of  its  intermediate  terms.  But  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  mere  removal  of  the  second  term  offers  great 
facility  in  resolving  equations  pf  this  degree,  as  is  sufficiently 
evident  from  algebraic  writings. 

§in. 

Hardly  any  one  tloubts  that  this  is  true  of  the  traiisforma- 
tion  of  other  equations,  just  as  much  as  quadratic  equations. 
Let,  for  example,  this  general  equation  be  proposed: 

Taking  z==y—a,  there  results,  as  all  agree,  even  those  who 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations. 


73 


have  saluted  the  mathematical  muses  [only]  from  the  thresh- 
hold, 


.'/»-  ^  j  12     " 

1     k'/""'    -ma-1 


+m\ 


1 


—  «  ■ «— 1 • «— 2    , 
12    3        " 


+  >»  a— 1  •  a  — 2    , 
^-2  12 " 

— n • «— 2 


L  ,^a  -3 


1 

+  J> 


1-2    3    4  " 


—  m     a  — 1     a  — 2     a— -3    , 

n-3 ^' 

1-2    _  ! 

•    1 

In  this  equation  i^,  with  the  passing  observation  that  the 
second  term  vanishes  by  placing  —  ar/  +  m  =  0,  and  likewise 
that  the  third  term  disappears  on  taking 


a-1 


12 


a' 


-m  ■  «  — i    a  +  //=0, 


thus  requiring  for  the  elimination  of  the  fourth  term  that 


1    a-2 


nia—1  •  tf— 2 


^ a'  —w    «— 2    a+i>=0, 


12    3  '  12 

and  that  in  general,  to  eliminate  the  M'**  term,  it  is  necessary 
to  solve  an  equation  of  the  M^**  degree,  I  suppose  that,  for 
the  rest,  anyone  easily  sees  that  one  term  alone  can  be  elimi- 
nated for  the  reason  mentioned  above;  so  that  if  it  be  true 
that  algebraists  once  hoped  to  resolve  any  equation  by  means 
of  a  transformation  which  frees  it  from  its  intermediate 
terms,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  outcome  up  to  this  time 
has  hardly  met  this  expectation,  and  will  never  meet  it,  unless 
it  happens  that  a  different  method  of  transformation  is  hit 
upon  than  the  one  used  thus  far. 


74  Colorado  College  Publication. 

§IV. 

What  we  have  thus  far  presented  with  regard  to  the  trans- 
formation of  equations  contains  nothing  new,  almost  nothing, 
in  fact,  which  algebra  could  not  teach  while  still  squalling  in 
its  cradle.  But  although  none  of  those  things  which  pertain 
to  mathematics  have  been  left  untouched  and  untried  by  the 
more  than  indefatigable  lovers  and  devotees  of  this  delightful 
science,  yet  that  small  portion  of  algebra  which  deals  with  the 
transformation  of  equations  has  been  lying,  as  it  were,  in 
greatly  undeserved  oblivion,  so  that  mathematicians  have 
believed,  and  still  do  believe,  that  a  transformation  is  clearly 
impossible,  whereby,  in  an  equation  of  the  third  and  higher 
degree  two  or  more  terms  would  be  made  to  disappear.  Fur- 
thermore, just  as  if  they  wished  to  prevent  lill  men  in  future 
from  thinking  about  this,  they  have  produced  an  argument 
which  runs  like  this:  Let  the  opposite  he  assumed.  Let  H 
he  assumed,  for  example,  that  this  cuhic  equation  z'+mz*+ 
nz+p=0=A  ca7i  he  transformed  into  another  equation, 
cuhic,  toJbe  sure,  hut  pure  y'+a=0=B,  in  which  hoth  inter- 
mediate terms  fail  to  appear.  Then  the  value  of  z  in  equa- 
tion A  can  he  determined  hy  the  known  value  ofy  in  equatio7i 
B.  But  since  only  one  of  the  roots  of  equation  B  is  real,  the 
other  two  are  necessarily  imaginary;  hut  what  concerns 
equation  A — si^ice  it  is  a  general  one,  so  much  so  that  H 
emhraces  urithin  its  own  compass  all  cuhic  equations  of  any 
kind  whatsoever.^  and  without  a  shadow  of  a  douht  may  be 
made  up  of  real  roots — is  that  it  clearly  follows  that  a  root 
of  equation  A,  although  real,  can  still  he  determined  hy  a 
root  of  the  equation  B,  although  that  is  imaginary;  that  is, 
that  what  is  real  is  determined  hy  that  which  is  imaginary 
and  impossible.     This  is  absurd.    Ergo^. 

We  grant  unreservedly  that  equation  A,  since  it  must  be 
regarded  as  a  general  one,  can  have  roots  such  that  all  may  be 
real,  and  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  equation  B  must  content 
itself  with  only  one  real  root,  since  the  other  two  are  com- 
peting with  a  mathematical  impossibility.  No  one  can  easily 
get  around  the  possible  reality  of  all  three  roots  of  equa- 
tion A.    Moreover,  in  the  equation  t/'+a=0=JB,  one  root  is 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations.         75 

alwajTB  yH-^a=»0,  which  is  real.  But,  in  order  that  the  other 
two  roots  may  also  be  obtained,  let  the  equation  B  be  divided 
by  the  discovered  root,  the  quotient  will  be  jf—yf^a-\-  f^  a'=0. 
Hence,  of  the  two  remaining  roots,  one  will  be 


y — ^f^  a+-s--vl~~3^a*=0  and  the  other 


1  ji/-  .    1 


both  of  which  are  imaginary.  So  far,  at  least,  no  mathe- 
matical acumen  is  needed  to  follow  the  demonstration. 
But  when  it  is  contended  further,  that  no  real  quantity  can 
be  determined  by  an  imaginary  quantity,  then  we  certainly 
have  something  that  is  not  far  removed  from  a  fallacy.  This 
is  the  reasoning:  to  he  determined  by  something  is  ambiguous, 
and  certainly  can  be  so  used  that  it  can  be  nothing  but  an 
absurdity  to  say  that  a  real  quantity  can  sometimes  be  deter- 
mined by  an  imaginary  quantity.  But  if  such  a  usage  of  this 
expression  should  be  admitted  as  this,  viz.,  that  a  real  quantity 
is  made  up  of  parts,  one  or  another  of  which  can  sometimes 
be  an  imaginary  quantity — (and  that  this  is  a  legitimate 
usage  must  be  readily  granted)  we  adopt  a  method  of  reason- 
ing intellectually  difficult,  to  be  sure,  but  one  which  can  by 
no  means  be  regarded  as  absurd.  Whoever  is  even  modestly 
acquainted  with  higher  mathematics,  or  even  with  common 
algebra,  must  be  familiar  with  this  truth.  It  is  evident  e.  g. 
that  the  cubic  equation  z^+nz+p=0  can,  by  the  rule  of 
Cardan,  be  resolved  into  its  roots,  one  of  which  is 


z— 


But  if  it  should  happen,  as  happen  it  sometimes  must,  that 
-2-  -I-  -^  is  a  negative  quantity,  and  therefore  ^-j-  +  ^ 


,8 

an 


27 

imxK>ssible  quantity,  then  ^,  in  that  case,  is  the  sum  of  two 
imaginary  quantities,  and  yet  it  seems  to  be  established 
beyond  all  dispute  that  in  this  particular  case  2  is  a  real 


7G  CoLOK\Do  College  Publication. 

quantity.     This  seeming  contradiction  can  be  obviated  in  no 
other  way  than  by  proving  that  that  impossibility,  which  is 


involved  in  ^1^  _|_  -^i-3_  _|_  _/^  is  balanced  by  the  impossibility 


involved  in  ^  -2.  —  ^  m/  _,    /^^    so  that  the  one  neutralizes  the 

other.  Since  this  is  the  case,  there  is  no  reason  why,  by  some 
similar  compensation,  the  value  of  z  in  equation  Ay  although 
it  is  real,  may  not  be  determined  by  the  imaginary  value  of 
//  in  equation  B,  Thus  the  entire  force  of  that  demonstration 
with  which  we  found  fault  is  lost,  so  that  now  nothing  is  left 
except  the  authority  of  those  eminent  mathematicians  by 
whose  prestige,  far  more  than  by  any  sound  reasoning  on 
their  part,  this  demonstration  has  l)een  bolstered  and  puffed 
up,  unless  it  be  that  such  was  the  intentness  of  these  famous 
star-gazers,  and  so  great  their  flights  to  regions  sublime,  that 
they  sometimes  despised  the  common  things  of  earth.  How- 
ever that  may  be,  if  any  doubt  still  remains,  we  think  that  it 
will  surely  disappear  as  we  now  introduce  some  transforma- 
tions which  will  quite  conclusively  secure  the  elimination  of 
several  terms  in  any  tniuation  whatever. 

It  is  certainly  clear  from  what  has  been  said  above  that 
for  every  transformation  is  requinxl — 

1.  A  given  equation  A  to  be  resolvt*d,  and  therefore  await- 
ing transformation. 

2.  Some  equation  H  to  be  foiuid  which  will  not  only  contain 
the  unknown  quantity  of  etjuation  ^,.but  also  a  new  unknown 
(juantity,  so  that  the  relation  between  these  two  unknown 
(luantities  may  be  determined  by  the  help  of  equation  B. 
which  may  be  called  the  subsidiarff  or  mediatory  equation, 
since  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  no  ix)S8ible  transformation 
of  this  kind,  at  least,  without  it. 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations.  77 

3.  An  algebraic  process,  very  often  exceedingly  difficnlif 
to  be  sure,  but  always  possible,  by  means  of  which  that 
unknown  quantity  which  is  common  to  both  A  and  B  may  be 
eliminated.  When  this  elimination  has  been  accomplished 
another  equation  C  appears,  which  is  usually  called  the  trans- 
formed  equation,  and  in  which  that  unknown  quantity  which 
just  previously  had  been  introduced  into  equation  B  has  that 
same  very  great  importance  which  the  other  unknown  quan- 
tity in  equation  A  had.  That  the  matter  may  be  still  clearer, 
let  one  of  the  abov^  examples  serve  again  as  follows: 

First,  let  this  be  the  proposed  equation  which  is  to  be 
transformed  :^+mz'+nz+p^O=A. 

Second,  let  this  be  the  subsidiary  equation  z+a—y=^0=B. 

Third,  let  there  be  eliminated  from  these  two  equations 
A  and  B  the  letter  z^  and  thus  there  will  appear  the  trans- 
formed equation 

y l'"  !y -21(2/ -«'+"«' (=o=a 

^  +7n  )^    i^       \^  —na+2)    ) 

When  these  have  been  carefully  considered  I  believe  that 
no  one  can  doubt  that  this  transformation  is  absolutely  the 
same  as  the  one  which  has  been  employed  from  the  beginning 
of  this  dissertation.  This  one  word  ought  to  be  added,  that 
as  yet  it  has  not  occurred  to  any  of  the  mathematicians,  so 
far  as  we  have  heard,  to  employ  any  other  subsidiary  equation 
except  a  simple  equation  of  the  first  degree*.  The  result  has 
been  that  we  have  had  the  use  of  only  one  undetermintni  letter, 
and  that  it  has  been  possible  to  elide  only  one  term  from  a 
given  equation.  But  yet,  to  tell  the  truth,  there  is  no  reason 
whatever  why  there  may  not  be  a  subsidiary  equation  of  the 
second  or  even  of  a  higher  degree,  and  we  shall  thus  see  trans- 
formations by  whose  assistance  two  or  more  terms  of  any 
equation  whatsoever  can  for  the  most  part  be  eliminated. 

§vi. 

First,  let  this  be  the  equation  to  be  transformed,  2'+ W2'  + 
7iz+p=^0=A. 


78 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


•      Second,  let  the  subsidiary  equation  be  z^+bz+a+y=^0=:B. 

Third,  eliminating  z  from  these  two  equations,  this  trans- 
formed equation  results. 


+nh' 


-2r?+3a) 


—  2mba 
+  2m'-4tn  - 
+3a^ 


—pb^+mpb^ 
—  npb+})^ 
+nb^a 


r^ 


■mn  +  ^2^  '  ba  i  —  o=C 


-\-n*—2mp  • 
—mba^+a^ 


In  this  equation  two  letters,  a  and  6,  are  brought  to  our  notice, 
determinable  at  our  pleasure,  but  they  enter  into  the  equation 
in  such  different  ways  that  they  have  not  at  all  the  force  of 
one  letter.  To  eliminate  either. intermediate  term  we  need  no 
other  device  than  this: 


First, 

Secondly,  ub^—mn  +  '^p 


—  Twb+m''— 2n+3a=0=Z),  and 

b-^n^—2mp—2mba 

inb—m^+2n. 


+27w'-4n 
From  equation  D  it  is  evident  that  a= 


This 


value  of  a  may  be  substituted  in  equation  E  in  place  of  the 
same  a  and  the  result  will  be 

,2  ,  — 7m/?+9p+2w\  ,  —n^—^mp—m^+^mhi     ^ 
Sn—itr  6n  —  m 

The  value  of  this  letter  b  will  easily  be  found,  since  it  is  only 
necessary  to  resolve  the  quadratic  equation.  When  b  is 
found,  moreover,  there  can  be  no  hesitation  as  to  what  a 
means.  Hence  it  appears  how  the  letters  a  and  b  ought  to  be 
determined  so  that  the  transformed  equation  C  may  drop  both 
intermediate  terms,  Q,  E.  F.  So  equation  C  is  rendered  pure 
and  is  easily  resolved;  but  when  the  value  of  y  is  known,  the 
value  of  z  is  easily  found,  after  having  resolved  the  quad- 
ratic equation  B. 

Furthermore,  in  this  way  it  is  easily  perceived  what  that 
balancing  of  one  impossibility  by  another,  which  apjjeared  in 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations.  79 

§  4,  really  signifies.  There  are  in  equation  C,  after  each  in- 
termediate term  has  disappeared,  two  imaginary  roots  upon 
which  the  two  roots  of  equation  A  depend,  although  they  can 
be  real.  But  this  dependence,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  mean- 
ingless except  when  there  is  some  mediating  e»quation  B. 
And  inasmuch  as  this  equation  was  only  simple,  /.  r.  of  one 
degree,  there  did  not  appear  to  be  anything  that  could  remove 
the  impossibility  of  the  roots  of  equation  C.  But  if  a  quad- 
ratic equation  were  to  appear  as  a  mediating  equation,  both 
of  whose  roots  can  be  imaginary,  the  whole  problem  would  be 
flooded  with-  light.  For  the  impossibility  which  is  involved 
in  the  roots  of  the  pure  cubic  equation  C,  can  be  balanced  by 
the  impossibility  which  can  be  involved  in  the  roots  of  equa- 
tion B,  so  that  when  the  impossibility  of  one  is  obviated  by 
another,  it  cannot  prevent  all  the  roots  of  equation  A  from 
being  real,  and  so  on  with  the  rest. 

§  VII. 

We  may  pass  with  unfaltering  step  from  cubic  equations 
of  any  kind,  transformed  in  whatever  way  we  wish,  to  biquad- 
ratic equations  which  are  to  be  similarly  transformed  with 
the  mediation  of  a  quadratic  equation.  Thus,  let  this  be  the 
proposed  equation,  z*+nz^-i-pz+q=0=^A,  and  let  the  second 
term  be  lacking,  lest  the  problem  be  freighted  with  unneces- 
sary difficulties.  For  if  the  second  term  were  present  we 
should  certainly  pay  no  moderate  price  in  the  effort  to  exclude 
it.  Let  the  subsidiary  equation  be  z^+l)z+a  +  y=0=B,  and 
after  eliminating  the  letter  z  it  will  be 

4  .  .    \         +6(1^— 6na  \        +2/<^+4f/  •  a 
'^  Z.T  (  ^    +nh'+3i7h  If     +6pah+2nh'a 
*^^         +n'+2q       )         -)rpb+27}q+j>' 

-pb'-iqh'  J 


+3pba'+nhW-27iq+p''  a  I.  =,o=C'. 
—pnba—4:ql/a—pb^(t  i 

+qb*-{-nqh^—qb})+q^  I 


80  Colorado  College  Publication. 

The  second  and  third  terms  in  this  equation  are  very  easily 
eliminated,  if  one  sets  down, 

First,         4a— 2n=0  or  a=-^  and 

Secondly,  nh'+Hpb+7i'+2q-^=^0 

But  the  elimination  of  the  2nd  and  4th  terms  seems  far  more 
profitable,  since  we  thus  reduce  the  biquadratic  to  a  quadratic 
equation  capable  of  very  ready  resolution.  To  make  the 
matter  still  easier, — since  it  is  evident  from  what  has  just 
preceded  how  the  2nd  and  3rd  terms  can  be  eliminated,-  let 
us  assume  that  this  has  already  been  done.  So  when  this  is 
the  proposed  equation  z*+pz+q=:O^A,  let  the  subsidiary 
equation,  z^+bz+a+y^O=B,  be  assumed  as  before,  and 
after  the  elimination  of  the  letter  z,  it  will  be 

^*+4ay+6a^+3^6)    ,    if^l^'^!. 
4-2o   \^     +eabp+p^)y 

+a'+2qa'+Spba'    \ 
+jfa-^qb'a-pba'    =0=0. 
+qb'^qpb+q') 

If  it  be  assumed  in  this  equation  that  a=0  and  also  that 
— jj6'— 4g//+j:>*=0=X),  then  the  second  and  fourth  terms  will 
drop  out,  whereby  it  is  brought  about  that  this  equation, 
heretofore  biquadratic  in  form,  becomes  for  the  time  being 
quadratic.  Therefore,  since  the  value  of  b  could  easily  be 
found  by  resolving  the  cubic  equation  D,  and  the  value  of  y, 
also,  would  appear  after  completing  the  resolution  of  the 
quadratic  equation  C,  the  value  of  z  cannot  longer  remain  in 
doubt,  as  it  emerges  from  its  gloom  when  the  quadratic  equa- 
tion B  is  resolved,  Q.  E.  F. 

§  VIII. 

But  if  anyone  wishes  to  have  the  3rd  and  4th  terms  elimi- 
nated, he  comes  at  first  glance  upon  a  difficulty  which  is  by 
no  means  so  trifling  and  small  as  not  to  cause  most  anxious 
solicitude.     Especially  so  since  we  have  a  right  to  fear  that 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations.         81 

difficulties  of  this  nature,  in  transforming  equations  particu- 
larly of  higher  degree,  will  very  often  gain  a  foothold,  and 
often  be  a  great  hindrance,  in  the  matter  of  eliminating  third, 
fourth  and  other  terms.  Of  course  for  the  simultaneous  elimi- 
nation of  3rd  and  4th  terms  of  a  biquadratic  equation  it  is 
required  that 

First,         6a'+3pfc+2(/=0  or  6=  ~^^'g"^^, 

Secondly,  ^''+4qa+6pba-pb^—4qh'+p'^0. 

When  either  the  letter  a  or  the  letter  6  is  eliminated  from 
these,  an  equation  results  in  which  either  the  one  or  the  other 
of  these  letters  will  be  raised  to  a  higher  degree  than  z  or  the 
unknown  quantity  in  the  proposed  equation,  so  that  we  are 
compelled  to  resolve  an  equation  of  less  degree  by  resolving  a 
more  difficult  one,  and  thus  are  driven  from  bad  to  worse. 
Yet  whatever  this  difficulty  may  prove  to  be  in  other  equa- 
tions, it  is  certain  that  in  the  present  case  it  can  easily  be 
removed.  For  if  in  the  biquadratic  equation  first  proposed 
the  2nd  and  3rd  terms  are  eliminated,  (and  we  have  seen  that 
this  elimination  is  possible),  and  if  then  a  reciprocal  transfor- 
mation is  begun,  no  mathematician  will  deny  that  by  this 
operation  a  biquadratic  equation  is  secured  deprived  both  of 
its  third  and  of  its  fourth  term,  Q.  E,  F. 

As  for  the  rest,  as  everyone  clearly  sees  that  any  equation 
of  whatsoever  degree  can,  by  means  of  a  quadratic  equation,  be 
transformed  into  another  equation  in  which,  together  with 
the  2nd  term,  may  be  'made  to  disappear  either  the  3rd  term, 
(the  possibility  of  resolving  a  quadratic  equation  being  as- 
sumed), or  the  4th  term,  (the  possibility  of  resolving  a  cubic 
equation  being  granted),  and  so  on;  so  I  suppose  no  one 
doubts  but  that  in  general  by  the  help  of  this  transformation 
more  than  two  terms  can  never  be  made  to  disappear  at  the 
same  time. 

§IX. 

In  order  that  three  terms  in  a  particular  equation  may  be 
eliminated,  one  sees,  then,  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  me- 
diatory equation  of  at  least  the  third  degree. 


82 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


So  then  let  the  proposed  biquadratic  be 

and  let  the  subsidiary  equation  be 

z^+cz^+bz+a+y^O^B, 
which,  after  the  letter  z  has  been  eliminated,  will  be 


+8qba-pb* 
-^qcb'Sp'cb  ' 

+p'(f+pqc'-p' 


+2q(^a'+4tqbd'+3pbca' 

+2)q(fa~'3p*bca—p^a 

+p'(fa—4tqb'ca +4:q^ca 

—bpqba—pWa 

+qb'+^)qcb^-\'2q%'  * 

—pqb(f^^q^&b+p'qb 

-\-q^&—pq^c-\-q^ 

To  eliminate  all  three  intermediate  terms  of  this  equation  C\ 
any  one  sees  that,  after  due  reduction,  it  is  necessary  that 


J-=0=C. 


J 


-3f, 


First, 

Secondly,  24j96r+16(/c*+32(/6-3^>'=0=£, 
Thirdly,     -  2pU-%qUc+  2i)V.-  'dp^bc+^pq(^ 

Then,  if,  from  equations  E  and  F,  b  is  eliminated,  the  follow- 
ing equation  appears  : 


+  24// 


_,  r'  ^''-r\o^  +180.24  7 


+500 


+945 


+400  •  32  pq' )        +  4  •  32  q' 


16  p'<l )   ,    +15  •  32  •  36  <i 


'">  "':gi;:i-«- 


This  equation  G  is  of  the  sixth  degree.     It  is  true,  indeed, 
that  the  letter  b  might  have  been  retained  by  eliminating  the 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations  83 

letter  c  from  equatioiis  E  and  F;  but  not  even  in  that  case 
does  an  equation  of  any  lower  degree  appear.  It  may  perhaps 
be  supposed  that  there  is  nothing  here  but  the  appearance  of  a 
sixth  degree,  and  that  in  reality,  under  this  appearance,  lies 
hidden  an  equation  of  lesser  degree,  especially  since  it  can 
hardly  be  understood  how  the  solution  of  a  root  of  a  biquad- 
ratic equation  can  bring  about  the  solution  of  a  root  of  an 
equation  of  the  sixth  degree.  However  that  may  be,  in  order 
to  eliminate  all  the  intermediate  terms  in  a  biquadratic  equa- 
tion, the  resolution  of  an  equation  of  the  sixth  degree  seems 
to  be  a  necessity.  This  is  the  same  difficulty  which  was  re- 
ferred to  in  §  8,  but  to  the  cure  of  which  the  same  medicine 
does  not  suffice,  and  which  shall  be  touched  upon  again  in 
due  place.  But  that  this  difficulty  in  the  elimination  of  three 
terms  of  any  equation  is  not  an  insuperable  one  we  shall  see 
farther  on. 

§x. 

Let  the  proposed  equation  be 

in  which  the  second  and  third  terms  are  absent.  Let  the  sub- 
sidiary equation  be 

z' + c/2» + cz' + hz-\-a + //=0=  B. 
Let  the  letter  z  be  eliminated,  with  the  following  result, 

/-37K/       )    ,     +2(/c^+5m/-37>V  .     , 

-4(7+5r/ )  -^      +6fy'-4pr+5/>7f/+3/>Vf  |  '^ 

-ph'-4tqh'c-orh'd+SpH/'+^phca+12(il)(la 
—  5r6c' — Sp^bed+2})qhc'-  5pql)(P-\-lorha 
+pr—Sq^  '  M— llrr/— 3//  •  />+6ryrV/+ 15 rrda 
+pV+pqc'd+&rp^4(i'  .  c'-^p'ca+mfa 
H-4f/*— 7j>r  •  cd'— 2/>r+3y/  •  rd—12pr(f+lDpqd(n 
+2j7q+E?  '  r— /?+3rf/   •  (P+^p\<Pa 
-qp'+o?  •  (P—pq^-frp'  •  d—lSpda' 
+p'-i(l'+Srpq+10(V'—2iqa' 

+&c.=0=C. 


84  Colorado  College  Publication. 

In  this  equation  C  let  the  5th  and  6th  terms  be  neglected, 
since  we  have  nothing  to  do  with  them  at  present.  But  in 
eliminating  the  2nd,  3rd,  and  4th  terms  one  sees  that,  of 
necessity, 

First,         a-':^2^=0=A 

Secondly,  lhphc+'2ldqbd+2brb+lOqc^+2hrcd ) 

and  also,  in  the  third  place,  the  coefficient  of  the  fourth  term 
also  is  equal  to  zero,  an  equation  which  we  will  call  F. 

Now  if  in  this  equation  F^  in  place  of  a  we  put  its  value 

, — ^one  cannot  but  see  that  letters  />,  c  and  d  are  not 

raised  by  this  substitution  to  any  higher  degree  than  before. 
But  when  from  equations  E  and  F  are  eliminated  either  h  or 
c  or  (/,  some  equation  of  the  6th  degree  will  inevitably  appear 
which  does  not,  probably,  merely  assume  this  form,  and  which 
cannot  be  forced  down  to  a  lower  degree.  And  yet  even  this 
difficulty  can,  within  a  reasonable  degree  of  certainty,  be 
removed. 

§  XI. 
If  in  equation  E^  which  is  really  nothing  but  the  third 
term  of  equation  C,  in  which,  in  place  of  a  has  been  substi- 
tuted its  value  -'—^ — i    it   is  assumed   that    h=ad-\-Z    and 
5 

also  that  c=d+r,  the  equation  E  will  be  changed  into  this 
equation, 

+15i>+20g  •  a\         +lhpa+mq-\-2or  •  y  ] 
-37>*+10g    (f  +15p+20fi  -  Z    Ul 

+25r)         +25ra-15/>*-23iig      J 

+25r:-2r/-2/7)) 
And  if  it  is  assumed  that 

3//-10q-~25?-       , 
i^p-\-2f)q 


Transformation  op  Algebraic  Equations.  85 

._  -15par-25ra-20qr-257y+15p'+2^p(]       ,    , 

15p+2Qq  ^  and  also 

10qr'-15p 

+''P'^        -2rp 

any  one  can  see  that  for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  value  of  C 
and  r  the  only  resolution  needed  is  that  of  a  quadratic  equa- 
tion. When  the  values  of  <<,  C  and  r,  therefore,  have  been 
found  and  substituted  in  their  places  in  equation  (?,  the 
entire  equation  O  must  inevitably  disappear  by  mutual  can- 
cellation of  terms,  with  the  result  that  in  equation  C  the 
entire  3rd  term  also  will  disappear. 

Having  done  this,  let  us  substitute  in  the  fourth  term  of 
the  same  equation  C,  in  place  of  a  its  value  ^  ^ — -  and  like- 
wise in  place  of  b  its  value  «(i+C,  and  in  place  of  c  its  value 
d+r-  Of  course,  since  the  letters^  C  and  r  are  determined 
as  we  noticed  a  moment  ago  that  they  must  be,  the  aforemen- 
tioned fourth  term  is  obliged  to  pass  into  an  equation  in 
which  only  one  letter  d  appears  as  an  unknown  quantity.  But 
since  the  degree  of  this  letter  d  cannot  exceed  the  third,  it 
will  be  evident,  by  resolving  the  cubic  equation,  what  value 
ought  to  attach  to  this  letter  so  that  the  fourth  term  of  equa- 
tion C  may  disappear.  So,  then,  when  by  the  determination 
of  a  the  2nd  term  has  disappeared,  and  by  the  determination 
of  h,  c,«^,  C  and  y  the  third  term  has  disappeared,  and  by  tht» 
determination,  finally,  of  d,  the  fourth  term  is  made  to  disap- 
pear, it  is  evident  that  in  any  equation  of  the  fifth  degree  the 
first  three  intermediate  terms  can  be  eliminated,  Q.  E.  F. 

But  both  the  length  of  the  subject  and  considerations  of 
time  forbid  the  proper  discussion  of  these  questions.  More- 
over I  have  not  the  leisure  even  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of 
those  resolutions  of  cubic  and  biquadratic  equations  which 
can  be  made,  as  we  have  seen,  by  means  of  a  transformation, 
in  order  that,  by  comparing  this   method  with   the  rule  of 


86  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Cardan,  a  judgment  may  be  rendered  what  especial  diflference 
there  is  between  these  methods. 

Let  this  suffice  for  the  present,  and  in  withdrawing  pen 
from  paper  let  me  bring  this  little  work,  whatever  its  merits 
or  defects,  to  a  respectful 

End\ 


NOTES  BY  THE  TRANSLATOR. 


Biography. 

A  biographical  sketch  of  Bring,  translated  from  the  Bio- 
(jraphiskt  Lexicon  dfver  Namnkundige  Svenska  mdn  Tredje 
Bandet.     Upsala,  Leffler  och  Schell,  1837: 

"Bring,  Erland  Samuel.  Bom  Aug.  19, 1736.  (Parents: 
JOns  Bring,  Rector  of  Ansas  and  StrOsvelstrops  churches, 
and  Christ.  Eliz.  Lagerl6f).  Student' at  Lund  in  1750;  1757 
he  passed  the  law  examination  and  was  appointed  assistant 
judge  in  the  highest  courts  of  appeal  (Svea  and  Gotha  Hof- 
rfttt);  returned  to  the  university  and  was  appointed  1762 
Decent  in  the  Faculty  of  Law;  1765  acad.  notary;  1766  Ph. 
Mag.;  1770  he  gave  lectures  in  history,  in  place  of  his  uncle, 
Chancery-Counsel  Lagerbring;  E.  O.  Adjunct  in  Philosophy 
the  same  year;  Ord.  Adjunct  in  History  1778,  and  Professor 
of  History  1779.  Promoter  1784;  Rector  of  the  university 
1790.  Died  May  20,  1798.  In  1791  he  married  Ingrid  Cath. 
Ringlx»rg,  daughter  of  the  Rector  Nils  Ringberg  of  Wftsby. 
No  children.'' 

*' Mathematics  was  the  favorite  science  of  Professor  Bring. 
Of  his  unremitting  researches  in  this  line  only  a  very  few 
have  been  publicly  circulated  in  print;  but  in  the  acivdemic 
library  at  Lund  there  are  eight  hand-written  volumes  con- 
taining treatises  on  different  mathematical  subjects,  commen- 
taries on  Euler,  Wolf,  Palmquist,  Hospital,  and  so  forth,  and 
also  some  works  by  himself  on  elementary  mathematics,  on 
geometry  and  algebra  and  also  on  differential  and  integral 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations.  87 

calculus.  He  also  made  some  calculations  in  chronology  and 
astronomy.  In  the  solution  of  higher  equations  Bring  used 
Tschimhausen's  method  in  eliminating  intermediate  terms. 
Besides  this  he  wrote  on  the  theory  of  homogeneous  functions 
and  polynomials,  etc.  CJonceming  his  scientific  standing  we 
refer  to  the  statement  of  his  nephew,  Professor  Ebbe  S.  Bring, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  inauguration  of  Professor  [Carl  John- 
son] Hill:  'But,  if  faith  is  to  be  placed  in  the  most  illus- 
trious mathematicians  of  our  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
E.  S.  Bring,  in  the  solution  of  equations  of  the  fifth  d^ree, 
has  advanced  to  a  point  beyond  which  one  cannot  go.  For, 
he  shows  that  an  equation  of  this  degree  can  be  reduced  to 
three  terms  which,  without  doubt,  is  the  limit,  since  it  has 
been  proved  that  the  quintic  cannot  be  reduced  to  two  terms. 
Perhaps,  indeed,  certain  of  Bring's  algebraical  commentaries 
are  such  as  not  to  displease  the  most  renowned  mathema- 
ticians of  our  age,  although  in  most  cases,  the  latter  follow  a 
shorter  way.  But  this  is  a  matter  for  mathematicians  to  pass 
judgment  upon.' 

^^  Works:  31  dissertations.-  A  memoir  of  Bishop  Dr.  Aud. 
Rydelius,  for  which  he  received,  1782,  the  prize  of  the  Educa- 
tional Association. 

^^{Sources:  Sommelii  Lex.  Erud.  Scan. — Parentation  in 
Latin,  held  by  Chancery-Counsel,  Prof.  Dr.  M.  Norberg. 
— Stahls  Bi(^aphic  Notices  of  Professors  at  Lund.)" 

II. 

Historical  Note. 
Formerly  the  transformation  of  the  general  quintic  equa- 
tion to  the  trinomial  form  went  by  the  name  of  '^Jerrard's 
transformation."  It  was  effected  by  G.  B.  Jerrard  in  his 
Mathematical  Researches  (Part  II.,  Bristol  and  London, 
1834),  at  a  time  when  Bring's  researches  on  this  subject, 
made  nearly  half  a  century  earlier,  were  not  generally  known. 
It  was  not  until  1861  that  the  attention  of  mathematicians 
was  called  (by  Mr.  C.  Hill)  to  the  very  remarkable  disserta- 
tion of  Bring,  printed  in  1786.  Probably,  the  transformation 
of  the  quintic  to  the  trinomial  form  will  bear  hereafter  the 


88  Colorado  CJollege  Publication. 

name  of  Bring,  not  only  because  Bring  anticipated  Jerrard, 
but  also  because  the  Swedish  mathematician  had  a  deeper 
insight  into  one  important  matter:  He  never  claimed  that  the 
transformation  led  to  the  general  algebraic  solution  of  the 
quintic,  while  Jerrard  persisted  in  making  such  a  claim  even 
after  Abel  and  others  had  olBPered  proofs  establishing  the 
impossibility  of  a  general  algebraic  solution  of  the  quintic. 

III. 

Remarks  on  the  Text. 

(1).  To  Preface.  This  is  dedicated  by  Respondent  S.  G. 
Sommelius  to  the  Professor  of  History,  Sven  Lagerbring,  a 
relative  of  his  ("matris  meae  avunculo"),  and  to  three  other 
persons  by  the  name  of  Hallenborg.  Note  that  the  author  of 
the  thesis  is  not  Sommelius,  but  E.  S.  Bring,  who  presided  at 
the  examination. 

(2).  To  §  IV.  This  argument,  which  Bring  refutes,  is 
given  (as  C.  Hill  points  out  in  his  article  on  Bring  in  Ofver- 
sigt  ofKongh  Veietiskaps-Akade miens  Fdrhandlingar^  ^fg- 
18,  1861,  p.  317)  in  Abraham  Gotthelf  Kastner's  Anfangs- 
griinde  der  Analysis  endlicher  Grdssen,  Gottingen,  1760, 
§  290,  which  is  as  follows: 

"290,  Anm.  So  Iftsst  sich,  wenn  289  vorausgesetzt  wird, 
jedes  Glied  der  Gleichung  wegschaffen,  aber  nur  eins  allein. 
Man  kann  auch  leicht  zeigen,  dass  keine  Methode  m6glich 
ist,  die  allgemein  aus  jeder  Gleichung  alle  Glieder  bis  auf  das 
hOchste  uud  das  letzte  wegschaffte,  wie  der  Herr  von  Tschini- 
hausen  dergleichen  erfunden  zu  haben  glaubte.  Gftbe  es  eine 
solche  Methode,  z.  E.  jede  cubische  Gleichung  (283)  in 
f/'+/=0  zu  verwandeln,  so  diiss  x  sich  finden  liesse,  wenn 
man  y  hatte;  so  mtisste  das  x  der  allgemeinen  cubischeii 
durch  das  y  der  reiiien  bestimmt  werden.  Aber  das  y  der 
reinen  hat  allemahl  zweene  unm6gliche  Werthe  (240)  und  das 
X  der  allgemeinen  kann  lauter  mogliche  haben,  worails  schon 
zu  tibersehen  ist,  dass  sich  dergleichen  Methode  nicht  erfinden 
lasst." 

The  advanced  views  expressed  here  by  Bring  on  the  sub- 
ject of  imaginary  numbers  are  the  more  remarkable  as  practi- 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equation.  89 

cally  all  mathematicians  of  his  time,  excepting  a  few  men  of 
the  first  rank  like  Euler  and  Lagrange,  looked  upon  imagi- 
naries  as  unreal,  mysterious,  and  to  be  avoided.  Kastner,  the 
very  man  whom  Bring  criticizes,  held  views  on  this  subject 
that  were  in  advance  of  those  held  by  contemporary  text-book 
writers.  Moreover,  Kastner  was  usually  considered  a  rigorous 
writer,  having  in  1765  received  from  Pfeiffer  the  title  of 
"KAstnerus  rigoris  mathematici  studiosissimus."  See  C.  H. 
MtQler  in  Abhandl.  z,  Oeschichte  der  Math.  Wiss.y  18  Heft, 
Leipzig,  1904,  p.  114.  These  facts  show  that,  in  the  clearness 
of  his  argument  on  imaginary  numbers,  Bring  was  in  advance 
of  the  rank  and  file  of  mathematicians  of  his  age. 

(3).  To  §  V,  VI.  The  method  of  transformation  described 
here  is  no  other  than  the  so-called  Tschimhausen  Transfor- 
mation. Bring  does  not  mention  Tschimhausen  and  he 
expresses  himself  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  to  the  belief  that 
he  re-discovered  this  method. 

(4).  To  §  VI,  VII,  VIII,  IX.  firing's  dissertation  was  fol- 
lowed in  Sweden  during  the  18th  century  by  only  two  papers, 
namely  the  two  written  by  Pehr  Tegman  (1757-1810),  professor 
of  mathematics  of  the  University  of  Lund.  His  papers  of  1798 
and  1799  are  graduation-dissertations  like  that  of  Bring, 
written  by  the  professor  in  charge,  as  was  the  custom  at  that 
time,  and  discussed  and  defended  by  the  candidates  for 
degrees.  Tegman's  articles  are  Rcgula  Cardani  et  methodus 
Bringiana  radices  invetiiendi  cubicas  inter  se  coUatae,  and 
De  aequatione  biquadraiica,  with  Thunberg  and  Thelin  as 
respondents,  respectively.  In  these  papers  the  cubic  and 
quartic  are  discussed  more  fully  than  in  Bring'  thesis. 

(5).  To  §  IX,  X,  XI.  An  estimate  of  the  importance  of 
firing's  transformation  is  given  by  Felix  Klein  in  his  Vorles- 
itngeii  iiber  das  Ikosaeder,  Leipzig,  1884,  pp.  143,  144,  207- 
209,  244.  On  page  244  Klein  points  out  that  firing's  process 
is  encumbered  by  an  unnecessary  complication.  Improve- 
ments were  suggested  also  by  S.  Bills.     See  p.  90. 

(6).  The  Translator  has  seen  copies  of  firing's  original 
dissertation  in  the  Library  of  Columbia  University  and  also 
in  the  Public  Library  of  New  York  City. 


90  CJoLORADO  College  Publication. 

IV. 

Otheb  Abticles,  and  Books,  Tbeating  of  the  Tbansfobma- 

TION  OP  THE  QUINTIC  EQUATION  TO  THE  TbINOMIAL  FoBM. 

G.  B.  Jerrard,  Mathematical  Researches,  Bristol  and  London, 
1832-'35,  Longman.     Particularly  Part  II.,  1834.      . 

G.  B.  Jerrard,  An  Essay  on  the  Reaohdimi  of  Equations,  Lon- 
don.  Taylor  and  Francis,  1859. 

G.  B.  Jerrard  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine,  Vol.  7  (1836), 
Vol.  26  (1845),  Vol.  28  (1846),  Vol.  3,  N.  S.  (1852),  Vols.  23, 
24,26(1862,1863). 

Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton,  "  Inquiry  into  the  validity  of  a  method 
recently  proposed  by  George  B.  Jerrard,  Esq.,  for  transform- 
ing and  resolving  equations  of  elevated  degrees."  Report 
of  the  Sixth  Meetimj  of  the  British  Association,  Yol.  V., 
1837,  pp.  295-348. 

James  Cockle,  "  On  the  Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equa- 
tions" Mathematician  1844,  July.  See  also  papers  by 
him  in  Philosophical  Magazine  and  Cambridge  and  Dub- 
lin  Mathematical  Journal. 

C.  Hill  "Nagra  ord  om  Erland  Sam.  Brings  reduction  af  5:te 
gradens  equation"  Ofversigt  af  KongL  Vetenskaps- 
Akademiens  FOrhandlingar,    Arg.  18,  1861,  pp.  317-355. 

Robert  Harley,  *'A  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  problem 
of  the  reduction  of  the  general  equation  of  the  fifth  degree 
to  a  trinomial  form,"  Quarterly  Journal  of...  Mathematics, 
Vol.  VI.,  1863,  pp.  38-47. 

Robert  Harley  *'0n  Tschimhausen's  method  of  transforma- 
tion of  algebraic  equations,  and  some  of  its  modem 
extensions."  Report  of  the  39th  meeting  of  the  British 
Association,  1866,  London  1867,  notices  and  abstracts,  p.  2. 

S.  Bills  in  Mathematical  Questions  xcith  their  Solutions. 
From  the  Educational  Times,  London,  1864,  p.  8,  pp. 
38-40,  see  also  R.  Harley,  on  pages  67,  68  of  the  same 
volume. 


Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations.  91 

A.  Cayley  "On  Tschimhausen's  Transformation," P^tVosopA- 
ical  Transactions,  Vol.  152, 1862,  pp.  561-578. 

Serret  Coiirs  (TAlgdbre  SupSrintre  1854,  p.  462,  note  V. 
"  Sur  nne  application  de  la  m^thode  de  Tschimaus." 
(First  edition  appeared  1849). 

Hermite  "Sur  1 'equation  du  cinqui^me  degr6."  Comptes 
Rendus,  Vol.  61,  Paris,  1865,  pp.  877,  965,  1073;  Vol.  62, 
1866,  pp.  65, 157. 

Giordan  in  Matheniatishe  Annalen,  Vol.  13,  p.  400. 

J.  Sierens  "  Entwickelnng  der  Umformung  der  Gleichung 
2^—af^*+b^^—Cf,z'+d^+e^=0  in  tf+y+X=0  mittelst  de*- 
Tschimhausenscher  Substitutionen."  Astronomischc 
Nachrichten,  Vol.  70, 1868,  pp.  353-358. 

W.  E.  Heal  "  On  the  removal  of  terms  from  the  equation  of 
the  fifth  degree."  Analyst,  Des  Moines  (Iowa),  Vol.  5, 
1878,  pp.  78,  79. 

Felix  Klein  Vorlesungen  ilher  das  Ikosarder,  Leipzig,  1884, 
pp.  143,  207,  209,  244. 

Johannes  Rahts  "  Zur  Reduction  der  allgemeinen  Gleichung 

5  ten  Qrades  auf  die  Jerrard'sche  Form  eino  Weiter- 

ftihrung  des  von  Hermite  eingeschlagenen  Wages,"  ilathc- 
matische  Annalen,  Vol.  28,  Leipzig,  1887,  pp.  34-60. 

J.  J.  Sylvester  **  On  the  so-called  Tschimhausen  Transforma- 
tion."   Crelle's  Journal,  Vol.  100,  1887,  p.  465. 

F.  Cajori  iji  Moritz  Cantor's  Vorlesungen  ilher  Geschichte  der 
Mathematik,  Vol.  4,  Leipzig,  (erste  Lieferung)  1907,  pp. 
130-133. 


A  COMPARISON  OF  TEMPERATURES  (1906)  BETWEEN 
COLORADO  SPRINGS  AND  LAKE  MORAINE. 


By  F.  H.  Loud. 


When  the  Obsei'vatory  of  Colorado  College  was  fitted  out 
with  new  meteorological  instruments,  some  three  years  since, 
by  General  W.  J.  Palmer,  it  was  planned  to  obtain  comparative 
records  of  temperature,  precipitation,  etc.,  from  a  number  of 
neighboring  stations,  particularly  on  the  summit  and  slope  of 
Pike's  Peak,  and  sets  of  registering  instruments  adapted  to 
this  purpose  formed  part  of  his  donation.  Up  to  the  present 
time,  only  on^  station.  Lake  Moraine,  has  successfully  main- 
tained observations  of  sufficient  continuity  to  afford  data  for 
comparison  throughout  a  whole  year.  The  temperature 
record  for  Lake  Moraine  for  1906,  while  not  absolutely  con- 
tinuous, is  interrupted  by  no  greater  nor  more  frequent 
breaks  than  are  to  be  expected  in  a  station  of  this  kind,  and 
permits  of  satisfactory  comparison  with  that  of  the  Observatory. 
This  record,  the  automatic  tracing  of  a  Richard  thermograph, 
has  been  reduced  to  numerical  statement  in  the  same  way  as 
the  similar  records  at  the  central  station,  as  explained  in 
several  numbers  of  the  Colorado  College  Publication,  and  the 
results  contained  in  the  two  tables  appended  to  this  article 
may  be  compared  with  those  for  the  same  dates  at  Colorado 
Springs,  as  given  in  the  Publication  for  July,  1907  (Science 
Series  Vol.  XI,  No.  51).  The  figures  for  Colorado  Springs  are 
not  repeated  here,  (except  the  monthly  means  at  the  foot  of 
Table  I)  but  the  comparison  is  facilitated  by  the  graphic 
representation  of  four  months,  January,  April,  July  and 
October,  forming  the  frontispiece  of  the  present  number. 

Lake  Moraine, — originally  a  natural  lake,  formed,  as  the 
name  indicates,  behind  a  dam  resulting  from  glacial  action  in 
a  past  geologic  period, — has  in  recent  years  been  converted 


Comparison  of  Temperatures.  93 

into  a  reservoir  forming  part  of  the  city  water  system  of 
Colorado  Springs,  and  the  instruments  whose  record  is  here 
discussed  have  been  under  the  charge  of  the  city  officer 
intrusted  with  the  care  of  this  reservoir,  Mr.  George  DeLong. 
The  actual  work  of  observation  has,  I  believe,  devolved  on 
Mrs.  DeLong,  whose  attention  to  it  has  been  very  faithful  and 
unremitting. 

The  lake  is  situated  about  4,200  feet  higher  than  the  College 
instruments,  or,  more  precisely,  at  an  elevation  of  10,246  feet, 
at  the  foot  of  the  principal  long  rise  leading  to  the  summit  of 
Pike's  Peak,  which  is  distant  some  three  and  a  quarter  miles 
to  the  N.  W.  in  horizontal  measurement,  and  rises  about  3,900 
feet  higher.  The  difference  of  elevation  has  not  been  sub- 
stantially modified  by  later  measurements  from  the  figures 
obtained  by  E.  S.  Nettleton,  who  surveyed  the  so-called 
"government  trail"  from  Colorado  Springs  to  the  summjt,  by 
way  of  Lake  Moraine,  used  by  the  U.  S.  Signal  Service  ob- 
servers before  the  construction  of  the  present  carriage  road 
and  cog  railroad,  neither  of  which  pass  the  Lake.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  Lake  Moraine  is  associated  with  both 
Mr.  Nettleton  and  Mr.  Edward  Copley,  who  together  made 
the  earliest  meteorological  record  for  Colorado  Springs  in  the 
year  1871, — with  the  former  in  the  way  already  indicated,  and 
still  more  intimately  with  the  latter,  who  for  several  years  had 
his  residence  on  its  shore  in  the  old  Lake  House,  long  since 
destroyed,  but  situated  not  far  from  the  present  city  station. 

The  thermometer-shelter  in  which  the  Richard  thermo- 
graph has  been  exposed  is  placed  some  250  feet  from  the  north 
shore  of  the  Lake.  It  is  not  precisely  of  "standard''  con- 
struction, but  is  well  built  and  satisfactorily  located,  the 
exposure  being  as  good  as  can  reasonably  be  expected  among 
the  steep  slopes  of  a  mountain-side.  The  height  of  the 
instrument  above  the  ground  is  about  four  feet. 

The  method  of  reducing  the  thermographic  record  is,  in 
brief,  to  read  off  for  each  hour  the  highest  and  lowest  indi- 


94  Colorado  CJollege  Publication. 

cation  of  temperature,  and  to  take  the  mean  of  these  two  as 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  hour.  The  twenty-four  means 
of  each  day  are  averaged  to  obtain  the  daily  mean,  and  the 
365  results  so  computed  are  given  in  Table  I.  Again,  the 
mean  temperature  of  a  particular  hour,  (say  12  midnight  to 
1  A.  M.),  is  averaged  for  the  31  days  of  the  month  of  January, 
and  the  24  results  for  the  successive  hours  of  the  day  are 
shown  as  the  "Mean  Daily  March  of  Temperature"  for  that 
month,  forming,  with  the  corresponding  figures  for  April,  July, 
and  October,  the  contents  of  Table  II. 

For  these  four  months,  the  statistics  embodied  in  the  two 
tables  are  brought  into  comparison  with  the  corresponding 
figures  for  the  same  dates  at  Colorado  Springs  (College 
station)  by  the  graphic  representation  presented  in  the  frontis- 
piece, the  upper  portion  of  which  corresponds  to  Table  I  and 
the  lower  to  Table  II.  For  convenience,^  the  31st  day  of 
January  and  July,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  figure,  is  plotted 
on  the  same  vertical  line  with  the  first  day  of  the  succeeding 
month  of  the  diagram  (April  or  October)  so  that  the  diagrams 
overlap  to  that  extent.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  figure,  as 
only  twenty-four  vertical  lines  are  needed  to  each  monthly 
diagram,  the  curves  are  separated  by  gaps  of  six  spaces. 

As  already  mentioned,  there  are  a  few  instances  in  which 
the  Lake  Moraine  record  was  interrupted  for  some  hours  at  a 
time.  When  such  breaks  are  as  much  as  twelve  hours  long, 
the  record  of  the  day  has  been  omitted  from  the  diagram,  thus 
making  a  gap  in  the  line.  (That  appearing  in  the  April 
diagram  is  due  to  a  similar  failure  of  record  at  Colorado 
Springs.)  In  the  numerical  data  of  tables  I  and  II,  however, 
these  gaps  have  all  been  supplied  by  interpolations,  made  in 
the  following  manner:  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  gap 
occurs  in  a  day  of  August,  and  is  six  hours  long,  extending 
from  2  p.  M.  to  7  p.  m.  inclusive.  The  mean  hourly  change 
from  1  p.  M.  to  8  P.  m.  is  given  by  the  data  of  Table  II  for 
the  month  of  July,  (and  evidently,  in  every  case,  for  a  month  no 


Comparison  of  Temperatures.  95 

further  away  than  that  preceding  or  that  following  the  one  in 
which  the  gap  occurs).  It  may  appear  that  the  recorded 
figure  for  the  August  day  in  question  was  2  degrees  higher 
than  the  July  mean  at  1  p.  m.  and  1  degree  lower  at  8  p.  m. 
This  fall  of  3  degrees  is  then  apportioned  equally  through  the 
six  missing  hours,  and  the  interpolated  figures  are  those  of  the 
July  mean,  algebraically  increased  by  a  correction  diminishing 
uniformly  from  +2  to  -1.  (The  correction  is  made  to  tenths 
of  a  degree,  and  the  nearest  whole  number  to  the  result  is 
used  in  each  case  as  the  reading  for  a  particular  hour.)  In 
this  way,  the  mean  values  for  the  day  and  months  are  not 
seriously  affected  by  the  breaks,  even  though  the  hours  for 
which  the  record  is  wanting  should  hapjKjn  to  differ  consider- 
ably from  normal  values  of  temperature. 

The  foregoing  explanations  have  taken  so  much  of  the 
space  intended  to  be  given  to  this  article,  that  remarks  upon 
the  meteorological  significance  of  the  two  records  must  be 
left  in  large  part  to  the  reader.  In  the  curves  indicating  the 
daily  march  of  temperature,  it  is  of  course  apparent  at  a 
glance  that  the  rise  in  the  morning  hours  is  more  rapid  at  the 
mountain  station,  leading  to  an  earlier  maximum.  In  July, 
the  effect  of  the  shade  of  thunder  clouds,  so  abundant  in  the 
middle  of  the  day  and  particularly  after  noon,  is  especially 
observable  at  Lake  Moraine.  In  consequence  of  their  preva- 
lence, the  maximum  insolation  is  no  doubt  reached,  even 
at  Colorado  Springs,  before  twelve  o'clock  of  the  average 
day;  but  at  Lake  Moraine,  where  the  heat  thus  received  is  not 
retained  by  so  heavy  an  atmospheric  screen,  it  appears  that 
the  mean  temperature,  as  well,  reaches  its  maximum  in  the 
forenoon. 

The  upper  diagrams  of  the  page  afford  an  opportunity  to 
compare  the  time  of  onset  of  the  cold  waves  and  of  the  rises 
in  temperature,  when  these  are  sufficiently  far  apart  in  their 
occurrence  at  the  two  stations  to  be  distinguished  in  the  means 
for  whole  days.    Professor  J.  E.  Church,  in  a  paper  pul> 


96  Colorado  C!ollege  Publication. 

lished  in  the  Monthly  Weather  Review,  June,  1906,  shows 
that  his  mountain  station  in  Western  Nevada  ordinarily  feels 
the  effect  of  a  cold  wave  in  advance  of  the  neighboring  valley 
station.  The  occurrence  of  the  contrary  relation  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado  has  often 
been  noticed,  an  elevated  station  being  observed  to  retain  a 
mild  temperature  for  a  considerable  time  after  a  cold  wave  has 
set  in  at  a  lower  level.  If  I  am  not  mistaken,  this  fact  has 
been  pointed  out  in  a  published  comparison  of  Denver  ob- 
servations with  those  of  Dr.  W.  A.  Jayne,  made  at  George- 
town, Colorado,  in  Clear  Creek  Canon,  but  I  have  not  now  at 
hand  the  material  for  verifying  this  reference.  In  the  January 
diagrams  of  the  present  publication,  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  beginning  of  the  fall  in  temperature,  January  4th,  was 
manifested  in  the  daily  means  a  day  earUer  at  Colorado  Springs 
than  at  Lake  Moraine,  although  the  coldest  day,  in  each  cold 
wave  of  January,  1906,  appears  to  have  been  the  same  at  both 
stations,  and  the  most  remarkable  fall  of  temperature  during 
the  month  began  (January  17)  earlier  at  the  higher  station,  as 
in  Nevada. 


Comparison  of  Temperatures. 


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Colorado  College  Publication. 


TABLE  II. 

DAILY  MARCH  OF  TEMPERATURE, 
Lake  Moraine,  1906'. 


Hour 
Ending 


Jan. 


1  A.  M. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12  m. 


16.7 
15.7 
16.6 
15.5 
14.9 
14.6 
14.5 
14.9 
18.2 
23.7 
26.7 
27.3 


April 


25.2 
24.8 
24.7 
24.4 
23.8 
24.1 
26.9 
30.1 
31.9 
33.1 
34.1 
34.1 


July 

41.6 
40.7 
40.1 
39.7 
40.0 
43.2 
47.9 
50.3 
51.4 
52.0 
51.5 
50.8 


^  .     i!      Hour         T 
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28.7  ''j 

28.5  || 
28.3 
27.4 
26.9 

29.3 

.1 

33.6  il 
37.7 
40.4 
40.9  i 
41.4 


1   P.  M. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12  n't 


27.5 
27.3 
26.5 
25.0 
22.6 
20.3 
18.6 
17.9 
17.5 
16.6 


April 

34.2 
33.9 
33.8 
33.6 
33.0 
31.6 
29.7 
28.1 
27.4 
26.4 


16.3  j  25.7 
16.1   I  25.5 


July 

Oct. 

50.8 

41.7 

49.7 

41.0 

48.9 

39.4 

48.4 

37.8 

48.5 

35.4 

47.5 

32.6 

46.1 

31.6 

44.2 

30.5 

42.9 

30.1 

42.0 

29.8 

41.8 

30.0 

41.7 

29.7 

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METEOROLOGICAL  STATISTICS  FOR  1907  * 


By  F.  H.  Loud. 


BFiLDtNO,  Equipment,  and  Exposure  of  Instruments. 

The  obBervatory  building  of  Colorado  College,  erected  in 
ISJM,  was  the  gift  o(  Fhnry  R.  Wolcott,  Esq.,  of  Denver.  Its 
geo^aphlcal  position,  ns  determined  by  reference  to  neighbor- 
ing stRtions  of  United  States  surveys,  is,  in  latitude,  38  deg., 
5()  mill. ,44  sec, :  longitude, 6  hours, 59  min.,  16.5  sec. ;  elevation, 
about  0.040  feet. 

The  astronomical  ij([uipment  consists  of  a  four-inch  equa- 
torial telescope,  given  to  the  College  by  the  donor  of  the 
building,  and  a  trariBit  instrument  and  clock,  given  in  1900  by 
the  late  Charles  S.  Blarkman,  of  Montreal,  Canada. 

The  meteorological  equipment  in  part  antedates  the  build- 
ings the  nucleus  liaving  been  obtained  from  the  U.  S.  Signal 
ServTL'c,  when  the  college  first  became  a  voluntary  weather 
station  in  1878.  Several  additions  of  apparatus  were  subse- 
quently made.  Much  the  most  noteworthy,  during  the  earlier 
yeaJiEJ,  wa*s  that  of  a  set  of  Draper  self-recording  instruments, 
due  t^  the  generous  interest  of  the  late  Dr.  S.  E.  Solly,  of 
Colorado  Springy,  whc  was  seconded  by  Mr.  B.  W.  Steele, 
edttor  of  the  ''Ga^ettt,*'  in  his  lifetime  one  of  the  staunchest  ad- 
ViiCiiteii^  of  local  entcTf>rises  in  science,  and  by  other  friends. 
Of  these  Draper  instrunients,  the  barograph  alone  remains  in 
use.  In  Novembt^r,  1903,  the  quadruple  register  with  all  the 
apparatus  connected  with  it,  together  with  a  number  of  other 
instruments,  eapecial]\'  hygrometers  of  different  kinds,  were 

*TUn  tnatter  mtpcrtiuct<n-y  to  the  tabulated  statistics,  presented  under 
tbid  h*^4,  is  in  the  main  r^' printed  from  the  Colorado  College  Publication 
{Gcticrul  S«*riaa  No*  16)  wliicn  appeared  in  April,  1905.  A  somewhat  more 
d«f«liiil  account  than  i»  hpr^  ^ven  of  the  process  used  in  preparing  the  Daily 
Reegrd  Bl»«<ts  from  the  irjj^tru mental  data  may  be  found  in  that  issue.  In  the 
nutnbef  (or  Oelober,  lflU4,  is  contained  a  more  extended  description  of  the 
ttii't^'ijr^^Uigical  limtrumcnU,  including  an  untechnical  account  of  the  principles 

of  tl^ir  DC»t3JFtrU0tio£L. 


102  Colorado  College  Publication. 

given  by  General  William  J.  Palmer,  who  has  since  provided 
for  the  expense  of  reducing  and  publishing  the  observations 
and  records. 

The  exposure  of  instruments  pertaining  to  wind,  sunshine 
and  temperature  is  on  the  roof  of  Hagerman  Hall,  a  building 
standing  east  of  the  Observatory  and  on  higher  ground. 
Here  is  the  standard  thermometer  shelter,  10  feet  above  the 
roof,  54  feet  above  the  ground  and  69.5  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  Observ^atory  floor.  It  contains  maximum  and  minimum 
thermometers,  a  whirling  psychrometer,  and  a  Richard 
thermograph.  Higher  by  7  feet,  and  at  horizontal  distances 
of  11  feet  from  the  shelter  and  341  feet  from  the  Observatory 
door,  is  the  wind  vane,  on  the  iron  support  of  which  are 
attached  the  Robinson  anemometer  and  the  electric  sunshine 
recorder.  The  cable  connecting  these  three  instniments  with 
the  quadruple  register  in  the  Observatory  is  laid  underground. 

Near  the  middle  of  the  flat  roof  of  the  Observatory,  which 
affords,  on  the  east  side  of  the  dome,  a  clear  space  37  feet  long 
(east  and  west)  and  27J  feet  broad,  and  is  16  feet  above  the 
ground,  is  the  rain  gauge,  provided  with  a  tipping-bucket 
attachment  for  registration.  It  is  electrically  connected  with 
the  quadruple  register,  which  is  in  the  same  building,  on  the 
first  floor.  Here,  also,  on  the  north  side,  is  a  window  shelter 
for  the  exposure  of  the  hygrometric  apparatus,  exclusive  of 
the  whirled  psychrometer.  This  consists  of  a  Richard 
registering  psychrometer,  a  dew  point  apparatus,  and  a  hair 
hygrometer.  The  Draper  barograph  is  on  the  south  wall  of 
the  same  room,  but  the  barometer  read  at  the  tri-daily 
observations,  as  well  as  the  Richard  barograph,  is  in  the  upper 
story  of  Hagerman  Hall,  at  an  elevation  exceeding  that  of 
the  Draper  instrument  by  43.2  feet. 

The  "Daily  Record." 

The  summaries  for  the  months,  which  are  presented  in 
tabular  form  in  the  pages -following,  are  derived  in  the  main 


Meteorological  Observations.  103 

from  a  prior  set  of  tables,  one  for  each  day,  called  the  Daily 
Record,  which  is  preserved  in  MS.  form,  along  with  the  original 
sources,  at  the  Observatory.  In  the  Daily  Record  is  tabulated 
first,  the  wind-direction,  the  register  of  which,  as  automatically 
made  uix)ri  the  instrument,  consists  of  four  rows  of  dots,  for 
N.,  E.,  S.,  and  W.,  made  at  intervals  of  one  minute.  The 
count  of  dots  in  the  four  rows,  for  each  hour  of  the  day, 
occupies  the  beginning  of  the  record,  followed  by  the  mean 
bearing  for  that  hour,  deduced  from  the  preceding  by  a 
specially  adapted  traverse  table.  Next  is  the  hourly  wind- 
velocity,  obtained  by  counting  the  anemometer  record. 
Succeeding  columns  exhibit  the  resolution  of  this  velocity  into 
two  components  determined  by  the  bearing,  one  directed 
along  the  meridian  and  the  other  at  right  angles  thereto. 

After  the  wind-record  come  the  two  other  data  derived 
from  the  Quadruple  Register,  viz. :  the  rainfall  and  sunshine, 
for  hourly  periods,  and  after  these  the  pressure  as  shown  by 
the  trace  of  the  Draper  barograph  at  the  end  of  the  hour. 
The  temperature,  which  is  next  on  the  record,  is  obtained  from 
the  Richard  thermograph,  by  noting  the  highest  and  lowest 
indications  in  the  course  of  each  hour,  and  taking  the  half  sum 
of  these  as  the  n^ean  hourly  temperature.  The  humidity 
records  and  those  on  the  state  of  the  sky,  whether  "clear.'' 
"partly  cloudy,"  or  "cloudy,"  are  taken  from  the  tri-daily 
observations. 

The  foregoing  data  can  in  large  part  be  obtained  from 
supplementary  sources  in  case  the  record  of  the  instrument 
ordinarily  used  should  for  any  reason  be  temporarily  un- 
available. Thus,  if  a  gap  occurs  in  the  Draper  register  of 
pressure,  it  can  be  fiUed  from  the  Richard  barograph  with  a 
suitable  correction  for  difference  of  elevation.  The  sunshine 
record  is  similarly  supplemented  by  the  indication  of  a  photo- 
graphic instrument,  of  a  design  originating  at  the  Harvard 
C!ollege  Observatory,  and  belonging  to  the  station  of  the 
Western  Association  for  Stellar  Photography,  at  Knob  Hill, 


104  Colorado  College  Publication. 

about  two  miles  east  of  the  College  grounds.  A  small  anemo- 
meter register  at  Hagennan  Hall  is  actuated  by  the  same 
electric  current  which  goes  to  the  corresponding  pen  in  the 
larger  instrument  at  the  Observatory.  An  interesting  term 
of  comparison  with  the  College  observations  is  afforded  by 
those  of  Mr.  Emery  P.  Moon,  who  kindly  furnishes  daily 
readings  of  maximum  and  minimum  thermometer  and  rain- 
guage,  made  about  a  mile  east  of  the  College  at  222  Cedar 
Street. 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  Hagennan  Hall  anemometer, 
the  sources  of  supplementary  data  above  named  are  quite 
different  from  the  primary  ones,  either  as  respect  construction 
or  exposure  of  instruments,  and  hence  discrepancies  between 
the  parallel  records  are  continually  presented.  This  in  some 
cases  is  hardly  to  be  regretted,  since  a  comparison  may  elicit 
additional  information  upon  the  actual  physical  conditions. 
In  other  cases,  and  particularly  in  that  of  the  two  sunshine 
recorders,  the  divergencies  are  much  greater  than  could  be 
desired,  and  occasionally,  in  fact,  their  simultaneous  records 
would  hardly  be  believed  to  belong  to  the  same  day.  Each 
instrument  gives  a  more  or  less  defective  account  of  the  sun- 
shine in  the  early  morning  hours.  In  the  statistical  tables  of 
this  Publication,  in  this,  as  in  former  years,  no  attempt  is 
made  to  supply  this  omission,  but  the  data  are  given  as 
derived  from  the  instrument.  This  fact  accounts  for  an 
apparent  disagreement  with  certain  other  compilations, 
drawn  from  the  same  original  source,  in  which  it  is  the 
customary  practice  to  add  to  the  instrumental  record  a 
correction  determined  empirically  from  month  to  month,  by 
observing  how  much  the  record  falls  short  of  100  per  cent,  on 
one  or  more  selected  days  observed  to  be  cloudless. 

The  "Monthly  Summary"  and  Other  Tables. 
The  manner  of  deriving  the  tables  annually  printed  from 
the  MS.  "Daily  Record/'  requires  little  explanation.    The 


Meteorological  Observations.  105 

first  column,  "Mean  Temperature  for  Twenty-four  Hours," 
is  the  mean  of  the  results  for  the  separate  hours,  obtamed  as 
above  described  from  the  Richard  thermograph.  The 
"Extremes,"  in  the  next  two  columns,  are  the  highest  and 
lowest  points  reached  by  the  temperature  between  the 
beginning  of  the  calendar  day,  (at  12  o'clock  midnight)  and 
its  close,  twenty-four  hours  later.  They  are  taken  from  the 
reading?  of  the  maximum  and  minimum  thermometer,  when 
these  are  applicable;  yet  in  numerous  cases,  these  readings  are 
discarded  for  those  of  the  Richard  instrument.  For  instance, 
it  occurs  not  seldom  in  this  climate  that  at  the  time  of  setting 
the  maximum  thermometer  (6  p.  m.),  the  temperature  is 
higher  than  is  reached  at  any  hour  of  the  following  day. 
Reports  based  upon  the  record  of  the  latter  thermometer  will 
hence  show  for  the  second  day  a  maximum  temperature  which 
does  not  belong  to  that  day  at  all.  Again,  the  minimum 
thermometer  is  sometimes  read  lower  at  noon  than  in  the 
mormng,  and  lower  still  at  6  p.  m.,  when  its  daily  indication  is 
recorded;  while  the  tracing  of  the  Richard  instrument  may 
show  that  the  first  reading  is  nearest  the  truth,  the  sub- 
sequent fall  of  the  index  being  presumably  due  to  vibration  of 
the  instrument  caused  by  wind.  The  avoidance  of  misleading 
records  of  these  and  similar  kinds  produces  an  appreciable 
difference  between  the  contents  of  these  two  columns  and  those 
presented  in  such  reports  as  are  drawn  from  the  records  of 
the  maximum  and  minimum  thermometers  alone.  The 
"Hours  of  Extremes"  are  taken  from  the  indications  of  the 
Richard  thermograph.  When  several  hours  have  equal 
readings,  the  hour  named  is  that  nearest  the  middle  of  the 
period  of  maximum  temperature,  or  having  the  highest 
temperature  in  adjacent  hours.  Inspection  of  these  columns 
enables  the  reader  to  distinguish  the  days  in  which  the  normal 
progress  of  temperature  was  disturbed  by  irregular  move- 
ments. 


106  Colorado  College  Publication. 

In  the  six  columns  under  "Psychrometer"  are  given  the 
results  of  all  the  tri-daily  observations,  individually,  while  in 
that  of  "Clouds  at  Observations,"  the  three  estimates  of 
cloudiness,  made  at  the  same  hours,  and  each  expressed  in 
tenths  of  sky  covered,  are  combined  into  one  sum,  thus 
indicating  the  cloudiness  of  the  day  on  a  scale  of  30.  At  the 
foot  of  the  column,  the  mean  of  the  daily  estimates  is  reduced 
to  the  more  convenient  form  of  a  percentage;  the  number 
denoting  entire  obscuration  being  advanced  from  30  to  100, 
and  others  in  proportion. 

The  three  columns  following  contain  the  record  of  sunshine. 
In  the  first  six  months  of  the  year,  this  is  taken  from  the 
Quadruple  Register,  giving  the  indications  of  an  air-ther- 
mometer. At  the  beginning  of  the  year,  these  were  fairly 
satisfactory,  becoming  less  so  as  the  year  advanced,  until  in 
June,  although  some  of  the  days  should  unquestionably  have 
had  a  record  of  unbroken  sunshine,  the  indication  for  none  of 
these  exceeded  71  per  cent,  of  the  possible  duration.  In  July 
the  column  is  filled  from  the  Knob  Hill  photographic  record, 
the  other  being  now  so  much  impaired  as  to  register  only  about 
half  the  true  amount;  and  this  use  of  the  substitute  record 
continues  till  October  6th,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  week 
in  August,  for  which  the  report  furnished  by  the  College  to  the 
City  Department  of  Public  Health  (and  subjected  to  the 
rather  arbitrary  augmentation  for  unrecorded  morning  hours 
already  mentioned),  proved  afterward  to  be  the  only  available 
source. 

In  October,  a  better  adjustment  of  the  instrument  con- 
nected with  the  Quadruple  Register  was  secured,  and  this 
instrument  furnished  the  remaining  records  employed  as  far 
as  the  27th  of  December,  when  it  was  again  necessary  for 
temporary  causes  to  fall  back  upon  the  photographic  tracings 
for  the  last  five  days  of  the  year. 

The  "  barometer  "  column,  like  those  relating  to  the  psychro- 
meter,  gives  the  result  of  individual  eye-observations,  but  in 


Metborolooical  ObsbrvationSj  107 

this  case  is  restricted  to  the  reading  taken  at  noon.  Were 
this  observation  taken  about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes 
earlier,  the  indications  are  that  it  would,  in  the  long  run, 
afford  a  good  average  value  for  the  daily  mean. 

The  seven  columns  next  in  order  relate  to  the  wind.  The 
first  gives  the  total  run  of  miles  for  the  day,  as  counted  from 
the  Quadruple  Register.  When  the  indication  of  this  in- 
strument is  lacking  for  a  number  of  hours,  the  deficiency  is 
supplied  for  the  interval  as  a  whole  by  recourse  to  the  dial 
attached  to  the  anemometer.  Thus  there  is  no  unfilled  gap 
in  this  record,  though  in  several  instances  the  total  sum  for 
two  or  more  consecutive  days  cannot  be  distributed  to  the 
separate  days,  but  is  presented  only  as  a  gross  amount.  The 
four  columns  showing  the  sums  of  the  N.,  S.,  W.,  and  E., 
components  from  the  Daily  Record  might,  of  course,  have  been 
reduced  to  two  without  effect  on  the  computation  of  the 
resultant,  but  there  would  so  be  lost  an  interesting  index  of 
the  variability  of  the  wind,  showing  in  what  days  the  air- 
movement  was  substantially  all  in  one  direction,  and  in  what 
others  the  flow  from  one  quarter  was  nearly  neutralized  in  the 
course  of  the  same  day  by  counter-currents.  The  direction 
and  magnitude  of  the  resultant  are  given  in  the  last  two  of 
the  wind  columns. 

Owing  to  gftps  in  the  record  of  either  the  anemometer  or 
anemoscope,  the  wind-components  are  lacking,  here  and  there, 
for  intervals  of  varying  length.  Where  these  components  are 
known  for  part  of  a  day,  the  sums  have  usually  been  entered 
in  the  appropriate  columns.  The  following  is  a  full  list  of 
these  instances,  showing  the  extent  of  the  break  in  the  record 
for  each  case. 

January  6-6 — Components  lacking  for  18  hours. 
May  10-20 — ^Wind  components  and  sunshine  record  lacking,  20  hours. 
June  13 — Components  lacking,  6  houns. 

July — Components  lacking  for  parts  of  the  16th,  18th,  22nd,  and  23rd. 
August — Components  lacking  for  parts  of  the  18th,  19th,  20th,  and  21st. 
September — Components  lacking  for  the  8th,  and  parts  of  the  7th  and  0th. 
November  29 — Components  lacking  for  3  hours. 

December — Components  lacking  for  14  hours  of  the  1st,  for  1  hour  of  the 
8th,  for  the  entire  week,  9th  to  16th,  and  for  6  hours  of  the  30th. 


108  Colorado  College  Publication. 

The  three  columns  which  termmate  the  page  contain  the 
record  of  precipitation.  Here,  the  indications  of  the  Quad- 
ruple Register  and  the  stick-measurement  are  compared,  and 
the  latter  receives  the  preference  in  the  estimate  of  quantity. 

The  "Annual  Summary  by  Months,"  which  directly 
follows  the  monthly  summaries,  is  entirely  composed  of 
material  drawn  from  the  latter.  If,  therefore,  any  question 
can  arise  as  to  the  meaning  of  any  of  the  entries,  it  can  be 
solved  by  reference  to  the  preceding  pages. 

As  in  previous  years,  the  record  for  the  four  months  of 
January,  April,  July,  and  October,  are  subjected  to  further 
analysis  for  the  purpose  of  tracing  the  diurnal  variation  in  the 
chief  meteorological  elements.  For  reasons  which  will  be 
apparent  to  the  reader  of  the  foregoing  references  to  the  sun- 
shine record,  the  latter  has  not  been  deemed  of  sufficiently 
clear  significance  to  be  admitted  in  the  same  form  heretofore 
employed,  but  its  place  has  been  taken  by  a  table  of  the 
relative  cloudiness  at  the  three  daily  observations,  extending 
through  the  twelve  months.  The  thermometric  columns 
have  been  taken  from  the  record  of  the  Richard  thermograph, 
which  was  continuous  through  each  of  the  four  months 
discussed.  The  barometric  record  was  from  the  Draper 
barograph,  except  for  January  and  for  short  intervals  in 
April  and  October.  In  these  last,  the  gaps  were  filled  by  aid 
of  the  Richard  barograph,  using  the  indications  of  the  Draper 
instrument  for  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  as  fixed  points, 
and  the  Richard  record  as  showing  the  differential  variations 
in  the  passage  from  one  to  the  other.  In  January,  the  gaps 
in  the  Draper  register  were  more  serious,  while  that  of  the 
Richard  instrument  was  continuous;  it  was  therefore  decided 
to  depend  upon  the  latter  for  the  entire  record,  but  to  apply 
a  constant  correction  so  as  to  reduce  the  readings  to  values 
agreeing  in  the  mean  with  those  which  the  Draper  barograph 
would  have  supplied.  To  determine  this  uniform  correction, 
means  were  taken  for  ten  days  in  different  parts  of  the  month 


Meteorological  Observations.  109 

where  the  records  of  both  instruments  were  continuous.  The 
fact  was  thus  made  apparent  that  in  January, — and  as  further 
investigation  showed,  in  other  months  as  well, — ^the  average 
readings  of  the  Draper  instrument  showed  an  excess  over  the 
other,  larger  than  could  be  explained  from  the  difference  of 
elevation  of  their  respective  exposures  at  the  Observatory  and 
Hagerman  Hall.  A  difference,  not  quite  so  great,  appeared 
also  between  the  12  m.  eye-observation  of  the  mercury  column, 
and  the  mean  of  the  Draper  readings  for  the  same  hour, 
amounting  in  the  mean  of  the  four  months  discussed  to  0.109 
inch,  while  the  difference  of  elevation  is  but  43.2  feet. 

In  an  examination  of  the  meteorological  record  of  1907  as 
a  whole,  the  reader  will  notice  a  number  of  points  of  more  or 
less  interest,  as  distinguishing  it  from  that  of  other  years  in 
this  place,  or  as  bringing  into  prominence  certain  characters 
of  the  Colorado  climate  illustrated  in  other  years  as  well. 
It  may  not  be  amiss  to  call  attention  to  a  few  of  these,  par- 
ticularly in  the  temperature  record.  For  this  year,  no 
temperature  below  zero  has  been  observed, — an  unusual  fact, 
and  in  marked  contrast  to  the  record  of  1905,  when  the  yearly 
minimum  was  -22°.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  whole 
year  exceeds  that  of  1905  by  2°.l.  In  this  year,  the  hottest 
day  and  highest  monthly  mean  belong  to  July,  which  in  both 
respects  exhibits  a  marked  prominence  over  either  June  or 
August,  though  each  of  these  has  successfully  rivalled  it  in 
other  years. 

The  warm  weather  of  January,  February,  and  March  was 
succeeded  by  such  cold  in  the  latter  part  of  April  that  the 
monthly  mean  for  this  month  actually  fell  below  that  of  the 
preceding;  yet  in  consequence  of  a  few  high  temperatures 
near  the  beginning  of  April,  it  was  true  of  the  days  in  May  that 
on  none  of  them  down  to  the  20th,  had  the  thermometer 
risen  so  high  as  on  some  April  day  preceding  it  by  as  much 
as  a  whole  month.  The  latest  fall  of  snow  was  on  May  14th. 
Thus  while  a  Colorado  winter  may  occasionally  maintain  a 


110  Colorado  College  Publication. 

consistent  mildness  through  its  whole  proper  term,  it  is  apt  to 
reappear  for  a  while  in  the  spring  with  a  show  of  fangp  quite 
disconcerting,  especially  to  the  too  trustful  cultivator  of  an 
orchard  or  a  market  garden.  The  monthly  range  of  tempera- 
ture was  not  less  than  63°  in  February,  March  April,  or  May. 

The  precipitation  for  the  year  has  been  very  light,  amount- 
ing to  9.80  inches,  or  little  more  than  two-thirds  the  ordinary 
fall.  That  of  the  three  preceding  yeare  has  averaged  16.65 
inches. 

The  total  movement  of  wind  during  1907  was  70,827 
miles,  averaging  194  miles  a  day,  or  8.085  miles  an  hour, — 
a  little  larger  than  in  either  of  the  two  years  just  preceding, 
but  not  so  great  as  in  1904. 

The  tri-daily  observations,  with  the  care  of  all  the  in- 
struments, have  been  during  this  year  in  charge  of  the  same 
observers  who  performed  the  duty  in  1906, — Messrs.  C.  M. 
Angell,  S.  L.  Smith,  and  T.  D.  Riggs. 


Meteorological  Observations. 


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Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
January, 


Thermometers. 

PSYCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Recoi 

Date. 

Tempekatures.  1 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 

Dew-point. 

il 

Number  ol 
Minutes. 

Mean 

of 
24hrs. 

Extremes.  | 

6 

A.U. 

12 

6 

P.M. 

6   12 
▲.If.  u. 

6 

P.M. 

Act^ 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

I 

*■ 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

C( 

1 

25.2 

32 

20 

5  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

87 

88 

80 

17 

21 

25 

23 

101 

529 

2 

25.4 

35 

16 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

79 

38 

65 

22 

11 

15 

12 

264 

529 

^ 

3 

22.6 

36 

8 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

80 

70 

71 

4 

21 

22 

6 

251 

530 

i 

4 

41.2 

55 

25 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

81 

32 

42 

27 

24 

28 

10 

0 

531 

5 

45.0 

58 

34 

2  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

64 

39 

36 

29 

31 

26 

7 

330 

532 

i 

6 

41.0 

53 

26 

3  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

73 

49 

39 

26 

28 

23 

9 

0 

533 

7 

38.5 

50 

23 

2  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

81 

16 

19 

26 

7 

5 

1 

217 

533 

i 

8 

32.0 

42 

20 

1  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

77 

30 

58 

18 

13 

22 

12 

355 

534 

( 

9 

34.4 

51 

15 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

100 

37 

30 

17 

20 

13 

0 

455 

535 

S 

10 

44.0 

54 

33 

4  p.m. 

9  p.m. 

19 

24 

35 

6 

16 

19 

2 

362 

535 

^ 

11 

38.8 

44 

28 

4  p.m. 

12  n't 

47 

27 

23 

21 

12 

8 

0 

486 

536 

9 

12 

32.3 

47 

18 

4  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

39 

33 

12 

3 

13 

5 

0 

453 

537 

8 

13 

39.1 

49 

26 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

21 

12 

30 

6 

1 

13 

1 

465 

538 

8 

14 

21.8 

32 

14 

10  a.m. 

12  n't 

48 

100 

100 

11 

19 

16 

20 

68 

540 

i 

15 

18.5 

30 

12 

4  p.m. 

9  a.m. 

100 

100 

88 

13 

18 

19 

17 

252 

541 

i 

16 

32.1 

49 

22 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

60 

27 

44 

18 

12 

14 

16 

203 

542 

3 

17 

37.5 

54 

16 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

55 

60 

32 

12 

30 

18 

7 

466 

543 

8 

18 

39.6 

51 

27 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

58 

32 

35 

22 

22 

19 

3 

386 

545 

7 

19 

26.6 

38 

14 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

29 

32 

30 

2 

6 

4 

3 

481 

546 

8 

20 

24.8 

38 

8 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

82 

20 

49 

8 

1 

13 

7 

406 

04o 

7 

21 

40.4 

54 

26 

4  p.m. 

11  p.m. 

35 

20 

23 

12 

13 

10 

14 

301 

550 

5 

22 

35.0 

53 

20 

4  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

51 

23 

28 

8 

14 

11 

2 

470 

552 

8 

23 

40.0 

60 

24 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

67 

17 

25 

17 

14 

10 

0 

484 

553 

8 

24 

30.9 

46 

18 

12  m.  • 

12  n't 

57 

25 

78 

15 

10 

21 

11 

453 

555 

8 

25 

12.0 

18 

8 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

100 

100 

93 

10 

10 

9 

25 

0 

557 

26 

16.7 

24 

4 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

87 

74 

100 

17 

15 

18 

25 

5 

559 

1 

27 

20.5 

36 

2 

12  m. 

6  a.m. 

88 

63 

60 

4 

22 

18 

6 

395 

560 

7 

28 

36.9 

55 

18 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

87 

32 

46 

18 

18 

28 

9 

369 

562 

6« 

29 

42.2 

50 

27 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

55 

47 

44 

30 

29 

21 

21 

340 

564 

61 

30 

34.6 

51 

19 

4  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

100 

61 

52 

21 

32 

26 

23 

101 

566 

1« 

31 

40.9 

55 

28 

4  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

63 

31 

28 

22 

20 

16 

4 

471 

568 

S3 

Sums, 

1010.5 
32.6 

1400 
45.2 

599 
19.3 

2070 
67 

1359 
44 

1495 

48 

482 
16 

523 

17 

515 
17 

296 

9 

32% 

1 

n\ 

\fpn.ns 

Perc'g. 

A 

Meteorological  Observations. 


113 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


Basom- 

AnSMOM KTKR  AND  AnSMOSCOPS. 

Rain  Gauoi 

:. 

ITER. 

WIND. 

Hours 

of  Fall. 

Aetul 

Total 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

1 

XTHBure 

ttl2M. 

Ve- 
locity. 

N.           8. 

W. 

E. 

Direction.        liiles. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

Q 

23.402 

140 

52.5 

5.7 

82.1 

35.3 

N.45°    O'W. 

66.2 

10  a.m. 

2  p.m. 

.10 

1 

-791 

239 

41.4 

68.6 

128.2 

63.3 

s.  or  16'  w. 

70.3 

0 

0 

0 

2 

24  102 

146 

3.9 

93.7 

10.0 

89.2 

S.  41<>25'E. 

119.7 

7  a.m. 

9  a.m. 

T 

3 

23  792 

98 

64.7 

18.5 

26.6 

9.5 

N.20°18'W. 

49.3 

0 

0 

0 

4 

749 

[655] 

28.1 

74.4 

18.0 

42.0 

S.  27^  24'  E. 

52.2 

0 

0 

0 

5 

.748 

[       ] 

0 

172.0 

34.4 

22.9 

S.    3°50'W. 

172.3 

0 

0 

0 

6 

.948 

292 

58.6 

63.3 

182.0 

47.8 

S.  88*^   O'  W. 

134.3 

8  a.m. 

10  a.m. 

T 

7 

24.324 

166 

54.0 

85.3 

8.1 

66.1 

S.  or  39^  E. 

65.9 

0 

0 

0 

8 

.137 

178 

87.8 

29.3 

95.8 

20.1 

N.52^18'W. 

95.6 

0 

0 

0 

9 

23.907 

240 

105.2 

55.0 

131.8 

33.2 

N.63^01'W. 

110.6 

0 

0 

0 

10 

.546 

431 

227.6 

2.5 

349.0 

2.1 

N.57*'01'W. 

413.5 

0 

0 

0 

11 

.676 

171 

64.7 

39.6 

67.0 

40.0 

N.46*^56'W. 

36.9 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.754 

264 

47.4 

129.2 

76.6 

70.7 

S.    4<»07'W. 

82.0 

0 

0 

0 

13 

24.000 

157 

42.6 

78.7 

12.2 

76.8 

S.  60°  49^  E. 

74.0 

0 

0 

0 

14 

23.845 

82 

20.9 

43.9 

12.0 

30.8 

S.  39°  26'  E. 

29.7 

8  a.m. 

T 

15 

.818 

127 

102.9 

9.0 

23.5 

20.2 

N.   2°02'W. 

93.0 

0 

0 

0 

16 

.811 

235 

43.0 

88.5 

108.2 

50.0 

S.  51^59' W. 

73.8 

0 

0 

0 

17 

.647 

264 

36.1 

183.3 

49.5 

54.5 

S.    r57'E. 

147.2 

0 

0 

0 

18 

.831 

465 

309.0 

34.1 

257.5 

39.0 

N.38°29'W. 

351.1 

0 

0 

0 

19 

24.241 

153 

63.2 

53.1 

24.1 

54.3 

N.71°30'E. 

31.8 

0 

0 

0 

20 

.231 

118 

42.1 

44.8 

11.0 

53.6 

S.  86^22' E. 

42.6 

0 

0 

0 

21 

.334 

140 

112.6 

15.3 

2.8 

22.3 

N.11°20'E. 

99.2 

0 

0 

0 

22 

r    .095 

168 

134.6 

19.3 

18.2 

19.5 

N.   0°39'E. 

115.3 

0 

0 

0 

23 

.022 

242 

77.0 

115.6 

1.9 

118.0 

S.  71°37'E. 

122.3 

0 

0 

0 

24 

.017 

146 

6.6 

108.7 

1.9 

81.3 

S.  37°52'E. 

129.3 

7  a.m. 

5  p.m. 

.01 

25 

23.856 

^6 
103 

151.2 
24.3 

52.7 
59.4 

27.3 
3.7 

67.5 
46.3 

N.22°12'E. 
S.  50°31'E. 

106,4 
55.2 

T 
0 

26 

24.037 

0 

0 

27 

23.926 

120 

41.3 

52.5 

28.3 

26.0 

S.    6°12'W. 

21.3 

0 

0 

0 

28 

24.032 

191 

31.9 

101.8 

36.8 

90.5 

S.  37°  32'  E. 

88.1 

0 

0 

0 

29 

23.935 

64 

11.2 

33.9 

0 

42.4 

S.  61  °50'  E. 

48.1 

0 

0 

0 

30 

24.014 

151 

72.3 

43.9 

50.5 

27.7 

N.38°44'W. 

36.4 

0 

0 

0 

31 

741.568 

6182 

2158.7 

1975.6 

1879.0 

1462.9 

0.11 

23.922 

1 

H 



1 ' 

114 


Colorado  Colleqe  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
Fbbrdaht, 


Thermometers. 

PSTCHROMBTER. 

Sunshine  Rbcor 

Datb. 

Temperatureb. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

•1 

•9^ 

Number  of 
Biinutee. 

Mean 

of 
24hr8. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

P 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

cei 

1 

45.7 

63 

26 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

28 

18 

17 

11 

16 

11 

9 

381 

570 

6 

2 

21.2 

27 

15 

4  p.m. 

12  n't 

100 

87 

88 

18 

18 

21 

19 

20 

572 

3 

10.3 

19 

1 

4  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

95 

51 

67 

3 

1 

6 

14 

291 

574 

5 

4 

31.0 

55 

10 

2  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

47 

47 

61 

21 

34 

20 

13 

317 

576 

5 

5 

37.8 

53 

18 

1  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

64 

36 

47 

29 

26 

21 

14 

248 

578 

4) 

6 

45.1 

56 

25 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

31 

19 

41 

20 

16 

22 

2 

525 

581 

91 

7 

35.1 

53 

20 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

100 

27 

13 

19 

18 

0 

1 

447 

583 

7 

8 

51.5 

69 

29 

4  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

30 

7 

11 

13 

1 

8 

0 

494 

585 

8^ 

9 

42.9 

54 

26 

7  a.m. 

12  n't 

27 

26 

51 

7 

16 

25 

13 

155 

587 

2< 

10 

37.3 

55 

20 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

67 

20 

15 

17 

13 

4 

1 

537 

590 

91 

11 

41  .'0 

61 

24 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

69 

10 

23 

20 

4 

14 

0 

538 

592 

91 

12 

45.7 

58 

27 

3  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

27 

11 

16 

12 

4 

8 

8 

388 

594 

6i 

13 

42.5 

56 

28 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

51 

13 

37 

20 

8 

20 

0 

522 

595 

8J 

14 

38.2 

56 

20 

3  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

77 

16 

32 

18 

11 

18 

4 

514 

597 

S 

15 

42.1 

56 

27 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

66 

14 

19 

25 

8 

9 

0 

593 

599 

9 

16 

39.5 

59 

22 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

55 

9 

54 

12 

1 

34 

0 

525 

602 

8' 

17 

44.5 

62 

25 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

66 

23 

30 

25 

22 

21 

18 

449 

605 

7^ 

18 

44.6 

53 

35 

4  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

30 

33 

32 

13 

23 

22 

0 

489 

609 

8C 

19 

45.0 

58 

28 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

59 

22 

28 

23 

18 

20 

11 

483 

612 

7S 

20 

45.2 

63 

27 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

62 

12 

37 

21 

7 

28 

15 

473 

615 

71 

21 

34.9 

44 

26 

1  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

69 

65 

70 

20 

30 

30 

18 

206 

617 

^ 

22 

41.9 

62 

23 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

79 

31 

95 

23 

27 

55 

6 

476 

619 

^ 

23 

44.5 

57 

32 

1  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

51 

40 

60 

25 

27 

30 

16 

242 

623 

s\ 

24 

37.8 

48 

28 

5  p.m. 

12  n't 

100 

61 

60 

32 

31 

30 

15 

328 

627 

51 

25 

41.1 

62 

22 

1  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

89 

22 

25 

22 

16 

18 

4 

521 

628 

83 

26 

41.9 

55 

28 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

34 

20 

61 

15 

16 

25 

10 

326 

630 

52 

27 

23.7 

28 

19 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

100 

100 

95 

21 

38 

23 

30 

0 

632 

0 

28 

25.0 

32 

19 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

73 

70 

100 

14 

21 

25 

27 

119 

635 

19 

Sums. 

1077.0 
38.5 

1474 
52.6 

650 
23.2 

1746 
62 

981 
35 

1285 
46 

519 
19 

471 
17 

568 
20 

268 

10 

32% 

177 

\fooT|a 

Perc'g, 

.... 

63« 

Mgteorolooical  Observations. 


115 


INSTRXJMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


BABtm" 

AnSMOMSTBR  and  ANSM08C0PE. 

Rain  Gauob 

. 

rriB. 

WIND. 

Houn  of  Fall. 

< 

Aftuftl 

Total 
locity. 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

1 

IVeoBure 

fltl2M. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

N. 

a 

W. 

E. 

Direction. 

MUee. 

Q 

23.715 

296 

139.1 

43.8 

197.1 

20.0 

N.61°43'W. 

201.1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

.933 

50 

18.1 

22.6 

1.7 

21.8 

S.  7r23'E. 

20.6 

6a.m, 

12  m. 

.02 

2 

.939 

70 

0 

53.4 

0.9 

41.9 

S.  3r31'E. 

67.3 

0 

0 

0 

3 

.800 

253 

93.5 

77.1 

121.0 

59.8 

N.75^00'W. 

63.3 

0 

0 

0 

4 

.926 

165 

41.6 

80.9 

14.7 

80.1 

S.  59°02'E. 

76.3 

0 

0 

0 

5 

24.030 

314 

228.1 

24.9 

106.1 

36.9 

N.18*^4g'W. 

214.7 

0 

0 

0 

6 

.318 

155 

101.0 

37.4 

8.1 

37.8 

N.25^02'E. 

70.2 

0 

0 

0 

7 

.196 

276 

178.6 

12.7 

170.5 

3.8 

N.45^08'W. 

235.2 

0 

0 

0 

8 

.288 

251 

231.5 

0 

15.7 

59.2 

N.10^39'E. 

235.5 

0 

0 

0 

9 

.339 

162 

112.0 

37.2 

5.6 

30.8 

N.18^37'E. 

78.9 

0 

0 

0 

10 

.248 

198 

118.0 

53.0 

^.8 

48.9 

N.20°21'E. 

69.3 

0 

0 

0 

11 

.090 

301 

209.6 

0 

202.9 

0 

N.44*»04'W. 

291.7 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.222 

150 

89.3 

30.1 

17.2 

58.7 

N.35°02'E. 

72.3 

0 

0 

0 

13 

.318 

141 

100.4 

23.2 

10.2 

32.7 

N.  16°  IS'  E. 

80.4 

0 

0 

0 

14 

.269 

189 

135.8 

35.2 

1^.8 

34.8 

N.  4°33'E. 

100.9 

0 

0 

0 

15 

.192 

177 

128.7 

27.9 

16.4 

36.3 

N.  11°  10'  E. 

102.7 

0 

0 

0 

16 

23.957 

237 

180.1 

8.0 

123.1 

7.2 

N.33°57'W. 

207.5 

0 

0 

0 

17 

24.053 

317 

195.8 

41.8 

128.1 

40.3 

N.29°41'W. 

177.3 

0 

0 

0 

18 

.000 

183 

111.8 

36.3 

55.0 

36.2 

N.13°59'W. 

77.8 

0 

0 

0 

19 

23.899 

220 

176.9 

0 

90.0 

13.5 

N.23°23'W. 

192.7 

0 

0 

0 

20 

.964 

136 

31.3 

72.2 

2.7 

73.9 

S.  60°08'E. 

82.1 

0 

0 

0 

21 

.884 

130 

50.6 

31.7 

45.1 

45.1 

North 

18.9 

0 

0 

0 

22 

.916 

236 

172.0 

17.6 

82.0 

12.0 

N.24°23'W. 

169.6 

0 

0 

0 

23 

24.306 

217 
164 

35.9 
70.3 

122.6 
68.0 

5.8 
10.4 

131.6 
55.5 

S.  58°38'E. 
N.87°05'E. 

147.2 
45.2 

06 

24 

23.955 

0 

0 

0 

25 

.810 

189 

64.1 

69.4 

16.2 

85.7 

S.  85°38'E. 

69.7 

0 

0 

0 

26 

.705 

197 

58.0 

103.9 

0.8 

92.8 

S.  63°  29'  E. 

102.8 

8  a.m. 

4  p.m. 

T 

27 

.891 

138 

128.9 

0 

8.9 

23.2 

N.   6°20'E. 

129.7 

4  p.m. 

.03 

28 

673.163 

5512 

3201.0 

1130.9 

1507.8 

1220.5 

24.042 

0.11 

1 

.... 

116 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
March, 


Thermometers. 

PSYCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Recobi 

T^ATTB 

Temperatures. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

•I 
ol 

Number  of 
Minutes. 

XJALBtm 

Mean 

of 
24hrs. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos-IP^ 
sible|ce« 

Max. 

Min. 

Biax. 

Min. 

1 

35.5 

52 

13 

5  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

85 

34 

24 

13 

17 

14 

11 

222 

640 

3f 

2 

47.9 

56 

35 

4  p.m. 

12  n't 

31 

23 

38 

16 

18 

26 

2 

544 

642 

81 

3 

42.6 

62 

22 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

77 

22 

22 

20 

18 

18 

7 

502 

644 

d 

4 

45.0 

59 

31 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

67 

18 

49 

26 

16 

28 

17 

310 

647 

41 

5 

32.2 

41 

25 

4  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

89 

74 

70 

26 

27 

29 

25 

96 

649 

W 

6 

44.3 

58 

30 

3  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

83 

31 

21 

31 

23 

12 

7 

514 

652 

71 

7 

39.7 

50 

24 

1  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

77 

45 

47 

20 

26 

29 

6 

492 

655 

7i 

8 

41.0 

59 

21 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

93 

33 

27 

22 

23 

18 

1 

554 

658 

^ 

9 

37.5 

47 

29 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

67 

41 

67 

26 

22 

26 

18 

255 

660 

3J 

10 

39.9 

57 

25 

6  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

89 

47 

68 

23 

25 

46 

9 

448 

662 

6« 

11 

47.9 

57 

36 

1  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

24 

54 

38 

16 

34 

26 

9 

446 

664 

61 

12 

32.6 

44 

25 

4  p.m. 

12  n't 

90 

100 

67 

28 

31 

26 

27 

91 

666 

M 

13 

24.9 

31 

17 

6  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

86 

78 

79 

16 

21 

24 

18 

334 

668 

o( 

14 

34.5 

51 

15 

5  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

75 

29 

32 

16 

14 

18 

1 

580 

671 

^ 

15 

41.6 

56 

25 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

41 

23 

25 

10 

14 

18 

19 

350 

676 

hi 

16 

51.0 

64 

39 

5  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

40 

25 

48 

25 

24 

36 

8 

412 

681 

u 

17 

54.5 

69 

38 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

51 

28 

17 

24 

30 

21 

8 

443 

683 

6i 

18 

57.9 

78 

35 

5  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

75 

16 

23 

29 

25 

33 

19 

480 

686 

7C 

19 

63.2 

77 

46 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

56 

16 

24 

37 

25 

32 

19 

461 

687 

61 

20 

60.5 

74 

42 

1  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

45 

36 

30 

26 

44 

36 

15 

402 

689 

^ 

21 

61.2 

70 

44 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

58 

23 

52 

47 

28 

47 

5 

470 

692 

^ 

22 

54.0 

65 

40 

3  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

67 

53 

67 

42 

44 

42 

18 

463 

694 

61 

23 

50.7 

63 

34 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

91 

49 

52 

32 

37 

42 

1 

522 

695 

^ 

24 

55.9 

70 

39 

1  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

60 

28 

38 

30 

33 

37 

0 

594 

697 

85 

25 

59.1 

70 

51 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

62 

23 

55 

41 

28 

47 

8 

472 

698 

68 

26 

56.8 

66 

50 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

26 

22 

39 

20 

24 

34 

8 

551 

700 

79 

27 

44.8 

60 

27 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

79 

45 

31 

24 

35 

27 

5 

529 

702 

75 

28 

35.5 

41 

29 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

80 

82 

54 

25 

28 

23 

22 

51 

705 

•• 

29 

40.2 

51 

30 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

82 

48 

43 

30 

26 

23 

12 

380 

710 

53 

30 

31.2 

51 

25 

5  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

79 

36 

33 

23 

23 

13 

7 

476 

715 

66 

31 

42.0 

58 

20 

5  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

87 

36 

40 

17 

26 

32 

4 

483 

718 

67 

Sums, 

1405.6 

1807 

962 



2112 

1218 

1320 

781 

809 

883 

336 

190 

Means, 
Perc'g, 

45.3 

58.3 

31.0 

68 

39 

43 

25 

26 

28 

11 

36% 

. . . . 

611 

Meteorological  Observations. 


117 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


Babom- 

Anemomktek  and  Anemoscope. 

Rain  Gauge 

• 

ITER. 

WIND. 

Hours  of  Fall. 

Aetna] 

Total 
Ve- 
locity. 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

5 

Pressure 

■tl2M. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

rt 

N. 

s. 

W. 

E. 

Direction. 

Miles. 

Q 

24.012 

224 

381 

77.4 
214.1 

47:1 

7.5 

134.4 
285.5 

24.0 
11.5 

N.74*^39'W. 

N.53*^orw. 

114.5 
343.4 

0? 

1 

.095 

0 

0 

0 

2 

23.958 

161 

66.8 

49.0 

53.7 

34.0 

N.47°54'W. 

26.5 

0 

0 

0 

3 

.975 

183 

46.5 

69.4 

17.5 

107.1 

S.  75°  40'  E. 

92.5 

0 

0 

0 

4 

24.107 

139 

0 

97.5 

0 

98.7 

S.  45*^  21'  E. 

138.7 

0 

0 

0 

5 

23.876 

375 

200.1 

11.1 

273.0 

14.5 

N.53°50'W. 

320.2 

9 

0 

0 

6 

24.068 

192 

21.5 

134.3 

6.5 

84.5 

S.  34°42'E. 

137.1 

0 

0 

0 

7 

23.955 

185 

63.2 

79.0 

35.2 

63.2 

S.  60°34'E. 

32.1 

0 

0 

0 

8 

.964 

343 

301.9 

18.3 

31.6 

53.1 

N.   4*^20'E. 

284.4 

5  p.m. 

T 

9 

24.050 

162 

35.3 

70.2 

9.1 

99.4 

S.  68*^  52'  E. 

96.8 

7  a.m. 

T 

10 

23.765 

466 

34.6 

139.1 

408.1 

6.3 

S.  75^25' W. 

415.1 

0 

0 

0 

11 

.624 

225 
175 
174 

137.9 

98.9 

.  76.9 

59.8 
56.5 
49.9 

7.8 

4.2 

58.6 

83.0 
50.9 
35.8 

N.43°55'E. 
N.47*^46'E. 
N.62°55'W. 

108.4 
63.1 
59.3 

10  p.m. 

1? 

.876 

14 

13 

24.059 

0 

0 

0 

14 

.099 

149 

58.3 

73.6 

11.2 

32.0 

S.  53°40'E. 

25.8 

0 

0 

0 

15 

-012 

193 

80.9 

67.3 

51.4 

51.5 

N.  0    25'  E. 

13.6 

0 

0 

0 

16 

.067 

181 

24.7 

107.8 

35.2 

71.0 

S.  23*^  18'  E. 

90.5 

0 

0 

0 

17 

.015 

197 

62.8 

52.4 

82.8 

40.8 

N.76*'05'W. 

43.3 

0 

0 

0 

18 

.114 

195 

48.8 

48.4 

100.0 

44.4 

N.89°35'W. 

55.6 

0 

0 

0 

19 

23.953 

227 

54.5 

151.3 

36.6 

39.7 

S.     1°50'E. 

96.9 

0 

0 

0 

20 

.822 

319 

17.0 

149.1 

210.8 

41.4 

S.  52°03'W. 

214.8 

0 

0 

0 

21 

.784 

280 

40.0 

155.2 

39.1 

126.0 

S.  37°  02'  E. 

144.3 

0 

0 

0 

22 

.995 

238 

27.7 

158.2 

47.8 

77.6 

S.  12°  52'  E. 

133.8 

0 

0 

0 

23 

.850 

248 

58.3 

109.3 

106.6 

50.3 

S.  47°50'W. 

76.0 

0 

0 

0 

24 

.745 

321 

21.5 

179.6 

46.8 

174.8 

S.  39°  00'  E. 

203.4 

0 

0 

0 

25 

.535 

571 

0 

408.0 

338.1 

36.6 

S.  36°28'W. 

507.2 

0 

0 

0 

26 

.770 

268 

67.9 

160.8 

40.0 

70.6 

S.  18°  14'  E. 

97.7 

0 

0 

0 

27 

.778 

170 

119.0 

0 

94.4 

13.0 

N.34°22'W. 

144.2 

7  a.m. 

2  p.m. 

T 

28 

24.050 

320 

109.8 

104.6 

152.4 

60.3 

N.86°46'W. 

92.2 

0 

0 

0 

29 

.290 

167 

100.9 

27.3 

28.0 

59.1 

N.  22°  55'  E. 

79.9 

0 

0 

0 

30 

.273 

203 

35.7 

112.4 

7.0 

114.7 

S.  54°  33'  E. 

132.2 

0 

0 

0 

31 

742.536 

7632 

2302.9 

2954.0 

2753.4 

1869.8 

0 

.16 

23.953 

t 

. ,     ... 

' ' 

118 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
April, 


Thermometers. 

PSYCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Rbcob 

Date. 

Tempebatureb. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

If 

Number  of 
Minutes. 

Mean 

of 
24hre. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
Bible 

-  P 

Max. 

1  Min. 

Max.  1  Min. 

i  ce 

1 

54.8 

69 

37 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

61 

29 

58 

31 

32 

48 

22 

295 

721 

4 

2 

57.7 

68 

48 

4  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

56 

43 

33 

37 

41 

33 

11 

461 

725 

6 

3 

52.9 

63 

44 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

48 

28 

38 

31 

27 

29 

9 

405 

728 

5 

4 

39.9 

50 

35 

4  p.m. 

12  n't 

92 

52 

67 

35 

26 

33 

21 

257 

730 

3 

5 

43.1 

59 

31 

5  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

91 

49 

71 

30 

28 

42 

24 

252 

733 

3 

6 

47.1 

54 

,38 

1  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

55 

46 

28 

24 

33 

42 

12 

485 

736 

6< 

7 

49.2 

58 

35 

4  p.m. 

12  n't 

57 

40 

47 

27 

32 

34 

6 

579 

739 

71 

8 

42.8 

58 

32 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

82 

46 

47 

30 

32 

34 

12 

381 

742 

51 

9 

54.4 

69 

39 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

72 

19 

26 

34 

23 

27 

7 

546 

744 

75 

10 

62.5 

78 

42 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

55 

18 

21 

30 

29 

30 

.  15 

419 

748 

5i 

11 

51.2 

60 

40 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

86 

61 

53 

37 

39 

38 

11 

438 

752 

58 

12 

43.0 

52 

32 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

73 

38 

36 

26 

22 

23 

4 

530 

754 

7C 

13 

43.4 

55 

29 

5  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

71 

42 

37 

22 

28 

28 

22 

160 

756 

21 

14 

55.8 

75 

31 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

66 

22 

15 

25 

29 

19 

4 

611 

759 

80 

15 

52.2 

61 

44 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

49 

14 

48 

32 

17 

36 

16 

321 

762 

42 

16 

38.4 

46 

28 

5  p.m. 

12  n't 

75 

57 

53 

28 

27 

28 

13 

226 

764 

30 

17 

45.5 

67 

24 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

49 

25 

24 

22 

25 

24 

11 

452 

767 

59 

18 

33.0 

40 

30 

11  a.m. 

12  n't 

71 

75 

91 

22 

28 

30 

23 

25 

769 

3 

19 

27.2 

30 

22 

1  a.m. 

1  p.m. 

89 

77 

77 

26 

20 

20 

30 

0 

771 

0 

20 

22.2 

26 

17 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

97 

88 

88 

19 

20 

19 

30 

388 

773 

50 

21 

25.0 

32 

12 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

83 

90 

70 

10 

28 

21 

3 

598 

776 

77 

22 

44.4 

61 

26 

1  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

56 

29 

47 

20 

23 

34 

1 

552 

779 

71 

23 

52.8 

64 

40 

5  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

78 

18 

28 

26 

18 

27 

2 

529 

782 

65, 

24 

45.5 

60 

26 

11  a.m. 

12  n't 

56 

48 

92 

31 

36 

35 

22 

191 

785 

24 

25 

25.9 

31 

20 

9  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

88 

88 

100 

19 

21 

30 

30 

102 

788 

13 

26 

44.3 

64 

26 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

89 

51 

50 

26 

40 

38 

15 

343 

791 

43 

27 

47.5 

65 

34 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

75 

41 

70 

29 

37 

39 

13 

358 

794 

45 

28 

42.6 

61 

30 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

100 

45 

75 

34 

41 

39 

22 

279 

796 

35 

29 

26.1 

30 

23 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

75 

79 

100 

17 

24 

25 

30 

0 

799 

0 

30 

27.2 

33 

22 

1  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

88 

90 

90 

21 

29 

28 

30 

28 

800 

4 

Sums, 

Means, 

Perc'g, 

1297  6 

1639 

937 

2183 

1448 

1680 

801 

855 

933 

471 

....  1 

344 

43.2 

54.6 

31  2 

73 

48 

56 

27 

28 

31 

16 

ox  .  ^ 

52% 

....4 

^ 

Meteorological  Observations. 


119 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


Babom- 

Anemometer  and  Anemoscope. 

Rain  Gauge. 

CTIB. 

WIND. 

HouTB  of  Fall. 

Xft^i^f 

Total 
Ve- 
locity. 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

5 

c8 

Pressure 

atI2M. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

N. 

8.      1     W.^        E. 

Direction.        MilcB. 

Q 

24.033 

141 

46.8 

52.0 

64.6 

22.4 

S.  82^58' W. 

42.5 

0 

0 

0 

1 

23.953 

226 

71.5 

64.2 

151.4 

10.9 

N.87°02'W. 

140.7 

0 

0 

0 

2 

.906 

340 

211.4 

48.7 

159.8 

37.4 

N.36^5rW. 

203.6 

10  p.m. 

3 

24.088 

262 

181.6 

31.4 

95.9 

43.1 

N.  2°orw. 

159.2 

7  a.m. 

.44 

4 

23.807 

113 

44.6 

43.2 

31.5 

23.8 

N.  79°  42'  W. 

7.8 

0 

0 

0 

5 

.727 

329 

218.8 

9.1 

117.8 

37.3 

N.20°53'W. 

224.4 

0 

0 

0 

6 

.824 

588 

415.3 

0 

390.4 

9.1 

N.42*^29'W. 

563.1 

0 

0 

0 

7 

24.171 

148 

29.9 

73.0 

2.8 

98.4 

S.  65°44'E. 

104.9 

0 

0 

0 

8 

.059 

140 

27.5 

76.5 

7.4 

78.1 

S.  55°  16'  E. 

86.0 

0 

0 

0 

9 

23.869 

261 

138.3 

21,3 

154.9 

33.7 

N.46°00'W. 

168.5 

0 

0 

0 

10 

24.085 

253 

117.3 

95.1 

4.4 

95.5 

N.  76°  18'  E. 

93.9 

0 

0 

0 

11 

.191 

195 

2.4 

127.5 

0 

140.4 

S.  48°  18'  E. 

188.0 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.073 

94 

24.7 

37.8 

16.1 

26.8 

S.  39°  14'  E. 

16.9 

0 

0 

0 

13 

23.867 

260 

135.2 

26.7 

137.5 

22.4 

N.46°41'W. 

158.2 

0 

0 

0 

14 

.968 

288 

73.7 

157.2 

5.3 

150.9 

S.  60°  10'  E. 

167.9 

0 

0 

0 

15 

24.106 

243 

0 

141.2 

0 

180.5 

S.  51°58'E. 

229.1 

0 

0 

0 

16 

23.784 

317 

179.0 

56.3 

114.2 

52.7 

N.26°37'W. 

137.3 

0 

0 

0 

17 

24.002 

163 

78.2 

60.4 

5.9 

47.9 

N.67°58'W. 

45.4 

07 

18 

23.972 

324 
137 
103 
243 

212.5 
77.6 
27.7 

224.7 

74.3 

6.8 

40.3 

0 

81.1 
12.4 
24.1 
16.9 

87.9 
68.7 
39.9 
35.1 

N.   2°49'E. 
N.38°25'E. 
S.  51°  26'  E. 
N.   4°38'E. 

138.3 
90.5 
20.2 

225.4 

.08 
.69 
T 
0 

19 

24.267 

20 

.144 

21 

23.954 

0 

0 

22 

1     .930 

165 

51.2 

82.8 

35.4 

47.5 

S.  20°  57'  E. 

33.8 

0 

0 

0 

23 

.853 

282 
235 
176 

241.7 
76.6 
39.5 

17.9 
124.2 
106.4 

23.1 

0.3 

18.0 

45.1 

102.2 

72.0 

N.   5°37'E. 
S.  64°  58'  E. 
S.  14°  14'  E. 

224.9 

112.5 

69.2 

.01 
.07 
T 

24 

24.027 

25 

23.869 

5  p.m. 

26 

.913 

211 

123.7 

46.7 

41.2 

58.7 

N.43°15'E. 

106.7 

0 

0 

0 

27 

.852 

217 

145.8 

37.7 

6.9 

80.0 

N.  34°  04'  E. 

130.5 

T 

28 

24.021 

262 

140.5 

86.3 

0 

103.7 

N.62°24'E. 

117.0 

16 

29 

.054 

125 

4.8 

83.3 

0 

84.2 

S.  47°00'E. 

115.1 

5  p.m. 

.06 

30 

719.371 

6841 

3441.0 

1828.3 

1720.3 

1936.3 

1 

1.58 

23.979 

\ 

k 

120 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
Mat, 


Thermometers. 

Pbychrometer. 

Sunshine  Rbcob 

T^ATIP 

Temperatures. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 

Dew-point. 

•1 

^1 

Nunil>er  of 
Minutes. 

XJAXXUm 

Mean 

of 
24hr8. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

1  P 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

,1^ 

1 

35.6 

46 

27 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

100 

85 

85 

28 

35 

35 

28 

171 

802   2 

2 

31.5 

42 

24 

11  a.m. 

12  n't 

82 

91 

89 

28 

32 

24 

19 

196 

804   2 

3 

31.2 

42 

17 

5  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

88 

91 

77 

19 

32 

32 

21 

0 

807! 

4 

36.2 

49 

29 

9  a.m. 

5  a.m. 

100 

77 

92 

29 

32 

34 

26 

11 

808; 

5 

34.5 

41 

31 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

100 

100 

100 

32 

35 

36 

30 

0 

810 :   { 

6 

38.1 

49 

31 

3  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

100 

73 

86 

33 

36 

39 

30 

0 

813  ,  ( 

7 

42.2 

52 

36 

10  a.m. 

6  a.m. 

76 

64 

80 

31 

37 

38 

26 

65 

816  ,  i 

8 

45.0 

53 

33 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

100 

70 

64 

36 

39 

37 

14 

215 

819 

2« 

9 

47.8 

59 

35 

12  m. 

6  a.m. 

85 

54 

61 

34 

39 

40 

14 

206 

822 

21 

10 

54.5 

67 

37 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

72 

50 

50 

34 

44 

44 

1 

590 

824 

72 

11 

60.4 

74 

40 

5  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

75 

40 

55 

39 

43 

54 

10 

387 

827 

47 

12 

59.6 

66 

43 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

51 

33 

39 

40 

35 

34 

10 

405 

829 

49 

13 

36.0 

44 

30 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

84 

91 

74 

32 

30 

27 

23 

143 

832 

17 

14 

35.1 

47 

26 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

79 

47 

69 

24 

25 

28 

20 

120 

833 

14 

15 

49.1 

62 

28 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

77 

48 

48 

32 

40 

40 

11 

502 

834 

60 

16 

59.9 

75 

43 

5  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

55 

30 

44 

35 

36 

47 

6 

656 

835 

79 

17 

62.3 

73 

49 

12  m. 

3  a.m. 

62 

42 

22 

41 

47 

29 

11 

448 

836 

54 

18 

57.5 

64 

49 

5  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

61 

41 

63 

40 

38 

50 

21 

336 

837 

40 

19 

57.5 

69 

46 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

100 

37 

47 

47 

26 

43 

17 

459 

839 

55 

20 

61.3 

78 

45 

5  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

88 

29 

22 

45 

41 

31 

14 

840 

21 

64.0 

80 

48 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

55 

16 

29 

41 

28 

36 

17 

337 

841 

40 

22 

63.4 

76 

49 

12  m. 

4  a.m. 

71 

17 

23 

41 

27 

33 

13 

257 

843 

30 

23 

58.3 

73 

48 

12  m. 

3  a.m. 

77 

24 

46 

45 

34 

42 

17 

318 

845 

38 

24 

53.3 

58 

43 

12  m. 

3  a.m. 

33 

32 

59 

23 

24 

35 

13 

258 

846 

31 

25 

43.7 

52 

36 

10  a.m. 

5  a.m. 

86 

58 

80 

36 

34 

39 

20 

150 

848 

18 

26 

41.7 

47 

35 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

80 

53 

55 

39 

29 

30 

19 

40 

849 

5 

27 

41.9 

55 

37 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

55 

42 

51 

24 

28 

36 

19 

157 

851 

18 

28 

46.2 

53 

41 

12  m. 

5  a.m. 

67 

56 

75 

33 

38 

39 

22 

0 

852 

0 

29 

46.8 

53 

41 

4  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

42 

65 

70 

26 

39 

39 

12 

275 

854 

32 

30 

43.3 

46 

40 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

58 

80 

79 

28 

38 

37 

26 

3 

855 

0 

31 

47.0 

58 

34 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

84 

39 

43 

33 

31 

31 

12 

226 

856 

26 

Sums, 

1484.9 

1803 

1151 

2343 

1675 

1877 

1048 

1072 

1139 

542 

830 

Means, 

47.9 

58.2 

37.1 

76 

54 

61 

32 

35 

37 

17 

Perc'g, 

58% 

28^^ 

.... 

.........  1 

♦For  30  days. 


Meteorological  Observations. 


^121 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


Anemometer  and  Anemoscope. 


WIND. 


Total 
Ve- 
locity. 


Sum  of  Components. 


N. 


a 


w. 


Equivalent. 


Direction. 


MUes. 


Rain  Gauge. 


Hours  of  Fall. 


Earliest.    Latest. 


^1 


150 
279 
224 
240 
128 
101 
172 
135 
136 
193 
157 
347 
452 
290 
364 
178 
163 
227 
[378] 

[  ] 
185 
149 
191 
264 
203 
300 
264 
212 
350 
250 
190 


25. 
275. 

50. 

209. 

2. 

29. 

85. 

43. 

73 

76. 

38. 

39. 
433. 
264. 
317. 
105. 

91. 

71. 

14. 

21. 

82. 

61 

82 
204 
144 
282 

12 
178 
335 
244 
156 


8 
1 
6 
3 

7' 
5 
8 
0 
6 
4 
9 
9 
6 
.7 
.3 
.1 
.2 
.1 
.3 
.1 
.8 
.7 
.9 
.7, 
.71 
.9 
.91 


90.1 

0 

122.7 

12.9 

92.3 

31.0 

38.4 

54.0 

31.9 

87.7 

97.1 

252.9 

0 

3.6 

0 

34.5 

45.4 

109.0 

81.2 

40.3 

33.6 

51.5 

79.6 

0 

32.7 

1.0 

184.1 

24.0 

0 

0 

0 


22.2 

8.2 

1.7 

2.9 

0 

9.6 

59.6 

58.8 

30.8 

1.2 

31.5 

121.1 

50.3 

22.6 

118.9 

54.9 

54.3 

28.4 

4.5 

66.8 

79.3 

59.4 

15.0 

63.3 

9.3 

7.2 

0 

12.6 

19.0 

24.7 

65.7 


67.0 
25.3 

120.3 
49.7 
83.6 
62.8 
33.5 
22.6 
28.0 
77.8 
27.5 
36.4 
32.3 
51.1 
13.8 
31.8 
16.6 
92.6 
55.1 
8.3 
33.8 
13.5 
68.1 
66.5 
60.4 
60.3 

170.3 
24.9 
56.1 
14.2 
33.0 


S.  34°  52^  E. 
N.  31°  52^  E. 
S.  58°  40^  E. 
N.  13°  24'  E. 
S.  43°  01'  E. 
S.  88°23'E. 
N.28°50'W. 
S.  73°06'W. 
N.  3°50'W. 
S.  81°36'E. 
S.  3°56'W. 
S.  21°4rW. 
N.  2°23'W. 
N.  6°14'E. 
N.  18°  19'  W. 
N.18°07'W. 
N.39°28'W. 
S.  59°  27'  E. 
S.  37°  06'  E. 
S.  71°  50'  W. 
N.35°49'W. 
N.  77°  28'  W. 
N.86°27'E. 
N.  0°54'E. 
N.  24°  32'  E. 
N.10°40'E. 
S.  44°  51'  E. 
N.  4°33'E. 
N.  6°18'E. 
N.  2°28'W 
N.  11°49'W 


78.3 

32.4 

138.6 

201.9 

122.5 

53.2 

54.1 

37.8 

41.9 

77.4 

58.3 

229.2 

434.0 

262.6 

1334.3 

74.3 

59.3 

74.5 

83.9 

61.6 

60.7 

47.0 

53.2 

204.7 

123.1 

286.9 

241.5 

155.3 

337.8 

244.3 

159.7 


5  p.m. 
12  m. 

0 

6  p.m. 


11  a.m 


1  p.m. 

0 

0 

0 
7  a.m. 
4  p.m. 


0 
0 


0 
5  p.m 

0 
12  m. 
0 
0 
1  p.m 
0 


5  p.m, 

7  p.m. 

0 


5  p.m 


1  p.m. 

2  p.m. 
0 

0 
0 


8  a.m, 
0 
0 


6  p.m 

0 
5  p.m 

0 


0 
0 


T 
.32 

0 

T 
.16 
.32 

T 
.02 
.20 

0 

0 

0 

T 

T 

T 

0 

0 


.11 

T 

T 

0 

T 

0 
.16 

0 

0 
.25 

0 
.11 

0 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 


6872 


4056.81 1631.5 


'.1 


1103.8 


1537.2 


1.65 


122 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 

JUNX, 


Thermometers. 

PSTCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Rbcob 

TIattb 

Temperatures. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

•1 

•9  s 

Number  of 
Biinutes. 

X^AlAi* 

Mean 

of 
24hre. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

p 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

cd 

1 

53.5 

67 

37 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

67 

33 

32 

33 

33 

33 

0 

551 

856 

C 

2 

58.5 

67 

41 

5  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

47 

40 

42 

32 

40 

43 

16 

195 

857 

3 

56.9 

72 

46 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

46 

41 

28 

28 

42 

33 

9 

504 

857 

4 

58.4 

72 

44 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

64 

33 

34 

37 

38 

37 

6 

399 

859 

5 

57.3 

68 

49 

1  p.m. 

6  a«m. 

88 

53 

63 

47 

49 

50 

21 

368 

859 

6 

60.5 

75 

47 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

54 

18 

57 

34 

26 

51 

13 

400 

860 

7 

59.7 

71 

41 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

60 

36 

58 

38 

41 

54 

8 

372 

861 

8 

59.9 

72 

47 

3  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

58 

9 

15 

42 

10 

19 

10 

575 

862 

9 

54.9 

64 

40 

5  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

28 

51 

21 

20 

40 

24 

12 

279 

862 

10 

58.2 

69 

45 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

55 

24 

28 

35 

26 

33 

3 

433 

862 

11 

61.9 

78 

42 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

41 

14 

25 

26 

24 

34 

9 

447 

863 

12 

65.1 

80 

44 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

49 

10 

16 

32 

18 

25 

2 

616 

863 

13 

66.9 

78 

50 

5  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

50 

11 

11 

33 

18 

21 

1 

610 

863 

14 

67.8 

79 

51 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

26 

10 

13 

22 

18 

22 

0 

604 

863 

15 

66.1 

82 

44 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

19 

12 

18 

11 

23 

29 

3 

493 

863 

16 

62.5 

75 

52 

11  a.m. 

5  a.m. 

27 

36 

44 

23 

38 

42 

24 

8 

863 

17 

61.5 

71 

48 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

44 

34 

34 

29 

40 

40 

22 

117 

863 

18 

60.2 

67 

50 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

71 

30 

37 

43 

34 

39 

19 

202 

864 

19 

56.9 

66 

48 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

54 

44 

34 

34 

42 

37 

22 

204 

864 

20 

57.3 

67 

49 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

54 

41 

43 

34 

42 

41 

20 

143 

865 

21 

59.3 

73 

43 

1  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

50 

27 

37 

33 

33 

39 

12 

85 

865 

22 

66.2 

79 

48 

5  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

48 

13 

15 

36 

22 

23 

0 

604 

865 

23 

64.5 

76 

50 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

46 

26 

21 

37 

36 

32 

1 

466 

865 

24 

65.6 

80 

50 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

47 

12 

31 

34 

23 

44 

0 

387 

864 

25 

57.2 

63 

53 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

39 

57 

70 

31 

46 

50 

15 

386 

864 

26 

57.0 

66 

48 

12  m. 

.  5  a.m. 

65 

63 

79 

39 

51 

50 

19 

59 

863 

1 

27 

59.7 

70 

47 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

72 

40 

35 

44 

43 

38 

12 

241 

863 

a 

28 

65.8 

81 

48 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

73 

13 

20 

46 

26 

23 

11 

287 

863 

« 

29 

70.9 

87 

52 

5  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

45 

17 

20 

41 

32 

36 

6 

338 

863 

a 

30 

64.0 

75 

55 

10  a.m. 

4  a.m. 

56 

29 

66 

49 

41 

54 

19 

140 

863 

11 

Sums. 

1834.2 

2190 

1409 

1543 

877 

1047 

1023 

995  llOQB 

315 

121 

Mfians 

61.1 

73.0 

47.0 

51 

29 

35 

34 

33 

37  ■ 

10 

Perc'g, 

35% 

...  .1 

li! 

................... 

Meteorological  Observations. 

INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


123 


BiBOM- 

Anbmombtbr  and  Anemoscopk. 

Rain  Gauge 

. 

ma. 

WIND. 

Hours  of  Fall. 

Ac^uftl 

Total 
Ve- 
locity. 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

1 

It  12  m. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

N. 

8. 

W.         E. 

Direction. 

MilCB. 

Q 

24.080 

154 

42.7 

90.8 

9.4 

56.5 

S.  44°  24'  E. 

67.3 

0 

0 

0 

1 

23.929 

249 

130.6 

93.1 

23.8 

67.9 

N.  49°  38'  E. 

57.9 

1  p.m. 

7  p.m. 

T 

2 

.909 

280 

163.2 

45.1 

100.7 

59.9 

N.  19°  03'  W. 

125.0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

24.036 

154 

26.9 

72.3 

17.7 

89.9 

S.  58°0rE. 

85.7 

11  p.m. 

11  p.m. 

T 

4 

.092 

214 

2.0 

149.4 

0 

145.1 

S.  44°33'E. 

206.8 

10  p.m. 

11  p.m. 

04 

5 

23.859 

151 

74.8 

18.9 

61.7 

34.2 

N.26°12'W. 

62.3 

0 

0 

0 

6 

.^ 

220 

56  8 

126.9 

1.6 

97.6 

S.  53°52'E. 

118.9 

0 

0 

0 

7 

823 

303 

155.2 

109.0 

96.5 

18.8 

N.  59°  16'  W. 

90.4 

0 

0 

0 

8 

.S53 

256 

207.3 

17.2 

41.0 

51.1 

N.   3°02'E. 

190.3 

11  a.m. 

12  m. 

T 

9 

24.039 

175 

26.0 

108.1 

12.6 

95.5 

S.  45°  17'  E. 

116.6 

0 

0 

0 

10 

23.986 

183 

67.5 

98.2 

18.3 

48.7 

S.  44°  43'  E. 

43.2 

0 

0 

0 

11 

'      .848 

254 

52.4 

183.9 

51.9 

10.5 

S.  17°28'W. 

137.8 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.906 

208 

39.9 

54.3 

15.4 

36.1 

S.  55°  lO'  E. 

25.2 

0 

0 

0 

13 

.902 

229 

36.4 

171.3 

23.4 

53.2 

S.  12°  28'  E. 

138.1 

0 

0 

0 

14 

934 

340 

31.3 

271.4 

1.7 

101.6 

S.  22°  36'  E. 

260.1 

0 

0 

0 

15 

24.130 

170 

103.7 

47.4 

18.5 

47.7 

N.27°25'E. 

63.4 

0 

0 

0 

16 

.276 

171 

165.7 

0 

18.1 

11.8 

N.   2°11'W. 

165.8 

10  p.m. 

11  p.m. 

10 

17 

.406 

158 

60.0 

77.7 

1.4 

61.3 

S.  73°32'E. 

62.4 

0 

0 

0 

18 

.172 

208 

5.9 

134.5 

37.8 

102.0 

S.  26°32'E. 

143.7 

0 

0 

0 

19 

23.995 

101 

16.2 

49.4 

8.7 

56.8 

S.  55°  23'  E. 

58.4 

0 

0 

0 

20 

.912 

171 
200 

93.5 
40.7 

18.3 
131.7 

61.2 
70.6 

46.0 
17.6 

N.11°26'W. 
S.  30°  13'  W. 

76.7 
105.3 

04 
0 

21 

.860 

0 

0 

22 

'*  24.056 

215 

44.6 

127.4 

13.6 

98.4 

S.  45°  41'  E. 

118.5 

0 

0 

0 

23 

.051 

230 

140.9 

63.9 

17.2 

66.9 

N.32°51'E. 

91.6 

0 

0 

0 

24 

.204 

288 

62.0 

160.4 

0 

150.3 

S.  56°  48'  E. 

179.6 

0 

0 

0 

25 

.210 

190 

131.3 

29.6 

3.2 

61.8 

N.29°57'E. 

117.4 

2  p.m. 

3  p.m. 

02 

26 

.160 

111 

33.3 

57.1 

13.1 

35.0 

S.  42°  37'  E. 

32.3 

0 

0 

0 

27 

.m 

164 

60.9 

91.7 

12.4 

31.5 

S.  31°  48'  E. 

36.2 

0 

0 

0 

28 

.022 

200 

137.1 

44.7 

10.7 

47.4 

N.21°40'E. 

99.4 

0 

0 

0 

29 

.097 

142 

69.3 

50.6 

10.3 

50.2 

N.64^53'E. 

44.0 

3  p.m. 

8  p.m. 

20 

30 

.   720.717 

6098 

2278.1 

2694.3 

772.5 

1851.3 

0.40 

^24.024 

124 


Colorado  College  Publicaeion. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
July, 


Thermometers. 

PSYCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Rbcoe 

Datib 

Temperatttres. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

^1 

Number  of 
Minutes. 

X^AXJU« 

Mean 

of 
24hr8. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

A 

12 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

P< 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

CO 

1 

63.4 

79 

50 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

68 

28 

45 

46 

41 

45 

17 

370 

862 

4 

2 

66.5 

80 

52 

12  m. 

5  a.m.. 

63 

35 

28 

42 

49 

39 

9 

655 

862 

7 

3 

67.2 

83 

50 

12  m. 

5  a.m. 

47 

26 

25 

39 

43 

39 

10 

580 

862 

6 

4 

71.9 

88 

54 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

51 

18 

30 

45 

39 

42 

7 

470 

860 

5 

5 

72.7 

83 

59 

12  m. 

12  n't 

24 

24 

24 

32 

42 

40 

9 

340 

860 

4^ 

6 

67.7 

83 

51 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

48 

36 

33 

45 

50 

41 

10 

421 

860 

41 

7 

67.0 

82 

51 

1  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

53 

34 

40 

49 

47 

47 

14 

410 

860 

4? 

8 

69.2 

82 

55 

4  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

59 

34 

31 

49 

50 

41 

13 

350 

859 

4] 

9 

65.8 

81 

53 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

52 

32 

41 

.  42 

47 

46 

13 

425 

859 

5( 

10 

66.7 

78 

55 

1  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

57 

28 

37 

52 

41 

46 

9 

440 

857 

51 

11 

64.8 

76 

55 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

69 

55 

55 

48 

53 

53 

12 

615 

857 

72 

12 

67.3 

82 

56 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

61 

30 

33 

54 

46 

42 

12 

585 

856 

68 

13 

66.2 

80 

55 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

62 

43 

53 

49 

46 

67 

14 

330 

856 

3S 

14 

60.7 

73 

53 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

73 

54 

39 

46 

45 

45 

18 

245 

854 

2S 

15 

66.7 

83 

48 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

67 

25 

12 

43 

39 

23 

0 

550 

852 

64 

16 

64.6 

73 

53 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

63 

24 

32 

42 

32 

39 

2 

720 

850 

85 

17 

68.1 

82 

58 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

61 

28 

33 

55 

45 

42 

2 

550 

849 

65 

18 

70.9 

88 

50 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

66 

15 

20 

40 

30 

33 

7 

510 

847 

60 

19 

72.3 

85 

61 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

42 

17 

26 

40 

34 

43 

5 

540 

846 

64 

20 

71.1 

88 

57 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

55 

24 

34 

42 

44 

47 

11 

475 

844 

57 

21 

70.3 

85 

57 

3  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

44 

20 

40 

38 

36 

47 

19 

405 

843 

48 

22 

67.5 

80 

56 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

52 

47 

33 

42 

54 

42 

14 

420 

841 

50 

23 

71.3 

90 

53 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

49 

28 

18 

37 

45 

36 

8 

570 

839 

68 

24 

73.1 

88 

59 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

36 

26 

32 

38 

43 

45 

12 

455 

837 

54 

25 

64.5 

80 

59 

10  a.m. 

5  a.m. 

48 

88 

85 

40 

54 

57 

21 

130 

837 

16 

26 

58.5 

64 

57 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

89 

95 

95 

55 

57 

58 

30 

0 

836 

0 

27 

62.1 

74 

57 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

95 

53 

80 

58 

56 

56 

29 

175 

835 

21 

28 

62.2 

73 

54 

10  a.m. 

12  n't 

84 

68 

88 

54 

55 

55 

22 

305 

833 

37 

29 

62.7 

78 

52 

4  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

83 

53 

57 

50 

56 

62 

11 

580 

831 

70 

30 

67.6 

81 

55 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

75 

34 

34 

52 

47 

46 

15 

365 

829 

44 

31 

62.2 

69 

57 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

55 

61 

73 

41 

55 

57 

19 

355 

827 

43 

Sums, 

2072.8 
66.9 

2491 
80.4 

1692 
54.6 

1851 
60 

1183 
38 

1346 
43 

1405 
45 

1421 
46 

1421 
46 

394 
13 

42% 

157^ 

Means 

Perc'g, 

31^ 

1 

KIeteorological  Observations. 

125 

INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 

1907. 

ISOM- 

TKR. 

Anbmomotr  ani>  Ankmoscopb. 

Rain  Gaugk. 

WIND. 

Hours  of  Fall. 

^ 

H 

ktud 
barare 

I121L 

Total 

SuzQ  of  Componente. 

Equivalent. 

1 

Ve- 
locity. 

N. 

8. 

W. 

E.   . 

Direction. 

Miles. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

fr-j 

03 

14.209 

148 

73.8 

45.5 

38.7 

25.4 

N.25^10'W. 

31.2 

3  p.m. 

4  p.m. 

10 

1 

244 

172 

42.8 

105.1 

13.3 

53.6 

S.  32^  54'  E. 

74.2 

0 

0 

0 

2 

219 

162 
131 

59.7 
82.0 

67.1 
24.3 

20.3 
18.7 

64.6 
33.6 

S.  80°31'E. 
N.14°29'E. 

44.9 
59.6 

T 
0 

3 

163 

0 

0 

4 

.213 

243 

196.0 

5.4 

65.6 

15.2 

N.14°49'W. 

197.2 

0 

0 

0 

5 

.107 

163 
231 

32.2 
225.1 

93.2 
0 

4.2 
44.9 

89.9 
20.2 

S.  54°  34'  E. 
N.   6°16'W. 

105.2 
226.5 

T 
0 

6 

.095 

0 

0 

7 

.065 

223 
216 

87.7 
133.9 

50.3 
27.1 

113.2 

82.7 

38.3 
27.6 

N.63**28'W. 
N.27°18'W. 

83.7 
120.2 

T 
.09 

8 

085 

3  p.m. 

4  p.m. 

9 

109 

164 

157.7 

16.2 

17.3 

17.7 

N.   O^IO'E. 

141.5 

0 

0 

0 

10 

.201 

158 

30.8 

89.5 

0.6 

81.0 

S.  53**  52^  E. 

99.6 

2  a.m. 

3  p.m. 

.10 

11 

.119 

140 

62.0 

44.4 

24.2 

37.3 

N.36°40'E. 

21.9 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.007 

206 

158.1 

9.3 

87.5 

6.8 

N.  28**  28'  W. 

169.3 

8  p.m. 

9  p.m. 

T 

13 

23.884 

136 

98.2 

20.5 

26.2 

19.3 

N.   5°04'W. 

78.0 

1  a.m. 

2  a.m. 

20 

14 

.877 

162 

68.8 

54.4 

47.4 

16.9 

N.64°44'W. 

33.7 

0 

0 

0 

15 

24.180 

305 

91.6 

117.9 

42.2 

94.1 

S.  63°08'E. 

58.2 

0 

0 

0 

16 

.147 

184 

4.7 

133.0 

1.6 

107.9 

S.  39°  38'  E. 

166.6 

0 

0 

0 

17 

.119 

161 

72.2 

19.5 

26.7 

14.9 

N.  12°  37'  W. 

54.0 

0 

0 

0 

18 

.173 

214 

130.3 

39.2 

12.9 

70.8 

N.32°26'E. 

108.0 

0 

0 

0 

19 

.070 

195 

157.6 

14.7 

13.2 

41.3 

N.11°08'E. 

145.6 

2  p.m. 

4  p.m. 

T 

20 

.138 

166 

116.0 

21.9 

42.6 

20.2 

N.  13°  23'  W. 

96.7 

0 

0 

0 

21 

.223 

[292] 

27.0 

31.8 

8.8 

29.2 

S.  76°  46'  E. 

21.0 

0 

0 

0 

22 

.141 

[       ] 

26.0 

14.5 

10.7 

39.0 

N.67°53'E. 

30.6        0 

0 

0 

23 

.084 

151 

108.8 

25.3 

35.4 

21.0 

N.   9°47'W. 

84.7 

0 

0 

0 

24 

.121 

154 

121.1 

14.9 

34.5 

19.2 

N.   8°12'W. 

107.3 

12  ra. 

12  n't 

38 

25 

.156 

137 

42.3 

63.8 

12.7 

62.7 

S.  66°  44'  E. 

54.4 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

60 

26 

.054 

134 

95.6 

11.2 

52.2 

18.5 

N.  21°  46'  W. 

90.9 

7  p.m. 

51 

27 

.216 

123 

61.2 

41.0 

11.1 

32.8 

N.  46°  03'  E. 

29.6 

6  p.m. 

9  p.m. 

.06 

28 

.242 

106 

39.5 

32.0 

19.1 

39.8 

N.70°05'^E. 

22.0 

0 

0 

0 

29 

.302 

173 
174 

104.0 
88.9 

48.2 
55.3 

44.1 
11.4 

5.1 
59.0 

N.34°57'W. 

N.  54°  47'  E. 

68.1 
58.3 

T 

30 

.302 

4  p.m. 

6  p.m. 

.07 
2.11 

31 

748.265 

5324 

2795.6 

1336.5 

984.0 

1222.9 

1 

24.138 

!  ..   .   . 



i 
1 '.... 

126 


Colorado  CJollege  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
August, 


Thekmombtbrs. 

PSYCHROMBTBR. 

SUNSHINB  RbCOI 

J)atb. 

TSMPERATCJRES. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

*5 

Number  o4 
Minutes. 

Mean 

of 
24hr8. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act-  Poe- 
ual.  aible 

p 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

CO 

1 

62,5 

76 

52 

2p.ip. 

5  a.m. 

73 

55 

95 

46 

53 

57 

25 

295 

824 

a 

2 

61.9 

74 

53 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

89 

56 

68 

52 

55 

54 

18 

200 

821 

2 

3 

62.2 

72 

56 

3  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

80 

55 

68 

53 

54 

54 

20 

215 

818 

2 

4 

69.0 

83 

56 

3  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

68 

20 

36 

53 

35 

47 

8 

420 

816 

5 

5 

69.0 

82 

52 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

45 

15 

29 

35 

30 

41 

0 

310 

814 

3 

6 

72.5 

86 

56 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

42 

22 

31 

40 

39 

44 

10 

425 

812 

5 

7 

68.7 

83 

56 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

52 

28 

47 

47 

44 

52 

7 

135 

809 

1 

8 

71.5 

86 

54 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

51 

17 

25 

34 

34 

39 

5 

655 

807 

8; 

9 

72.0 

87 

58 

1  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

50 

27 

31 

48 

46 

44 

13 

350 

805 

4: 

10 

73.5 

87 

57 

1  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

52 

18 

27 

47 

36 

42 

6 

515 

803 

64 

11 

62.6 

79 

50 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

55 

31 

36 

41 

38 

40 

3 

575 

800 

7i 

12 

64.0 

78 

44 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

54 

40 

51 

39 

48 

51 

14 

245 

798 

31 

13 

65.6 

82 

55 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

46 

23 

56 

37 

38 

49 

7 

195 

796 

2a 

14 

68.2 

84 

50 

12  m. 

3  a.m. 

57 

24 

44 

44 

42 

48 

8 

350 

794 

44 

15 

73.1 

84 

61 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

54 

17 

17 

52 

33 

33 

10 

695 

792 

SH 

16 

68.7 

86 

54 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

69 

20 

24 

48 

38 

38 

10 

545 

790 

69 

17 

69.0 

86 

52 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

59 

15 

35 

40 

31 

45 

3 

475 

787 

60 

18 

67.3 

86 

55 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

52 

21 

54 

47 

40 

52 

12 

185 

784 

24 

19 

59.6 

71 

53 

1  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

78 

68 

75 

47 

54 

52 

21 

240 

780 

31 

20 

54.4 

63 

48 

6  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

83 

88 

80 

47 

49 

43 

27 

20 

777 

3 

21 

58.0 

72 

49 

2  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

78 

61 

78 

47 

43 

49 

22 

180 

773 

23 

22 

65.2 

80 

53 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

83 

23 

35 

50 

36 

45 

11 

506 

772 

65 

23 

67.5 

86 

51 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

73 

20 

22 

46 

35 

37 

4 

720 

770 

93 

24 

66.2 

86 

51 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

73 

19 

34 

46 

34 

44 

15 

330 

769 

43 

25 

66.4 

85 

51 

12  m. 

5  a.m. 

78 

23 

57 

42 

42 

51 

13 

767 

58 

26 

66.0 

79 

49 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

58 

26 

48 

42 

40 

50 

15 

764 

43 

27 

60.5 

75 

50 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

77 

51 

52 

46 

57 

47 

20 

760 

37 

28 

63.6 

81 

50 

2  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

77 

24 

38 

45 

38 

44 

11 

758 

56 

29 

59.1 

72 

49 

1  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

64 

34 

85 

45 

52 

55 

12 

755 

37 

30 

62.7 

76 

55 

11  a.m. 

5  a.m. 

84 

26 

36 

51 

36 

16 

20 

752 

40 

31 

61.1 

70 

52 

1  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

57 

38 

48 

44 

41 

46 

29 

750 

43 

Sums, 

2031.6 

2477 

1632 

2011 

1005 

1462 

1401 

1291 

1409 

399 

....  ] 

417 

Means. 

65.5 

79.9 

52.6 

65 

32 

47 

45 

42 

45 

13 
43% 

Perc'g, 

...4 

^VS 

Meteorological  Observations. 


127 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


Ansmombtbr  and  Anemoscope. 


WIND. 


Total 
Ve- 
locity. 


Sum  of  Ck>mponeiits. 


N. 


8. 


W. 


Equivalent. 


Direction. 


MUcB. 


Rain  Gauge. 


Hours  of  Fall. 


Elarliest.    Latest. 


n 


137 

81.0 

112 

44.3 

149 

30.2 

210 

162.2 

145 

93.8 

161 

123.9 

148 

115.5 

146 

80.0 

146 

100.1 

186 

64.9 

298 

106.4 

142 

37.7 

123 

94.4 

148 

105.8 

235 

106.7 

138 

72.1 

140 

108.6 

[647] 

66.3 

[   ] 

30.2 

[   ] 

0 

[   ] 

20.4 

108 

66.6 

128 

116.3 

188 

97.0 

145 

96.7 

125 

28.2 

118 

64.3 

138 

70.5 

129 

67.8 

160 

10.3 

196 

176.0 

4846 


2438.2 


16.3 
48.1 
69.2 
0 
23.0 

3.7 

3.8 
41.1 
18.6 
61.6 
125.2 
49.8 

3.7 
16.0 
15.0 
42.7 
13.6 

2.5 
24.6 
54.0 
54.3 
12.2 
0 
73.2 

3.4 
70.9 
40.0 
44.6 
31.8 
116.0 
0 

1078.9 


56.7 

6.1 

0 

100.3 

38.8 

62.4 

35.9 

9.4 

44.3 

97.4 

24.6 

72.3 

42.6 

26.8 

120.6 

0 

10.7 

11.2 

1.2 

0 

13.6 

43.4 

10.3 

18.8 

51.6 

7.6 

2.0 

30.1 

39.8 

4.0 

59.9 

1042.4 


23.5 
43.1 

101.4 
7.3 
26.5 
21.4 
29.3 
48.3 
23.0 
10.0 

136.0 
19.9 
15.3 
26.4 
19.4 
47.6 
27.1 
18.2 
34.0 
56.0 
48.0 
14.1 
20.5 
30.9 
15.6 
54.8 
35.8 
19.0 
22.7 
61.9 
7.3 

1064.3 


N.2r'10'W. 
S.  84°  08'  E. 
S.  68°  58'  E. 
N.29°50'W. 
N.  7°52'W. 
N.18°50'W. 
N.  3°23'W. 
N.  45°  00'  E. 
N.14°39'W. 
N.87°50'W. 
S.  80°  25'  E. 
S.  77°00'W. 
N.  16°  45'  W. 
N.  0°15'W. 
N.34°47'W. 
N.  58°  18'  E. 
N.  9°48'E. 
N.  6°16'E. 
N.  80°  19'  E. 
S.  46°  03'  E. 
S.  45°  25'  E. 
N.  28°  ly  W. 
N.  5°01'E. 
N.  27°  15'  E. 
N.  21°  06'  W. 
S.  47°  52^^ 
N.54°17'E. 
N.  23°  12'  W. 
N.  25°  25'  W. 
S.  28°  43'  E. 
N.  16°  38'  W. 


72.7 
37.2 

108.6 

187.0 
71.5 

127.0 

111.9 
55.0 
84.3 
87.5 

113.0 
53.8 
94.7 
89.8 

177.4 
56.0 
96.4 
64.2 
33.3 
77.8 
48.3 
61.8 

116.8 
26.4 

100.0 
63.6 
41.6 
28.2 
39.9 

120.5 

183.7 


7p.m 
0 


0 
0 
0 
0 


0 
0 
0 


4p.m, 
0 
0 
0 


0 


0 
3  p.m. 


9p.m 
0 


0 
0 
0 
0 


0 
0 
0 


6  p.m 
0 
0 
0 


0 
6p.m 


1.17 
.06 
0 
T 
0 
0 
T 
0 
0 
0 
0 
T 
07 
0 
0 
0 
T 
T 
05 
T 
46 
0 
0 
0 
T 
0 
T 
0 
10 
T 
0 

1.91 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 


128 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
September, 


Thermometers. 

PSYCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Recob 

Date. 

Temperatures. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

*.2 
o 

Number  of 
Minutes. 

Mean 

of 
24hrs. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

P 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

ce 

1 

60.5 

73 

51 

12  m. 

5  a.m. 

76 

41 

57 

44 

46 

52 

12 

317 

745 

4 

2 

64.1 

79 

47 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

71 

36 

28 

42 

43 

39 

5 

599 

742 

8 

3 

65.3 

81 

50 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

77 

20 

31 

45 

35 

41 

4 

594 

739 

8 

4 

63.2 

76 

49 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

70 

34 

49 

41 

44 

47 

16 

501 

737 

6 

5 

63.5 

81 

55 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

95 

65 

42 

53 

56 

47 

10 

280 

734 

3 

6 

66.7 

81 

51 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

53 

19 

23 

38 

31 

35 

(?)8 

526 

732 

7 

7 

61.0 

74 

53 

11  a.m. 

5  a.m. 

68 

33 

54 

44 

41 

45 

15 

366 

729 

5 

8 

53.5 

69 

44 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

68 

58 

54 

34 

48 

45 

18 

195 

725 

2 

9 

51.6 

62 

43 

4  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

86 

36 

40 

40 

33 

32 

8 

585 

722 

8 

10 

56.1 

75 

33 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

91 

10 

26 

32 

14 

31 

0 

684 

720 

9 

11 

64.5 

78 

48 

3  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

46 

17 

19 

32 

27 

26 

2 

660 

715 

9 

12 

67.5 

83 

48 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

36 

12 

18 

29 

25 

29 

10 

540 

711 

7 

13 

66.2 

78 

54 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

37 

22 

23 

31 

34 

33 

16 

95 

706r 

1 

14 

62.6 

78 

51 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

37 

23 

67 

36 

35 

51 

21 

98 

704 

1 

15 

63.3 

80 

45 

3  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

64 

23 

23 

37 

36 

33 

7 

561 

702 

8( 

16 

66.5 

80 

50 

4  p.m. 

6a.m. 

51 

17 

33 

34 

30 

42 

2 

586 

700 

8^ 

17 

68.3 

82 

53 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

52 

17 

25 

37 

30 

34 

4 

471 

697 

61 

18 

65.0 

79 

50 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

56 

15 

40 

37 

27 

43 

13 

440 

696 

6: 

19 

64.6 

77 

48 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

44 

24 

41 

37 

37 

45 

0 

635 

694 

93 

20 

50.3 

60 

36 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

70 

26 

40 

29 

25 

32 

3 

612 

693 

8i 

21 

53.5 

67 

36 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

70 

25 

52 

30 

28 

42 

0 

570 

690 

s: 

22 

57.3 

76 

37 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

85 

8 

15 

35 

12 

19 

10 

507 

689 

7^ 

23 

60.6 

78 

40 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

35 

12 

41 

19 

20 

45 

0 

613 

687 

8^ 

24 

57.3 

66 

48 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

44 

35 

41 

29 

36 

37 

6 

563 

685 

8^ 

25 

58.5 

78 

42 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

68 

29 

41 

34 

34 

45 

17 

43 

681 

C 

26 

59.5 

75 

48 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

60 

24 

68 

44 

36 

46 

18 

367 

679 

5^ 

27 

53.7 

67 

40 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

86 

26 

60 

36 

29 

44 

1 

546 

675 

81 

28 

54.5 

70 

36 

3  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

92 

37 

63 

35 

39 

51 

2 

511 

671 

7^ 

29 

49.2 

57 

38 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

85 

59 

86 

39 

43 

39 

14 

536 

668 

8i 

30 

43.8 

56 

33 

5  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

84 

80 

44 

32 

39 

29- 

19 

152 

666 

23 



Sums. 

1792.2 

2216 

1357 

1957 

883 

1244 

1085 

1013 

1179 

261 

191 

Mpans 

59.7 

73.9 

45.2 

65 

29 

41 

36 

34 

39 

9 

Perc'g, 

29% 

65^ 

Mbteorolooical  Observations. 


129 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 

1907. 

blOM- 

Anemometer  and  Anemoscope. 

Rain  Gauge. 

Spie. 

WIND. 

Hours  of  Fall. 

0    2 

Rsure 

112  M. 

Total 
Ve- 
locity. 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

1 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

N. 

8. 

W. 

E. 

Direction. 

MUcB. 

Q 

4  276 

113 

60.3 

22.2 

43.6 

8.8 

N.42<>25'W. 

51.6 

. .  a.m. 

4  p.m. 

T 

1 

.242 

113 

59.1 

39.6 

4.9 

30.8 

N.54^28'E. 

31.8 

0 

0 

0 

2 

.144 

135 

108.5 

9".  6 

2.2 

28.9 

N.15*»53'E. 

102.4 

0 

0 

0 

3 

.126 

199 

85.8 

86.5 

2.8 

73.8 

S.  89**  26'  E. 

71.0 

04 

4 

134 

118 

62.6 

36.5 

0,4 

42.6 

N.58°16'E. 

49.6 

0 

0 

0 

5 

.126 

137 

94.0 

19.9 

26.5 

29.0 

N.    1°56'E. 

74.1 

0 

0 

0 

6 

.104 

[512] 

105.0 

0 

17.5 

3.9 

N.   7°23'W. 

105.9 

01 

7 

146 

0 

0 

0 

8 

.255 

[      ] 

113.8 

3.6 

0 

37.2 

N.18°39'E. 

116.3 

. .  a.m. 

.33 

9 

.186 

130 

66.3 

49.5 

7.9 

36.4 

N.59°29'E. 

33.1 

0 

0 

0 

10 

.176 

160 

82.6 

54.8 

3.3 

53.6 

N.54°50'E. 

61  5 

0 

0 

0 

11 

.086 

168 

94.3 

40.9 

60.2 

6.7 

N.45^04'W. 

75.6 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.033 

155 

66,4 

43.7 

82.8 

10.5 

N.72^34'W. 

75.8 

0 

0 

0 

13 

165 

119 

62.3 

16.0 

39.9 

40.2 

N.   0°22'E. 

46  3 

3  p.m. 

4  p.m. 

T 

14 

.088 

78 

34.9 

20.4 

20.8 

19.3 

N    5°54'W. 

14.6 

0 

0 

0 

15 

.126 

101 

33.2 

49.6 

34.3 

14.3 

S.  50^39' W. 

25.9 

0 

0 

0 

16 

.047 

152 

69.9 

27.5 

66.6 

26.8 

N.43M1'W. 

58.2 

0 

0 

0 

17 

.005 

164 

43.2 

84.5 

56.2 

16.6 

S.  43°  48'  W. 

57.2 

0 

0 

0 

18 

S.902 

208 

83.4 

34.3 

109.4 

34.0 

N.56°56'W. 

90.0 

0 

0 

0 

19 

f4.193 

215 

29.5 

134.1 

5.9 

126.0 

S.  48*»57'E. 

159.3 

0 

0 

0 

20 

-244 

220 

174.6 

21.2 

12.0 

52.7 

N.  14°  52'  E. 

158.7 

0 

0 

0 

21 

.099 

135 

92.4 

17.9 

32.7 

22.7 

N.   7°39'W. 

75.2 

0 

0 

0 

22 

.025 

157 

91.9 

46.6 

17.2 

39.9 

N.  26°  37'  E. 

50.7 

0 

0 

0 

23 

.197 

283 

91.1 

128.8 

4.9 

143.7 

S.  74°48'E. 

143.8 

0 

0 

0 

24 

.137 

126 

83.0 

12.7 

50.5 

0.5 

N.35°25'W. 

86.3 

0 

0 

0 

25 

3.990 

271 

179.1 

66.8 

27.4 

63.2 

N.  17°  41'  E. 

117.9 

0 

0 

0 

26 

*Am 

158 
156 

44.0 
39.0 

76.9 
96.2 

18.8 
6.9 

68.7 
51.0 

S.  56°  36'  E. 
S.  38°  37'  E. 

59.8 
70.6 

T 
0 

?7 

3.967 

0 

0 

28 

.911 

328 

323.3 

0 

11.5 

29.4 

N.   3°10'E. 

323.8 

0 

0 

0 

29 

.935 

151 

79.6 

51.4 

19.8 

30.0 

N.  19°  53'  E. 

30.0 

. .  a.m. 

30 
0.68 

30 

23  116 

4962 

2553.2 

1291.7 

786.9 

1141.2 

f4.104 

130 


Colorado  Colleoe  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 

OCTOBBB, 


Thebmombters. 

PSTCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Rsa 

DaTU! 

Temperatures. 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

•1 

Nimiber 
Minutes 

X^AX  A* 

Mean 

of 
24hre. 

Extremes. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

1 

54.5 

71 

43 

4  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

31 

21 

48 

23 

24 

40 

4 

310 

664 

2 

53.5 

68 

39 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

52 

14 

56 

26 

17 

43 

17 

255 

662 

3 

43.9 

52 

36 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

66 

58 

63 

32 

"34 

35 

20 

210 

660 

4 

49.6 

66 

34 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

100 

21 

63 

35 

24 

42 

0 

495 

656 

5 

52.2 

70 

33 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

75 

25 

46 

29 

30 

42 

0 

500 

654 

6 

61.0 

75 

43 

12  m. 

3  a.m. 

38 

18 

55 

32 

29 

47 

8 

402 

653 

7 

48.2 

60 

42 

4  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

46 

61 

61 

24 

39 

39 

8 

443 

651 

8 

52.2 

70 

35 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

84 

21 

25 

32 

27 

25 

0 

544 

647 

9 

48.8 

61 

39 

4  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

71 

39 

38 

31 

31 

29 

6 

546 

644 

10 

55.5 

73 

37 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

53 

17 

27 

28 

24 

27 

1 

580 

642 

11 

50.2 

62 

37 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

60 

28 

42 

26 

27 

30 

5 

506 

639 

12 

50.2 

65 

36 

2  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

70 

29 

40 

30 

32 

32 

8 

367 

635 

13 

54.0 

71 

37 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

84 

23 

55 

33 

28 

47 

4 

472 

633 

14 

56.0 

70 

47 

1  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

46 

28 

64 

32 

33 

45 

9 

337 

631 

15 

49.6 

61 

37 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

92 

48 

48 

37 

40 

36 

7 

476 

629 

16 

49.5 

66 

34 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

84 

35 

35 

32 

36 

31 

0 

562 

626 

17 

52.0 

66 

37 

10  a.m. 

3  a.m. 

49 

22 

44 

28 

24 

34 

9 

544 

623 

18 

44.8 

57 

34 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

92 

56 

59 

33 

37 

36 

10 

392 

620 

19 

50.5 

65 

32 

2  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

84 

21 

44 

32 

24 

29 

0 

492 

617 

20 

45.0 

56 

36 

1  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

75 

36 

45 

29 

26 

26 

7 

493 

614 

21 

47.6 

65 

28 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

80 

18 

28 

25 

21 

25 

3 

486 

611 

22 

51.7 

65 

37 

11  a.m. 

7  a.m. 

62 

29 

56 

26 

29 

43 

13 

404 

608 

23 

51.1 

66 

34 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

68 

26 

34 

27 

29 

30 

4 

367 

606 

24 

45.5 

51 

42 

5  a.m. 

10  p.m. 

87 

64 

86 

44 

37 

39 

30 

0 

604 

25 

45.2 

55 

41 

11  a.m. 

12  n't 

79 

56 

80 

37 

38 

40 

25 

155 

601 

26 

47.8 

60 

34 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

76 

30 

54 

30 

28 

34 

0 

534 

597 

27 

40.4 

46 

35 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

75 

67 

50 

29 

33 

24 

14 

372 

596 

28 

50.3 

69 

33 

1  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

77 

28 

42 

33 

33 

35 

10 

272 

595 

29 

48.0 

60 

34 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

78 

29 

50 

36 

27 

33 

2 

525 

592 

30 

45.9 

61 

29 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

91 

29 

56 

30 

27 

37 

7 

487 

589 

31 

49.6 

60 

40 

2  p.m. 

9  p.m. 

28 

28 

80 

22 

25 

39 

15 

237 

587 

Sums, 

1544.3 

1963 

1135 

2153 

1025 

1574 

943 

913 

1094 

246 

.  .  .  :-2 

Means 

49.8 

63.3 

36.6 

69 

33 

51 

30 

29 

35 

8 

Perc'g, 

26% 

::::i:::j 

'  — 1 

Meteorological  Observations. 


131 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 

1907. 

BiHOU- 

Anemometer  and  Anemoscope. 

Rain  Gauge 

.. 

rricK. 

WIND. 

Hours  of  Fall. 

ti 

H 

Actual 

Total               Si 

im  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

^ 

PrcMure 
>tl2ii. 

Ve- 
locity. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

^ 

N. 

8.           W. 

E. 

Direction. 

Milee. 

Q 

23.940 

126 

53.0 

37.2 

17.9 

44.7 

N.59°28'E. 

31.1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

.861 

238 

189.8 

23.2 

33.2 

43.3 

N.   3°28'E. 

166.9 

0 

0 

0 

2 

24.232 

315 

261.8 

29.5 

20.9 

67.6 

N.11°22'E. 

236.9 

0 

0 

0 

3 

.273 

182 

169.1 

1.1 

6.6 

42.5 

N.12°04'E. 

171.8 

0 

0 

0 

4 

.133 

139 

80.4 

39.5 

0.5 

43.1 

N.46**10'E. 

59.1 

0 

0 

0 

5 

23.906 

289 

251.5 

0 

45.8 

49.3 

N.  0*'48'E. 

251.5 

0 

0 

0 

6 

24.247 

338 

262.4 

24.3 

180.1 

25.9 

N.32°56'W. 

283.3 

. .  a.m. 

05 

7 

.201 

159 

146  3 

0 

2.5 

37.2 

N.  13°  21'  E. 

150.4 

0 

0 

0 

8 

387 

154 

60  1 

66.8 

3.6 

66.6 

S.  83*^  56'  E. 

63.3 

0 

0 

0 

9 

.271 

143 

97.3 

40.1 

3.5' 

13.7 

N.10°02'E. 

58.6 

0 

0 

0 

10 

.268 

182 

74.6 

75.7 

6.7 

74.4 

S.  89°04'E. 

67.7 

0 

0 

0 

11 

.195 

111 

49.8 

47.0 

1.8 

37.5 

N.85°3rE. 

35.8 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.076 

145 

89.3 

30.4 

28.8 

27.2 

N.   1°33'W. 

58.9 

0 

0 

0 

13 

.160 

116 

53.0 

46.1 

19.2 

29.4 

N.55°56'E. 

12.3 

3  p.m. 

4  p.m. 

.01 

14 

.232 

108 

40.7 

46.5 

0 

50.2 

S.  83**  25'  E. 

50.5 

. .  a.m. 

.02 

15 

.199 

129 

76.7 

39.6 

0.5 

32.3 

N.40**36'E. 

48.8 

0 

0 

0 

16 

.299 

238 

229.8 

0 

22.0 

15.3 

N.    1°40'W. 

229.9 

0 

0 

0 

17 

.261 

150 

19.9 

92.9 

1.3 

89.9 

S.  50°  31'  E. 

114.8 

. .  a.m. 

T 

18 

.099 

215 

209.2 

0 

8.9 

24.8 

N.   4°21'E. 

209.7 

0 

0 

0 

19 

.246 

189 

64.9 

89.3 

5.1 

80.2 

S.  72°00'E. 

79.0 

0 

0 

0 

20 

.167 

144 

130.3 

4.1 

3.1 

29.8 

N.11°57'E. 

129.0 

0 

0 

0 

21 

.192 

148 

74.3 

59.1 

18.4 

21.8 

N.  12°  37'  E. 

15.6 

0 

0 

0 

22 

.116 

144 

75.6 

50.5 

0 

37.6 

N.56°16'E. 

45.2 

0 

0 

0 

23 

.150 

174 

124.7 

11.7 

93.8 

5.5 

N.38°00'W. 

143.4 

6  a.m. 

.39 

24 

.156 

164 

62.2 

74.4 

20.8 

56.7 

S.  71°  14'  E. 

37.9 

. .  a.m. 

.22 

25 

.122 

127 

55.0 

49.2 

1.1 

54.5 

N.83°48'E. 

53.7 

0 

0 

0 

26 

.247 

206 

28.8 

126.2 

2.5 

121.0 

S.  50°35'E. 

153.4 

0 

0 

0 

27 

23.838 

169 

115.7 

19.9 

43.6 

23.7 

N.11°44'W. 

97.9 

0 

0 

0 

28 

24.010 

139 

88.3 

41.4 

10.7 

23.9 

N.15°43'E. 

48.7 

0 

0 

0 

29 

.055 

148 

78.2 

46.5 

1.3 

52.5 

N.58°14'E. 

60.2 

0 

0 

0 

30 

23.974 

152 

77.5 

40.8 

43.5 

30.6 

N.  19°  22'  W. 

38.9 

T 

31 

748.512 

5381 

3390.2 

1253.0 

647.7 

1352.8 

0.69 

24.146 

1 

1 

' 



132 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 

NOTXMBBB, 


Thermometers. 

PSTCHROMETBR. 

Sunshine  Recorj 

Dattb 

Temperatures.      1 

Hours  of 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

-1 

Number  of 

X^AXJb* 

Mean 

of 
24hrs. 

Extremee. 

iIl.lUUU3S. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

P« 

Max. 

Min.. 

Max. 

Min. 

ceo 

1 

43.9 

55 

31 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

82 

29 

40 

30 

23 

25 

0 

529 

586 

9< 

2 

45.3 

65 

28 

2  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

90 

19 

44 

28 

20 

29 

0 

540 

582 

9: 

3 

46.3 

60 

32 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

57 

18 

28 

27 

16 

20 

0 

524 

579 

9( 

4 

45.6 

58 

34 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

47 

26 

37 

21 

22 

32 

0 

474 

578 

8i 

5 

44.0 

57 

29 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

39 

19 

37 

13 

16 

20 

0 

575 

576 

8< 

6 

49.1 

65 

*   32 

1  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

33 

12 

16 

20 

14 

11 

16 

141 

574 

21 

7 

48-4 

59 

40 

3  a.m. 

12  n't 

38 

29 

35 

26 

23 

22 

10 

344 

572 

6( 

8 

41,7 

56 

30 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

81 

31 

34 

25 

23 

17 

4 

476 

570 

S4 

9 

41.8 

57 

28 

1  p.m. 

12  n't 

41 

.  27 

38 

22 

23 

22 

0 

484 

568 

85 

10 

22.8 

32 

11 

4  a.m. 

12  n't 

39 

75 

•87 

22 

16 

17 

29 

0 

566 

C 

11 

17.1 

26 

6 

2  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

76 

12 

87 

9 

12 

17 

2 

405 

565 

72 

12 

23.4 

39 

7 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

92 

27 

70 

6 

7 

21 

0 

484 

563 

8C 

13 

33.4 

49 

20 

2  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

43 

28 

37 

6 

16 

14 

0 

497 

561 

8S 

14 

30.1 

50 

11 

1  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

93 

27 

49 

9 

18 

19 

2 

476 

559 

85 

15 

33.9 

44 

24 

2  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

32 

29 

52 

0 

14 

21 

3 

346 

558 

62 

16 

31.5 

43 

20 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

87 

58 

75 

17 

28 

28 

0 

432 

556 

7S 

17 

37.0 

53 

22 

11  a.m. 

2  a.m. 

54 

33 

36 

11 

20 

17 

10 

411 

554 

74 

18 

28.3 

38 

19 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

68 

79 

89 

19 

24 

23 

27 

0 

552 

C 

19 

24.5 

36 

12 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

100 

90 

78 

16 

29 

21 

17 

40 

551 

7 

20 

32.0 

43 

19 

1  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

66 

32 

100 

25 

15 

31 

22 

53 

549 

10 

21 

28.4 

37 

22 

3  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

77 

48 

61 

19 

17 

20 

8 

397 

548 

72 

22 

27.6 

43 

13 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

71 

28 

46 

10 

11 

15 

0 

471 

547 

86 

23 

35.9 

52 

18 

1  p.m. 

3  a.m. 

59 

13 

44 

17 

5 

21 

3 

430 

545 

79 

24 

36.9 

53 

18 

3  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

88 

16 

30 

19 

7 

13 

6 

437 

543 

80 

25 

43.4 

60 

27 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

33 

12 

21 

10 

7 

12 

10 

375 

541 

69 

26 

44.4 

63 

22 

3  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

38 

17 

33 

9 

14 

23 

5 

490 

540 

91 

■27 

37.1 

52 

23 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

90 

26 

43 

28 

14 

16 

0 

442 

539 

79 

.28 

33.1 

49 

19 

2  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

88 

24 

46 

19 

14 

19 

12 

24 

538 

4 

29 

36.4 

57 

19 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

87 

18 

23 

17 

16 

10 

2 

402 

537 

75 

30 

35.9 

52 

24 

1  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

75 

17 

44 

17 

11 

18 

1 

386 

536 

72 

Sums, 

1079.2 
36.0 

1503 
50.1 

660 
22.0 

1964 
65 

919 
31 

1460 
49 

517 
17 

495 
16 

594 
20 

189 
6 

19^ 

Means, 

Perc'g, 

21% 

66^ 

' 

- 

Meteorological  Observations. 


133 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 

1907. 

Babom- 

Anemomstbr  ani>  Anemoscope. 

• 

Rain  Gauge 

i. 

8TKR. 

WIND. 

Hours  of  Fall. 

i\ 

Actual 

Total 
Ve- 
locity. 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

.2 

Freasure 
It  12  m. 

Earliest. 

Latest. 

o8 

N. 

8. 

w. 

E. 

Direction. 

Miles. 

Q 

24.193 

148 

78.4 

45.0 

73.3 

57.5 

N.56^22'E. 

60.3 

0 

0 

0 

1 

.036 

146 

83.8 

46.1 

4.6 

37.8 

N.41^22'E. 

50.2 

0 

0 

0 

2 

.068 

166 

95.3 

49.7 

7.1 

49.3 

N.42^47'E. 

62.1 

0 

0 

0 

3 

.170 

213 

113.6 

60.4 

24.1 

70  5 

N.41^06'E. 

70.6 

0 

0 

0 

4 

255 

192 

88.5 

75.9 

6.3 

65.6 

N.78^00'E. 

60.6 

0 

0 

0 

5 

23.990 

116 

79.6 

30.4 

9.6 

13.1 

N.  4^04'E. 

49.3 

0 

0 

0 

6 

24.048 

218 

199.1 

3.2 

20.7 

30.0 

N.  3^55'E. 

136.2 

0 

0 

0 

7 

.130 

106 

45.4 

48.8 

1.1 

52.3 

S.  86°  12'  E. 

51.3 

0 

0 

0 

8 

.199 

142 

81.6 

40.8 

4.8 

39.6 

N.59°08'E. 

40.5 

0 

0 

0 

9 

-205 

150 

51.5 

31.2 

7.0 

47.8 

N.63°33'E. 

45.6 

7  a.m. 

28 

10 

265 

92 

47.6 

13.1 

1.7 

52.4 

N.  55°  46'  E. 

61.3 

0 

0 

0 

11 

.208 

128 

107.1 

22.5 

1.6 

23.1 

N.  14°  15'  E. 

87.3 

0 

0 

0 

12 

.104 

180 

90.0 

67.4 

1.2 

59.9 

N.  68°  56'  E. 

62.9 

0 

0 

0 

13 

034 

113 

68.3 

33.2 

0.1 

29.5 

N.39°57'E. 

45.8 

0 

0 

0 

14 

.144 

234 

69.8 

114.7 

0.5 

117.4 

S.  69°  00'  E. 

125.2 

0 

0 

0 

15 

.130 

90 

50.5 

25.5 

0 

27.4 

N.47°38'E. 

37.1 

0 

0 

0 

16 

23.904 

133 

92.6 

0 

0.1 

54.5 

N.30°26'E. 

107.4 

0 

0 

0 

17 

.941 

317 

311.2 

0 

23.9 

17.2 

N.    1°14'W. 

311.2 

6  a.m. 

4  p.m. 

.01 

18 

.954 

110 

54.5 

39.1 

5.2 

37.1 

N.64°14'E. 

35.4 

0 

0 

0 

19 

.777 

142 

50.1 

44.1 

42.3 

37.4 

N.39°14'W. 

7.7 

6  p.m. 

T 

20 

24.005 

88 

35.5 

31.8 

21.1 

28.8 

N.64°20'E. 

8.5 

. .  a.m. 

T 

21 

.065 

135 

96.3 

28.1 

4.3 

25.8 

N.17°30'E. 

71.5 

0 

0 

0 

22 

.017 

118 

86.7 

21.0 

22.0 

6.0 

N.  13°  41'  W. 

67.6 

0 

0 

0 

23 

.107 

159 

117.1 

19.1 

41.1 

17.8 

N.  13°  22'  W. 

100.7 

0 

0 

0 

24 

.244 

118 

85.8 

16.9 

13.3 

27.7 

N.11°48'E. 

70.4 

0 

0 

0 

25 

Oil 

149 

89.9 

11.5 

68.7 

7.3 

N.38°04'W. 

99.6 

0 

0 

0 

26 

.108 

172 

68.1 

65.4 

14.8 

74.2 

N.87°24'E. 

59.5 

0 

0 

0 

27 

.170 

183 

181.3 

0 

2.8 

11.4 

N.   2°43'E. 

181.5 

0 

0 

0 

28 

.249 

142 

96.5 

11.9 

3.0 

14.5 

N.   7°44'E. 

85.4 

0 

0 

0 

29 

.336 

174 

6.9 

32.5 

0 

31.9 

N.41°09'E. 

48.5 

0 

0 

0 

30 

723.067 

4574 

2722.6 

1029.3 

426.3 

1164.8 

0.29 

24.102 

'. 

' 

134 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


MONTHLY  SUMMARY  OF 
Decxmbeb, 


Thermometers. 

PSYCHROMETER. 

Sunshine  Recor^ 

Date. 

Temperatures. 

Hours  of. 
Extremes. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Dew-point. 

•3< 

Number  of 
Minutes. 

Mean 

of 
24hni. 

Extremes. 

6 

A;M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

6 

A.M. 

12 

M. 

6 

P.M. 

Act- 
ual. 

Pos- 
sible 

Pe 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

cen 

1 

42.7 

64 

26 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

67 

30 

14 

17 

21 

4 

0 

535 

2 

35.8 

56 

23 

3  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

67 

27 

23 

17 

18 

8 

8 

355 

535 

6C 

3 

38.7 

61 

22 

2  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

71 

7 

38 

22 

5 

22 

0 

471 

533 

8^ 

4 

38.3 

60 

20 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

64 

12 

25 

13 

7 

10 

0 

456 

533 

8€ 

5 

45.6 

58 

34 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

30 

7 

13 

13 

5 

0 

6 

413 

532 

7S 

6 

40.3 

51 

30 

1  p.m. 

11  p.m. 

25 

14 

62 

5 

6 

26 

6 

279 

532 

52 

7 

41.7 

56 

25 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

60 

17 

56 

18 

11 

31 

7 

342 

530 

64 

8 

39.4 

47 

28 

12  m. 

10  p.m. 

66 

22 

63 

31 

11 

28 

11 

134 

530 

25 

9 

30.1 

39 

20 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

77 

31 

52 

13 

11 

16 

2 

416 

528 

79 

10 

30.2 

46 

18 

2  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

73 

25 

46 

14 

12 

15 

0 

421 

528 

80 

11 

31.3 

40 

19 

2  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

69 

85 

8;^ 

20 

37 

31 

30 

0 

528 

0 

12 

31.0 

40 

22 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

90 

68 

72 

28 

27 

25 

19 

305 

528 

58 

13 

26.4 

36 

13 

1  p.m. 

6  a.m. 

93 

48 

69 

12 

17 

20 

8 

95t 

526 

18 

14 

27.7 

35 

15 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

52 

72 

56 

16 

24 

14 

6 

409 

526 

78 

15 

20.0 

32 

6 

2  p.m. 

7  a.m. 

76 

36 

39 

9 

9 

3 

6 

394 

526 

75 

16 

21.6 

31 

12 

2  p.m. 

5  a.m. 

58 

45 

51 

7 

8 

8 

13 

132 

526 

25 

17 

15.2 

24 

4 

3  p.m. 

12  n't 

72 

46 

56 

5 

3 

5 

2 

396 

525 

75 

18 

14.2 

30 

0 

1  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

87 

21 

58 

5 

-3 

7 

6 

367 

525 

70 

19 

20.2 

35 

5 

2  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

34 

25 

36 

5 

5 

5 

0 

424 

525 

81 

20 

26.2 

42 

5 

2  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

70 

23 

16 

9 

8 

18 

13 

270 

525 

51 

21 

28.8 

40 

20 

2  p.m. 

9  p.m. 

57 

24 

34 

15 

6 

7 

5 

231 

524 

44 

22 

36.6 

44 

18 

2  p.m. 

2  a.m. 

22 

44 

73 

4 

21 

26 

11 

339 

524 

65 

23 

32.8 

47 

18 

2  a.m. 

12  n't 

37 

63 

67 

20 

22 

17 

16 

76 

525 

15 

24 

45.1 

60 

16 

1  p.m. 

1  a.m. 

34 

13 

11 

17 

8 

2 

10 

340 

525 

65 

25 

33.5 

47 

21 

11  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

75 

31 

34 

17 

11 

7 

8 

329 

525 

63 

26 

47.7 

59 

33 

4  p.m. 

4  a.m. 

34 

13 

25 

17 

8 

20 

17 

203t 

525 

391 

27 

40.5 

52 

29 

1  a.m. 

12  n't 

29 

56 

100 

18 

25 

32 

16 

310 

526 

59 

28 

29.0 

31 

24 

9  a.m. 

11  p.m. 

61 

81 

90 

20 

26 

28 

19 

50 

526 

10 

29 

31.0 

38 

21 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

74 

17 

21 

27 

0 

-3 

5 

410 

527 

78 

30 

23.8 

35 

10 

3  p.m. 

8  a.m. 

55 

50 

56 

3 

14 

14 

0 

480 

527 

91 

31 

38.4 

52 

20 

2  p.m. 

12  n't 

55 

47 

59 

24 

29 

29 

3 

460 

528 

87 

Sums 

1003.8 

1388 

577 

1834 

1100 

1498 

461 

412 

475 

253 

1761 

Means 

32.4 

44.8 

18.6 

59 

35 

48 

15 

13 

15 

8 

i.>l.C/Clila| 

Perc'g, 

. .  - . 

27% 

59)5^ 

.... 

t 

13th 

and  2 

5th,  81 

lerecc 

>rd  in( 

x)mplc 

jte. 

Meteorological  Observations. 


135 


INSTRUMENTAL  RECORD. 
1907. 


b 

Ansmomvter  and  Anemobcopb. 

Rain  Gauge. 

h». 

WIND. 

Hours 

of  FaU. 

^1 

i«aal 

Total 

Sum  of  Components. 

Equivalent. 

i 

■tore 
112  m. 

Ve- 
locity. 

N. 

a 

W. 

E. 

Direction. 

Bfiles. 

Earliest. 

LM«Bt. 

J 

a 

i244 

177 
135 

0 
0 

0 
0 

0 
0 

1 

.305 

126.3 

0.1 

6.0 

7.8 

N.    0^49' E. 

126.2 

2 

219 

149 

128.6 

6.0 

5.9 

18.2 

N.   5^44'E. 

123.2 

0 

0 

0 

3 

120 

121 

93.2 

17.0 

12.8 

12.3 

N.  0°23'W. 

76.2 

0 

0 

0 

4 

.024 

124 

73.4 

33.2 

15.7 

32.4 

N.  22^  34'  E. 

43.5 

0 

0 

0 

5 

.042 

188 

96.7 

61.0 

13.8 

64.6 

N.54^54'E. 

62.1 

0 

0 

0 

6 

1811 

134 

8.3 

19.1 

37.5 

30.6 

N.   6°08'W. 

64.5 

0 

0 

0 

7 

733 

327 

298.9 

0 

49.8 

24.6 

N.   4°49'W. 

299.9 

0 

0 

0 

8 

\  139 

(Total 

for 
8even 

T 
0 
.05 

9 

001 

0 
8  a.m. 

0 

10 

;.500 

11 

7a3 

days 
1723) 

02 

1? 

774 

• 

0 

0 

0 

13 

85S 

0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 

14 

104? 

15 

1.889 

130 

93.6 

7.7 

14.7 

22.2 

N.   4^59'E. 

68.2 

16 

1078 

241 
145 

177.8 
89.3 

30.6 
37.7 

0.8 
3.7 

48.6 
38.6 

N.  17**  59^  E. 
N.34'=»04'E. 

154.8 
62.2 

T 
0 

17 

.073 

0 

0 

18 

1.949 

222 

160.7 

4.9 

119.2 

0 

N.37^25'W. 

196.2 

0 

0 

0 

19 

869 

170 

142.4 

16.7 

10.7 

22.4 

N.   5°19'E. 

126.2 

0 

0 

0 

20 

i031 

221 

206.9 

0 

23.2 

30.1 

N.    1**55'E. 

207.0 

0 

0 

0 

21 

.068 

253 

190.8 

8.7 

78.1 

46.9 

N.   9^^43'W. 

184.8 

0 

0 

0 

22 

.051 

280 

247.1 

0 

73.5 

45.4 

N.   6°29'W. 

248.7 

10  a.m. 

T 

23 

!.699 

245 

267.9 

66.0 

287.1 

50.9 

N.49°29'W. 

310.7 

0 

0 

0 

24 

.856 

124 

34.4 

62.5 

18.0 

49.8 

S.  48°  32'  E. 

42.4 

0 

0 

0 

25 

.625 

375 

150.8 

60.8 

242.6 

40.1 

N.66°02'W. 

221  6 

0 

0 

0 

26 

.799 

381 

81.5 

39.4 

268.8 

46.1 

N.79M8'W. 

226.6 

11  a.m. 

.04 

27 

.875 

181 

14.3 

118.3 

3.0 

109.0 

S.  45*=^  33'  E. 

148.5 

0 

0 

0 

28 

.786 

302 

226.9 

5.0 

149.3 

18.2 

N.30°34'W. 

257.8 

0 

0 

0 

29 

1.052 

110 

37.8 

32.9 

10.8 

24.7 

N.  70°  35'  E. 

14.7 

0 

0 

0 

30 

t.941 

145 

43.5 

36.5 

100.3 

16.6 

N.85°13'W. 

84.0 

0 

0 

0 

31 

2  246 

6603 

2991*1 

664.1* 

1545*3 

800.1* 

0.11 

1.943 

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156       Colorado  College  Publication. 

Juniperus  ecopulorum  Sarg.  (Sabina  scopiUorum  (Sarg.)  Rydb.)  Red 
Cedar,  Rocky  Mountain  Juniper. 

When  perfect  it  forms  a  low,  round  topped  tree  with  the  trunk 
usually  divided  near  the  base.  The  leaves  are  a  bluish  green, 
often  covered  with  a  bloom.  The  fruit  is  several  seeded.  In  foot- 
hills and  lower  cafions. 

Altitude:  5,800-8,200  ft.  Distribution:  Williams'  Cafion; 
North  Cheyenne  Cafion;  Ute  Paas;  Blair  Athol;  Austin  Bluffs;  Hills 
near  Manitou;  Rock  Creek;  Sutherland  Cafion;  Black  Cafion; 
Garden  of  the  Gods;  Red  Rock  Cafion* 

Juniperug  monosperma  Sarg.  {Sabina  monosperma  (Engelm.)  Rydb.) 
One-seeded  Juniper. 

On  the  eastern  foothills.  Usually  irregular  in  shape.  The 
leaves  are  a  yellowish  green.  The  fruit  usually  contains  a  smgle 
seed.  Associated  with  the  pinon  pine  in  Black  Cafion  and  the 
Garden  of  the  Gods. 

Altitude:  5,800-7,500  ft.  Distribution:  Red  Rock  Cafion; 
Garden  of  the  Gods;  Black  Cafion;  Williams'  Cafion;  Ute  Pass; 
Hills  near  Manitou. 

Juniperus  sibirica  Burgsd.  Dwarf  Juniper,  Mountain  or  Low  Juniper. 

A  low,  prostrate  shrub.  The  leaves  are  awl-shaped,  sharp- 
pointed,  grooved,  and  white  lined  beneath. 

Altitude :  6,500-1 1 ,500  ft.  Distribution :  Clyde ;  French  Creek ; 
Cascade  Cafion;  Crystal  Park;  Mt.  Rosa;  Cheyenne  Cafions;  Suther- 
land Cafion;  Cheyenne  Mountain;  Bufifalo  Cafion;  Crystola;  Lake 
Moraine;  Ruxton  Creek;  Cameron's  Cone;  Pike's  Peak;  Bald 
Mountain. 
Juniperus  communis  L. 

Distribution:  "Minnehaha;  Colorado  Springs."     (Rydberg). 

Sabina  prostrata  (Pers)  Antoine.  Creeping  Juniper,  Traiung  Savin. 
This  and  the  preceding  one  were  not  found  here  by  the  writer. 
Distribution:  "North  Cheyenne  Cafion."     (Rydberg). 

SALICAQEiC,  Willow  Family. 
Populus  tremuloides  Michx.  Aspen,  American  Aspen,  Quaking  Aspen. 
Growing  on  moist  mountain  sides  and  in  cafions. 
Altitude:  6,300-10,400    ft.     Distribution:  Cheyenne    Cafions; 
Sutherland   Cafion;   Cheyenne   Mountain;   Pike's   Peak;   Buffalo 
Cafion;  Blair  Athol;  Clyde;  Lake  Moraine;  Seven  Lakes;  Crystola; 
Ruxton  Creek;   French  Creek;   Cascade  Canon;  Gather  Springs; 
Crystal  Park;  Mt.  Rosa;  Bald  Mountain. 

Populus  angustifolia  James.    Narrow  leaf  Cottonwood. 

Common  along  streams  in  the  lower  mountains  and  plains. 

Altitude:  5,300-8,500  ft.  Distribution:  Ute  Pass;  Williams' 
Cafion;  Cheyenne  Cafions;  Sutherland  Cafion;  Manitou;  Cheyenne 
Creek;  Austin  Bluffs;  Hills  near  Manitou;  Fountain  Creek;  Rock 
Creek;  Monument  Creek. 


r 


THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  WOODY  PLANTS  IN  THE 
PIKE'S  PEAK  REGION. 

By  Professor  Edward  C.  Schneider. 

In  the  November  number  of  the  Botanical  Gazette  (Vol. 
44)  for  1907  there  appeared  an  article,  entitled  "The  Forest 
Fonnations  of  Boulder  Ciounty,  Colorado,"  written  by  Dr. 
Robert  T.  Young;  and,  in  December  of  the  same  year  Dr. 
Francis  Ramaley  published  a  paper,  in  volume  five  of  the 
University  of  Colorado  Studies,  on  "The  Silva  of  Colorado" 
in  which  he  listed  the  woody  plants  of  Boulder  County.  The 
great  value  of  these  two  articles  has  led  to  the  presentation 
of  the  present  paper. 

A  large  amount  of  careful  study  has  been  given  to  the 
plant  life  of  the  Pike's  Peak  region  by  Prof.  F.  E.  Clements 
and  Dr.  Homer  L.  Shtotz.  Clements*  has  drawn  many  of 
the  illustrations  in  his  two  books,  "Research  Methods  in 
Ecology"  and  "Plant  Physiology  and  Ecology"  from  his 
work  on  Pike's  Peak.  Shantz  has  incorporated  his  observa- 
tions in  an  article  entitled  "A  Study  of  the  Vegetation  of  the 
Mesa  Region  East  of  Pike's  Peak :  The  Bouteloua  Forma- 
tion, f" 

In  the  present  paper  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  enter 
into  a  detailed  study  of  the  physical  characters  of  the 
habitat  of  the  woody  plant.  A  few  observations  on  the  con- 
stitution of  the  soil,  on  its  water  content,  temperature,  etc., 
have  been  made,  but  they  appear  to  me  to  give  little  of  value 
for  this  study.  Such  detailed  field  observations,  I  believe, 
may  best  be  used  at  present  in  the  physiological  interpreta- 
tion of  the  distribution  of  herbaceous  plants.  The  real 
object  here  is  to  present  a  picture  of  the  associations  of  the 

♦See  also  "Formation  and  Succession  Herbaria,"  University  Studies  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska,  Vol.  4. 

fBotanical  Gaiette,  1906,  Vol.  42. 


138 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


woody  plants  that  may  be  valuable  to  students  of  montane 
distribution. 

Among  the  variations  in  climatic  conditions  within  the 
region  studied  it  may  be  well  to  note  briefly  those  of  rainfall 
and  temperature.  There  are  decided  differences  in  the 
amount  of  annual  rainfall.  The  meteorological  records  in 
the  Colorado  College  Observatory  give  us  an  opportunity  to 
compare  three  stations,  Colorado  Springs,  Lake  Moraine  and 
the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  with  respect  to  precipitation. 
Colorado  Springs  is  located  on  the  plains  just  below  the  mesa 
at  an  altitude  of  about  6,000  feet.  Lake  Moraine  is  three  and 
three-quarter  miles  southeast  of  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak 
at  an  altitude  of  10,215  feet,  and  the  height  of  the  summit  of 
the  "Peak''  is  14,109  feet.  Unfortunately  the  available 
records  for  these  stations  are  not  of  the  same  years.  How- 
ever, they  cover  long  enough  periods  at  each  altitude  to  make 
a  comparison  worth  while.  Complete  records*  for  the  thirteen 
years  ending  1907  show  Colorado  Springs  to  have  an  average 
rainfall  of  14.79  inches  and  Lake  Moraine  an  average  of  25.32 
inches.  During  the  fourteen  years,  1874  through  1887,  the 
average  annual  precipitation  on  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak 
was  29.62  inches.  The  differences  in  rainfall  are,  therefore, 
pronounced  enough  to  influence  plant  growth. 

Dr.  F.  H.  Loudf  in  a  comparison  of  temperatures  at  Colo- 
rado Springs  and  Lake  Moraine  for  the  year  1906  showed  the 
differences  in  the  monthly  means  temperature  given  in  the 
following  table: 


Month. 


Lake  Moraine 
Colorado  Springs 


Jan.    Feb.    Mar. 


Apr. 


19.6121.4  21.6  29.2 
32.6  31.3  27.8  45.2 


May  I  June 


38.646.9 
53.961.4 


Jaly   Aug. 


45.9  48.6 
62.965.5 


Sept.  Oct. 


42.033.4 
57.7J46.0 


25.225.3 
35.337.6 


In  this  study  of  distribution  I  find  it  convenient  to  sepa- 
rate the  associations  of  the  woody  plants  into  the  following 

♦Mr.  Chester  M.  Angell,  director  of  the  Colorado  College  weather  bureau, 
kindly  gave  me  the  data  from  which  these  figures  were  compiled. 

tSee  Colorado  College  Publication,  Science  Series,  Vol.  XII,  No.  4. 


Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.       139 

groups:  (1)  The  stream  bank  fonnation  on  the  plains;  (2) 
The  stream  bank  formation  in  the  lower  canons;  (3)  The 
stream  bank  and  meadow  formation  in  the  subalpine  zone; 
(4)  The  woody  plants  of  the  plains;  (5)  The  mesa  and  foot- 
hill thickets;  (6)  The  thickets  on  arid  mountain  slopes;  (7) 
North  slope  mountain  thickets;  (8)  Pinon  and  cedar  forests; 
(9)  Yellow  pine  forests;  (10)  Douglas  spruce  forests;  (11) 
Engelmann's  spruce  and  white  pine  forests;  (12)  Engel- 
mann's  spruce  and  foxtail  pine  forests. . 

The  Stream  Bank  Formation  on  the  Plains. 

This  formation  is  conspicuous  along  all  streams,  be- 
ginning at  their  emergence  from  the  canons  and  extends 
throughout  the  course  in  the  foothills  and  plains.  The 
woody  plants  occupy  a  narrow  strip  of  the  bank  on  either 
side  and  reach  a  maximum  in  numbers  and  in  size  in  the 
alluvial  deposits  of  the  stream.  They  are  unevenly  distrib- 
uted, the  higher  bank  being  often  devoid  of  woody  plants 
while  the  lower  bank  is  densely  covered  with  a  grove  of  trees 
or  a  thicket  of  shrubs.  The  entire  formation  is  open.  The 
cottonwoods  and  willows  are  the  most  numerous,  and,  there- 
fore, the  dominant  species.  Usually  the  cottonwood  trees 
are  separated  far  enough  to  permit  a  scattered  undergrowth 
of  less  important  species.  Dense  but  limited  thickets  of 
the  plum  (Prunus  americana)^  the  skunk  bush  {Rhus  trilo- 
b(Ua)f  or  the  wolf  berry  (Symphoricarpos  occidentalis)  are 
frequent  in  open  places  and  may  occur  away  from  the  stream. 
Nearer  the  mountains  the  choke  cherry  (Prunus  mdanocarpa) 
often  is  found  in  clumps,  and  roses  may  form  briar  patches. 
Along  Cheyenne  Creek,  on  the  flood  plains,  occur  a  few  patches 
of  the  false  indigo  (Amarpha  fruticosa).  The  oak  thickets 
also  frequently  enter  this  formation  from  the  sides  in  the 
foothills. 

The  dominant  species  within  the  formation  are: 


140  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Populus  occidentalis.  Salix  fluviatilis. 

Populus  angustifolia.  Salix  amygdaloides. 

Populus  acuminata.  Salix  monticola. 

Other  species  named  in  the  order  of  frequency  are: 

Rhus  trilobata.  Rhus  Rydbergii. 

Symphoricarpos  occidentalis.  Rosa  spp. 

Prunus  melanocarpa.  Quercus  spp. 

Prunus  americana.  Physocarpus  intermedins. 

Salix  irrorata.  Amorpha  fruticosa. 

Salix  Bebbiana.  Bossekia  deliciosa. 

Clematis  ligusticifolia.  Comus  stolonifera. 

Ribes  longiflorum.  Alnus  tenuifolia. 

The  dominant  species  are  not  distributed  equally  through- 
out the  formation,  thus  Populus  occidentalis  is  most  abundant 
at  the  lower  levels  and  is  largely  supplanted  at  the  higher 
altitudes  by  P.  angustifolia,  Salix  fluviatilis  and  S,  amyg- 
daloides are  abundant  throughout,  while  5.  monticola  first 
appears  within  a  few  miles  of  the  canons.  S.  irrorata  and  5. 
Bebbiana  are  common  only  near  the  canons.  Ribes  longi- 
florum, Amorpha  fruticosa  and  Prunus  americana  are  found 
almost  exclusively  within  this  formation.  Gymnosperms  do 
not  normally  occur  here. 

The  Stream  Bank  Formation  of  the  Lower  Canons. 

This  formation  as  a  rule  comprises  a  very  narrow  strip 
along  both  banks  of  the  stream.  Yet  in  low,  wide  canons 
and  where  a  narrow  canon  bottom  widens  enough  to  permit  an 
accumulation  of  alluvial  soil,  it  may  be  considerably  enlarged. 
It  is  often  closely  hemmed  in  on  the  two  sides  by  forests  or 
thickets  that  are  invading  the  canon  bottom  from  the  walls. 

The  transition  from  the  lower  formation  to  this  is  gradual. 
Many  species  are  common  to  both  near  the  mouth  of  the 
canon.  Some  of  the  willows,  characteristic  of  this  forma- 
tion, extend  in  decreasing  numbers  plainward,  while  the  Pop- 


Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.       141 

idus  angusHfoUa  so  prominent  in  the  preceding  formation, 
even  though  it  occurs  as  high  as  8,500  feet,  is  so  scattered 
that  it  cannot  be  considered  a  dommant  species. 

The  dominant  species  are  rarely  more  than  shrubs.    An 
individual,   outside  the  gymnosperms  and  the  aspen,   ex- 
ceeding a  height  of  twenty  feet  is  uncommon. 
« 

The  dominant  species  of  this  formation  are : 
Salix  Bebbiana.  Populus  tremuloides. 

Salix  irrorata.  Betula  fontinalis. 

Salix  monticola. 

Other  species  occurring  within  the  formation  follow: 

Pseudotsuga  mucronata.  Salix  amygdaloides. 

Abies  concolor.  Salix  flava. 

Picea  Parryana.  Ribes  saxosum. 

Corylus  rostrata.  Ribes  leptanthum. 

Physocarpus  intermedins.         C!omus  stolonifera. 

Prunus  melanocarpa.  Symphoricarpos  occiden- 

Prunus  pennsylvanica.  talis. 

Salix  fluviatilis.  Symphoricarpos  racemosus 

Bossekia  deliciosa.  pauciflorus. 

Jamesia  americana.  Parthenocissus  vitacea. 

Acer  glabrum.  '        Sorbus  scopulina. 

Rosa  spp.  Sambucus  microbotrys. 

Holodiscus  dumosa.  Viburnum  pauciflorum. 

Quercus  spp.  Lonicera  involucrata. 

Rhus  Rydbergii.  Ribes  lentum. 

Alnus  tenuifolia. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  formation  contains  a  greater 
number  of  species  of  woody  plants  than  the  lower  one.  There 
are  also  more  differences  among  the  dominant  and  conspicu- 
ous species  of  the  several  canons  studied.  Thus  along  the 
Cheyenne  Creeks  and  Rock  Creek  the  wild  red  cherry  {Prunus 
pennsylvanica)  is  so  abundant  that  it  becomes  one  of  the 
dominant  species.     In  the  Cheyenne  Canons  and  Sutherland 


142  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Canon  the  beaked  hazel  {Corylus  rostrata)  ranks  with  the 
dominant  forms  and  in  Ute  Pass,  along  Fountain  Creek  and 
the  tributaries  of  this  stream  from  the  west,  the  alder  (Alnus 
tenuifolia)  is  a  dominant  species.  Furthermore,  the  alder  is 
rarely  found  elsewhere.  The  fly  honeysuckle,  also,  is  found 
exclusively  in  this  formation  along  the  west  tributaries  of  the 
same  stream  in  Ute  Pass.  The  aspen  {Pbpvlus  tremvloides) 
is  very  unevenly  distributed.  Occasionally  it  forms  dense 
groves  of  large  trees  the  crowns  of  which  so  shade  the  floor 
that  all  other  species  are  destroyed.  It  is  usually  scattered 
within  the  entire  formation.  The  mountain  ash  {Sorbus 
scopulina)  is  only  abundant  in  Buffalo  Canon  where  it  forms 
an  occasional  dense  clump.  The  elder  {Sambiccus  microbotrys), 
Ribes  lentum,  the  few  flowered  cranberry  {Viburnum  pauci- 
florum)  and  Rosa  Engelmannii  normally  appear  only  in  the 
higher  altitudes.  Willows,  the  most  constant  of  the  dominant 
shrubs,  are  scarce  along  those  streams  arising  high  on  Mt. 
Rosa. 

Although  gymnosperms  occur  widely  distributed  in  this 
formation,  many  of  them,  such  as  the  yellow  pine  {Pinus 
scopulorum),  white  pine  {Pinus  flexilis)  and  Engelmann's 
spruce  {Picea  Engdmanni)  must  be  considered  invaders  from 
the  forests  of  the  mountain  slopes  and  canon  walls.  The 
white  fir  {Abies  concolor)^  which  is  often  abundant  in  the 
lower  canons,  prefers  moist  canon  bottoms.  Here  it  reaches 
its  greatest  size  and  most  perfect  form.  Also  the  blue  spruce 
{Picea  Parry  ana)  y  ranging  from  7,000  to  9,500  feet,  appears 
best  adapted  for  canon  life.  The  white  fir  and  blue  spruce 
may  well  then  be  regarded  as  members  of  this  formation. 

The  Stream  Bank  and  Meadow  Formation  of  the  Sub- 
alpine  Zone. 

The  highest  development  of  this  formation  is  found  in  the 
wide  meadows  and  bogs  occurring  along  the  subalpine  streams. 
It  is  a  closed  formation  only  in  these  meadows  and  bogs. 


Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.       143 

Very  often  the  characteristic  species  are  greatly  scattered 
and  among  them  may  be  invading  forms  derived  from  the 
slopes  along  the  stream.  Among  these  invaders  are  the  white 
pine,  foxtail  pine  (Pinus  aristata),  Engelmann  spruce,  squaw 
currant  {Rihes  cereum)^  Physocarpus  manogynuSy  and  Holo- 
discus  dumosa. 

The  dominant  species  range  from  timber  line  to  as  low  as 
8,700  feet.  They  are  low  shrubs  that  seldom  reach  a  height 
of  nine  feet.  The  aspen  is  the  only  broad  leaved  tree  at  this 
altitude.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  number  of  species 
here  is  far  less  than  in  the  formation  just  below. 

The  dominant  species  are : 

Salix  glaucops.  Salix  monticola. 

Salix  chlorophylla.  Betula  glandulosa. 

Salix  Bebbiana.  Dasiphora  fruticosa. 

Other  species  within  the  formation  are : 
Populus  tremuloides.  Rosa  spp. 

Ribes  saxosum.  Jamesia  americana. 

Ribes  lentum.  Prunus  melanocarpa. 

Sambucus  microbotrys. 

Salix  Bebbiana  and  S.  monticola  are  very  abundant  in  the 
lower  part  but  gradually  decrease  in  number  and  size  toward 
the  middle  of  the  formation,  and  they  are  finally  replaced  by 
S.  glaucops  and  S.  chlorophylla.  The  shrubby  cinquefoil 
{Dasiphora  fruticosa)  and  the  elder  berry  are  at  their  best 
here  and  decrease  in  importance  as  they  pass  down  into  the 
lower  formation. 

The  Woody  Plants  of  the  Plains. 
There  are  very  few  true  woody  plants  on  the  plains. 
Several  species  named  in  this  paper  are  only  suffrutescent. 
The  conditions  of  life  are  so  xerophytic  that  woody  plants 
when  present  are  widely  separated.  The  pasture  sage  brush 
or   wormwood    {Artemeda  frigida)    is   most   abundant   and 


144  Colorado  College  Publication. 

rather  evenly  distributed.  The  woody  eriogonum  (Eriogo- 
num  effusum)f  the  toothed-leaved  primrose  {Meriolix  serru- 
lata),  gutierrezia  {Gutierrezia  sarothrae),  and  the  rabbits  bush 
{Chrysothamnus  graveolens)  may  easily  be  found  but  they  are 
not  nearly  so  common  as  the  sage.  Occasionally  the  prairie 
rose  {Rosa  arkansanna)  occurs  in  very  restricted  patches. 
The  most  conspicuous  and  often  the  largest  of  the  plains' 
woody  plants  is  the  wmter  fat  (Eurotia  lanata).  It  is  abund- 
ant over  limited  areas. 

The  Mesa  and  Foothill  Thickets. 

These  thickets  vary  greatly  in  density,  width  and  species. 
Along  the  base  of  the  mountains  they  have  the  greatest 
variety  of  forms  and  the  maximum  size.  As  they  reach  out 
on  the  mesa  they  become  more  open  and  finally  on  those 
arms  of  the  mesa  that  extend  the  more  eastward  onto  the 
plains,  they  are  represented  by  straggling  individuals  of  the 
'mountain  mahogany  {Cercocarpus  parvifolius).  On  the  east- 
em  part  of  the  mesa  the  thicket  is  confined  to  the  ridges  and 
gullies,  where  it  alternates  sharply  with  the  grass  formation. 

The  dominant  species  are: 

Quercus  utahensis.  Quercus  Gambellii  Fendleri. 

Quercus  Gunnisonii.  Cercocarpus  parvifolius. 

Quercus  Gambellii.  Rhus  trilobata. 

Other  species  found  in  the  thickets  are: 

Ribes  cereum.  Clematis  ligusticifolia. 

Symphoricarpos  occidentalis.  Eriogonum  effusum. 

Quercus  Vreelandii.  Artemesia  frigida. 

Atriplex  canescens.  Gutierrezia  sarothrae. 

Eurotia  lanata.  Chrysothamnus  graveolens. 

Rosa  spp.  Rhus  Rydbergii. 

Prunus  melanocarpa.  Rhus  cismontana. 

Prunus  pennsylvanica.  Crataegus  spp. 

Bossekia  deliciosa.  Ceanothus  mollissunus. 

Holodiscus  dumosa.  Ribes  leptanthum. 
Holodiscus  australis. 


Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.       145 

There  are  no  oaks  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  mesa.  Shantz 
attributes  this  to  the  effects  of  grazing.  Oaks  increase  in 
numbers  as  the  mountains  are  approached.  They  form  small 
isolated  clumps  two  and  three  miles  from  the  mountains 
which  increase  in  size  to  broad  thickets  nearer  the  moun- 
tains. Usually  the  larger  oaks  are  near  streams  and  near  or 
on  some  of  the  moist  lower  mountain  slopes.  Often  the 
thickets  of  taller  oaks  have  an  undergrowth  of  roses,  wolf 
berry,  and  poison  ivy.  At  intervals  the  western  virgins 
bower  {Clematis  ligusticifolia)  is  conunon  and  an  occasional 
choke  cherry  and  wild  red  cherry  is  found. 

The  oaks  are  associated  with  the  mountain  mahogany 
(Cercocarpus  parvifoKus)  on  dry  slopes.  In  this  association 
the  Cercocarpus  is  ordinarily  more  abundant  toward  the  crest 
of  ridges,  while  the  oaks  increase  in  numbers  down  the  slope. 

The  unsavory  raspberry  {Bossekia  ddiciosa)  and  meadow- 
sweet (Holodiscus  dumosus)  are  never  abundant.  They  come 
down  from  the  mountains  and  disappear  from  the  thickets  a 
very  short  distance  from  the  lower  mountain  slopes  or  from 
a  stream.  The  haws  (Crataegus)  may  occur  in  clumps  in 
draws  or  scattered  within  an  oak  thicket.  The  red  root 
{Ceanothus  moUissunus)  is  frequently  a  part  of  the  under- 
growth. 

It  will  be  observed  that  all  of  the  woody  plants  of  the 
plains  are  found  among  the  foothill  thickets.  They  are 
present  in  every  locality. 

The  appearance  of  the  thickets  changes  along  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  mesa.  Here  the  Cercocarpus  parvifolius  and 
Rhus  trilobata  are  the  dominant  forms.  Rhus  trildbaia  shows 
a  disposition  to  form  dense  clumps  which  reach  their  greatest 
development  in  the  draws  and  gullies.  Toward  the  ridges 
they  are  reduced  in  numbers  and  more  scattered.  The  Cerco- 
carpus parvifolius  prefers  the  ridges  and  the  top  of  the  mesa, 
and  the  individual  shrubs  are  found  widely  separated.    This 


146  Colorado  Collegk  Publication. 

shrub  seems  to  be  the  strongest  invader  of  these  thickets. 
''Along  the  ridges  north  and  east  of  Colorado  Springs  there  is 
certain  evidence  that  the  thicket  formation  is  slowly  pushing 
its  way  out  into  the  grass  formation.  Of  the  shrubs,  Cerco- 
carpus  parvifolius  seems  best  adapted  for  this  invasion,  and 
it  is  several  miles  in  advance  of  any  of  the  other  dominant 
species.''*  Throughout  the  mesa,  shrubs  appear  on  both  the 
north  and  south  slopes  of  the  gullies  showing  only  a  slight 
preference  for  the  north  slopes. 

The  squaw  currant  (Ribes  cereum)  occurs  in  the  gullies 
associated  with  the  Rhus  trilobata.  The  wolf  berry  is  found 
in  .the  draws  and  gullies,  forming  distinct  patches.  Here  and 
there  may  be  found  a  lone  yellow  pine. 

Shantz  has  called  attention  to  the  effects  of  grazing. 
"Wherever  cattle  are  allowed  to  crop  the  thicket  formation 
very  closely,  the  facies  (dominant  species)  are  completely 
killed.  This  is  the  more  noticeable  in  the  case  of  the  oaks, 
which  are  killed  by  the  entire  loss  of  chlorenchyma  tissue. 
They  are  attacked  by  cattle  before  any  of  the  other  facies  of 
the  thicket  formation.  An  examination  of  the  region  shows 
that  on  the  mesa  near  Colorado  City  the  thicket  formation 
has  been  replaced  almost  entirely  by  the  Bouteloua  (grass) 
formation.  Only  scattered  bushes  of  Cercocarpus  parvifolius 
and  Rhus  trilobata  are  found,  and  these  much  reduced  in  size. 
Grazing  changes  the  thicket  formation  to  a  grass  formation." 

Thickets  on  Arid  Mountain  Slopes. 
South  exposures  are  invariably  xerophytic.  They  are 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  the  entire  year,  hence 
evaporation  is  gieater  than  on  north  exposures  where  the 
snows  of  the  winter  accumulate  and  remain  until  late  into 
the  spring,  or  in  the  higher  mountains  even  into  early  summer. 
Throughout  the  summer,  even  though  conditions  are  more 
nearly  equal  on  north  and  south  slopes,  the  excess  of  evapora- 

♦See  Shantz  Botanical  Gazette,  Vol.  42,  p.  192. 


Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.      147 

tion  is  still  on  the  south  slopes.  The  conditions  of  plant  life 
are,  therefore,  similar  to  those  experienced  in  the  foothill 
thickets.  This  accounts  for  the  presence  of  the  woody  plants 
common  to  the  lower  thickets. 

These  mountain  thickets  are,  as  a  rule,  more  open  than 
lower  thickets.  They  often  reach  an  altitude  of  9,500  feet. 
In  the  upper  limits  the  shrubs  are  most  widely  separated. 
The  oaks  are  not  present  above  9,000  feet.  The  Rhits  iri- 
lobata  disappears  as  low  as  7,500  feet  but  the  Cercocarpiis 
parvifdiics  continues  throughout  the  entire  area.  The 
meadowsweet  and  the  unsavory  raspberry  are  somewhat 
more  abundant.  Three  new  woody  plants  appear  for  the 
first  time  in  these  high  thickets,  these  are  the  Colorado  nine- 
bark  (Physocarpus  monogynus),  wax  flower  {Jamesia  amen- 
cana)y  and  the  kinnikinic  (Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi). 

Widely  scattered  trees,  invaders  from  nearby  forest,  are 
to  be  expected.  Among  these  are  Pinus  edulis,  Juniperus 
scopvlorum,  Pinus  scopulorum  and  Pinus  flexilis. 

North  Slope  Mountain  Thickets. 

These  Clements  has  designated  as  the  "half  gravel  slide 
formation."  The  environment  is  more  favorable  to  plant 
life  hence  there  is  a  greater  variety  of  species  than  is  found 
on  the  south  slopes.  The  conditions  also  favor  tree  growth, 
so  the  formation  is  usually  being  vigorously  invaded  by  forest 
forms  from  above  and  along  the  sides.  There  is  a  greater 
crowding  together  of  the  inhabitants  than  on  the  south  slopes, 
but  the  formation  is  still  more  or  less  open. 

The  dominant  species  are: 

Physocarpus  monogynus.  Holodiscus  australis. 

Bossekia  deliciosa.  Clematis  pseudoalpina. 

Jamesia  americana.  Acer  glabrum. 
Holodiscus  dumosus. 


148  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Other  species  that  may  occur  are: 
Rhus  trilobata.  Symphoricarpos  racemosus 

Prunus  melanocarpa.  pauciflorus. 

Prunus  permsylvanica.  Juniperus  sibirica. 

Rubus  strigosus.  Salix  Nuttallii. 

Quercus  spp. 

Seldom  does  a  maple  {Acer  glabrum)  occur  near  the  top; 
it  is  found  in  greater  numbers  on  the  lower  part  of  the  slope 
near  the  canon  bottom.  The  red  raspberry  (Rvbus  strigosus) 
is  confined  to  the  more  open  spaces,  and  the  snow  berry 
(Symphoricarpos)  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  slope 
at  the  canon  bottom.  Oaks  are  never  common.  Often  near 
the  top  the  Cercocarpus  parvifolius  enters  from  its  normal 
formation  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ridge. 

In  addition  to  the  trees  found  invading  the  south  slopes 
are  the  Douglas  spruces  and  the  white  firs;  these  usually  out- 
number the  pines.    The  aspen  is  also  a  common  invader. 

The  Pinon  and  Cedar  Forests. 

Clements  speaks  of  this  as  the  "foothill  woodland."  It 
occupies  a  zone  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  and  is  well 
developed  only  in  a  restricted  area.  This  tract  includes  a 
portion  of  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  Black  Canon,  the  lower 
part  of  William's  Canon,  and  the  hills  back  of  Manitou.  It 
is  most  highly  developed  in  Black  Canon.  East  of  Ute 
Pass  near  Woodland  Park  the  same  formation  is  found  on 
lime  ridges.  Here  and  there  isolated  members  of  these  forests 
may  be  found  along  the  base  of  the  mountain  range.  A 
small  remnant  remains  on  Cutler  Mountain. 

Shantz  found  evidence,  eleven  miles  east  of  Colorado 
Springs,  which  indicated  that  members  of  these  forests  form- 
erly extended  plain  ward.  ^^  Juniperus  monosperma  is  scat- 
tered here  and  there,  and  isolated  trees  of  this  species  are 
often  found  which  seem  to  be  very  old.  Still  stronger  evidence 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  here,  many  miles  removed  from  its 


WcK)DY  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.       149 

fellows,  is  a  very  large  and  apparently  very  old  Finus  edulis. 
Erosion  has  removed  the  soil  from  the  base  of  the  tree,  ex- 
posing the  roots,  and  it  is  certainly  much  older  than  any  of 
the  other  trees  in  this  region.  It  is  the  only  tree  which  sup- 
ports a  rich  lichen  flora." 

These  forests  are  so  open  that  the  typical  members  are 
mixed  throughout  with  the  dominant  species  of  the  foothill 
thickets.  The  shrubs  follow  the  same  distribution  found  in 
the  pure  thickets.  The  dominant  species  of  the  "woodland" 
occur  equally  on  north  and  south  slopes.  Often  near  the 
crests  of  ridges  the  pinon  pine  (Pinus  edtdis)  is  the  lone  rep- 
resentative of  the  trees. 

The  dominant  species  of  these  forests  are: 
Pinus  edulis.  Cercocarpus  parvifolius. 

Juniperus  scopulorum.  Quercus  spp. 

Juniperus  monosperma. 

Other  species  often  present  are: 

Pinus  scopulorum.  Rosa  spp. 

Pseudotsuga  mucronata.  Gutierrezia  sarothrae. 

Holodiscus  dumosus.  Artemesia  frigida. 

Eurotia  lanata.  Prunus  melanocarpa. 

Atriplex  canescens.  Ribes  cereum. 

Rhus  trilobata.  Symphoricarpos  occidentalis. 

The  yellow  pine  comes  in  from  a  higher  forest  and  is  never 
very  conspicuous  Here.  The  .Douglas  spruce  is  very  uncom- 
mon in  the  formation.  The  entire  formation  presents  a 
striking  and  unusual  appearance  due  to  the  free  branching  of 
its  three  dominant  tree  species.  Very  few  of  these  trees  present 
a  well  formed  trunk,  they  usually  form  low  round  topped 
spreading  trees. 

The  Yellow  Pine  Forests. 

There  is  a  gradual  transition  from  the  typical  south  slope 
thicket  formation  to  the  yellow  pine  forest.    The  habitats  of 


150  Colorado  College  Publication. 

the  two  are  practically  identical.  In  the  immediate  Pike's 
Peak  region  these  forests  do  not  reach  the  perfection  found 
elsewhere.  Some  of  the  better  examples  occur  near  Wood- 
land Park  and  in  Manitou  Park.  The  forest  is  very  open. 
Its  dominant  species  is  the  yellow  pine  {Pinus  scopidorum) 
and  associated  with  it  are  the  woody  plants  of  the  south  slope 
thicket.  The  kinnikinic  is  a  constant  member  of  the  forma- 
tion. The  white  pine  associates  with  the  yellow  pine  at  about 
7,800  feet  and  at  higher  elevations  often  outnumbers  it. 

This  forest  formation  extends  over  a  greater  area  than  any 
other  of  our  forests.  It  may  occur  above  9,000  feet  and  arms 
of  it  stretch  far  out  on  the  plains.  Pound  and  Clements* 
have  shown  that  it  has  pushed  its  way  eastward  into  Nebraska. 
The  yellow  pine  is  a  representative  of  western  conifers  some- 
times found  mingling  in  Nebraska  with  trees  from  the 
eastern  forests. 

The  Douglas  Spruce  Forests  of  the  North  Slopes. 

These  forests  may  be  found  up  to  an  altitude  of  9,500  feet 
on  the  cool,  moist  north  slopes.  They  constitute  the  most 
familiar  forests  of  our  mountains.  They  vary  some  in  close- 
ness and  in  species.  As  a  rule  they  are  open  enough  to  per- 
mit the  growth  of  one  or  two  lower  layers  of  woody  plants. 
Some,  however,  have  no  undergrowth.  Young, t  writing 
of  similar  forests,  states,  "This  is  not  to  be  explained  alone 
on  the  ground  of  a  scarcity  of  light  or  of  moisture,  but  rather 
by  the  combined  absence  of  these  factors.  The  shade  is 
seldom  dense  enough  to  exclude  shade  loving  plants,  were 
sufficient  moisture  present  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  such  forms.'' 

The  most  abundant  tree  is  the  Douglas  spruce,  and  always 
mingling  intimately  with  it  is  the  yellow  pine.  These  two, 
together  with  the  white  fir  and  an  occasional  white  pine,  form 
the  canopy  of  the  forest.    The  white  fir  is  confined  to  moist 

♦Pound  and  Clements:  Phytogeography  of  Nebraska, 
t Young,  R.  T.:  Botanical  Gazette,  Vol.  44,  p.  338. 


Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.       151 

slopes  and  occurs  in  greater  numbers  in  the  draws.  The 
aspen  is  often  freely  distributed  among  the  conifers  and  may 
unite  with  them  in  forming  the  canopy.  More  frequently  it 
forms  a  second  story. 

Below  the  canopy  scattered  shrubs  of  Bossekia  deliciosa, 
Holodiscus  dumosuSy  Jamesia  americana,  Acer  glabrum,  Prunus 
mdanocarpa,  and  Salix  NuUalii,  all  of  which  are  common  in 
north  slope  thickets,  form  a  second  layer,  and  below  these  will 
be  found  forpis  that  are  normally  a  part  of  these  forests. 
These  are  the  dwarf  juniper  {Juniperus  siberica)^  the  Colorado 
nine-bark  {Pliysocarpus  monogynus)  the  purple  virgin's  bowers 
{Clematis  pseudoal'pina  and  C.  pseudoalpina  tenuUoba),  and 
the  kinnikinic.  The  Physocarpus  monogynus  prefers  the  open 
spaces.  Often  in  larger  openings  the  Rubus  strigosus  thrives. 
The  Clematis  pseudoalpina  tenuUoba  is  by  far  the  most  abund- 
ant species  below  the  canopy.  The  very  varied  undergrowth 
is  well  developed  only  in  the  thin  forest. 

On  the  lower  part  of  these  forested  slopes,  near  the  moist 
canon  bottom,  the  snow  berry  thrives. 

The  Englemann  Spruce  and  White  Pine  Forests. 

These  forests  extend  from  about  9,500  feet  to  10,400  feet 
and  form  some  of  our  most  luxuriant  growths.  Clements 
has  included  this  and  the  Douglas  spruce  forests  in  his  ''Picea- 
Pseudotsuga'^  formation.  The  passage  from  the  lower 
Douglas  spruce  forest  to  this  higher  forest  is  a  gradual 
transition,  hence,  the  dominant  species  of  each  extensively 
overlap. 

The  dominant  species  are : 

Picea  Engelmanni.  Pinus  flexilis. 

Less  important  species  are : 

Populus  tremuloides.  Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi. 

Salix  Nuttalii.  Juniperus  siberica. 

Salix  Bebbiana  (rare).  Rubus  strigosus. 


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A  HISTORY  OF  THE  ARITHMETICAL  METHODS  OF 

APPROXIMATION  TO  THE  ROOTS  OF  NUMERI- 

CAL  EQUATIONS  OF  ONE  UNKNOWN 

QUANTITY. 

Florian  Cajori. 


Introduction. 

During  the  Renaissance  the  algebraic  solution  of  equations 
became  a  subjc*L^t  of  profound  study.  The  brilliant  success  of 
the  Italiarii^  in  fimliiig  algebraic  solutions  of  cubic  and  quart ic 
ei}tiaiionf§  raiKetl  prat  hopes  in  the  minds  of  mathematicians 
everywhen*  that  \W  algebraic  solution  of  general  equations 
of  still  higher  tlegrees  might  be  discovered.  But  all  hojx^s 
were  .shattered  wlien  Abel  proved  rigorously  that  such  a 
BolutifHi  was  iinp(j4i.sible.  This  impossibility,  combined  with 
the  difficulty  arisiin^  in  the  deduction  of  numerical  results 
in  the  30-called  "irreducible  case"  of  cubic  and  quartic 
eciuatioti^,  ha*^  forced  mathematicians  to  search  for  other 
than  algi*braic  methods  of  solving  numerical  equations. 

The  iil|^L*braic  solution  of  equations  belongs  to  what  has 
been  called  '*  precise  mathematics,"  as  distinguished  from 
^•approximate  mathematics,"  to  which  our  subject  of  root- 
approximation  belonjE^.  Precise  mathematics  demands  that 
the  etpiation  /(j-J^U  be  satisfied  absolutely;  approximate 
mathemat  ic.s  look^  upon  /(x)  =  0  simply  as  an  al)breviation 
for  the  inequality  |j\j)|<  £,  where  £  is  the  degree  of  approxi- 
mation demanded  by  the  practical  problem  at  hand.  The 
phyBiciHti  chemis^t  and  engineer  use  approximate  mathe- 
matics ahtio^t  ex(*liL^lvely.  To  them  the  solution  of  mmier- 
ical  c*quationst  hs  approximation  is  a  problem  of  vital  im- 
portaiue. 

In  \km  mono^niph  we  shall  limit  oui*selves  to  the  study 
af  the  developinent  of  arithinetical  methods  of  approximation 
to  the  roiits  of  eqvKitions  of  one  unknown  quantity;  in  a  later 
publication  we  hope  to  l)e  able  to  trace  the  history  of  solutions 


172  Colorado  College  Publication. 

which  have  been  effected  by  trigonometric  and  elliptic 
functions,  by  mechanical  methods  and  by  purely  geometric 
devices. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  solution  of  numerical 
equations  received  the  life-long  attention  of  two  mathe- 
maticians of  the  highest  rank — Lagrange  and  Fourier.  Both 
made  this  a  subject  of  their  earliest  researches,  both  showed 
marked  partiality  for  it  in  their  old  age.  This  fact  is  suffi- 
cient to  indicate  the  importance  of  the  problem.  As  Arago 
very  aptly  remarks,  *'A  scientific  subject  does  not  occupy 
so  much  space  in  the  life  of  a  man  of  science  of  the  first  rank 
withput  being  important  and  difficult.  The  subject  of  alge- 
braic analysis  above  mentioned  ...  is  not  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule.  It  offers  itself  in  a  great  number  of  appli- 
cations of  calculation  to  the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  or  to  the  physics  of  terrestrial  bodies,  and  in  general 
in  problems  which  lead  to  equations  of  a  high  degree.  As 
soon  as  he  wishes  to  quit  the  domain  of  abstract  relations, 
the  calculator  has  occasion  to  employ  the  roots  of  these 
equations;  thus  the  art  of  discovering  them  by  the  aid  of 
an  uniform  method,  either  exactly  or  by  approximation, 
did  not  fail  at  an  early  period  to  excite  the  attention  of 
geometers."^ 

PART  I.    BEFORE  VIETA. 

Approximation  to  the  prindpai  real  roots  of  pure  equations 
not  usually  exceeding  the  fourth  degree.  Sporadic  attempts 
to  approximate  to  the  roots  of  affected  equations. 

The  different  devices  for  the  extraction  of  the  square 
root,  the  cube  root  and  higher  roots  of  numbers  yield  approx- 
imate solutions  of  pure  equations  of  the  form  x**— a=0  and, 
for  that  reason,  come  within  the  sphere  of  this  monogi-aph. 
It  is  probable  that  root-extraction  was  an  art  practiced  by 

*F.  ARAOOy  Biographies  of  Distinguished  Scientific  Men.  First  Series  Bos- 
ton, 1859,  p.  381  (Joseph  Fourier). 


Numerical  Equations.  173 

scholars  in  very  early  ages.  If  M.  Cantor's  interpretation 
of  the  Babylonian  tables  of  Senkereh,  as  given  in  the  third 
edition  of  the  first  volume  of  his  great  history/  is  correct, 
then  these  are  not  tables  of  squares  and  cubes,  as  formerly 
supposed,  but  tables  of  square  roots  and  cube  roots,  and  the 
Babylonians  had  some  familiarity  with  root-extraction 
4,000  years  ago.  It  remains  for  Assyriologists  to  determine 
beyond  doubt  the  proper  interpretation  of  these  tables  and 
to  ascertain  how  the  operations  were  performed. 

That  the  Greeks  had  clearly  grasped  the  root-concept  is 
a  matter  of  common  knowledge.  The  isosceles  right  triangle 
led  the  Pythagoreans  to  the  quadratic  irrational  i/27  Later 
the  problem  of  the  duplication  of  the  cube  brought  the 
Greeks  to  the  cubic  irrational  f^  Still  later  we  find  in 
Archimedes'  work  on  the  Measurement  of  the  Circle  numerous 
close  approximations  to  square  roots,  but  the  method  by 
which  the  results  were  obtained  is  nowhere  explained.  For 
lack  of  space  we  shall  pass  by  the  numerous  interesting  con- 
jectures which  have  been  made  as  to  the  process  followed  by 
Archimedes,  except  to  mention  that  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  he  found  his  approximate  square  roots  by  the  formula 

/ h  2 

of  Heron,   V  a^±:b  =  a±:^'     Heron  also  gives  approximate 

values  of  cube  roots  of  numbers,  and  many  conjectures  have 
been  made  on  Heron's  probable  method  of  cube  root  extrac- 
tion.* 

Some  centuries  later,  Theon  of  Alexandria  explains  the 
1/4500° =67°4'55''  by  a  method  which  agiees  with  that  of 
the  present  time,  except  that  he  uses  sexagesimal  instead  of 
decimal  fractions.    Led  by  geometric  considerations,  Theon 

^Voriewngen  tuber  Oeschichte  der  Mathematik  Bd.  I,  3rd  Ed.,  Leipzig,  1907. 
See  also  M.  Cantor's  article,  "  Babylonische  Quad  rat  wurzeln  und  Kubikwurzeln' 
in  ZeiUeh,/.  Aasyriologie,  Bd.  XXI,  1907-1908,  pp.  110-115. 

'Cantor  Vorl,  ueber  Geach.  d.  math.  Bd.  I,  3rd  Ed.,  Leipzig,  1907,  p.  372. 
Bibliatheca  MathemaHea  (3)  7,  1907,  p.  99:  (3)  8,  1908,  p.  411:  (3)  9,  p.  238.) 

•Cantor  op.  eit.  Vol.  I.,  .3rd  Ed.,  p.  374;  BiUiotheca  Mathematica  (3)  8, 
pp.  412,  413.) 


174  Colorado  Collegp:  Publication. 

finds  the  largest  square  in  4500®  to  be  4489  =  67^;  dividing 
the  difference  of  11°  or  660'  by  2X67,  he  gets  4';  he  then 
subtracts  2X4'X67  or  536'  from  660',  and  obtains  124'  or 
7440^;  next  7440"-4'X4'  =  7424'^;  dividing  7424"  by  134°8' 
he  gets  finally  SS''  as  an  approximation.^ 

By  a  strange  turn  of  events  it  was  not  the  Greek  writers 
on  root  extraction,  but  the  astronomers  on  the  far-off  banks 
of  the  Ganges,  who  influenced  the  more  modem  European 
writers  on  algebra.  In  Bhaskara's  book,  called  LUavcdi 
CHhe  beautiful"),  written  in  the  year  115(;,  one  finds  exddence 
that  the  art  of  computation  had  reached  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  among  the  Hindus.'  Bhaskara  was  familiar  with 
the  relations  {a+hy  =  a'+2ab+h^,  (a+6)»  =  a'+3a'6+3a/)' 
+b'  and  he  used  them  in  the  extraction  of  roots.  His  pro- 
cess was  much  like  that  of  the  present  day,  except  that  he 
did  not  have  decimal  fractions.  But  root  extraction  must 
have  been  practiced  much  earlier  amony:  the  Hindus,  for 
Aryabhatta,  the  earliest  great  Hindu  astronomer,  speaks  of 
dividing  the  digits  into  groups  of  two  and  three  in  finding 
square  and  cub(*  roots.*  This  division  is  also  made  l>y  Pla- 
nudes,  who  gives  V^18=4J  as  his  first  example  under  roots 
and  gives  the  following  rule  which  is  found  also  in  the  Wber 
abaci  of  the  Italian  Leonardo  of  Pisa,  published  in  1202. 
Take  the  root  of  the  next  smaller  perfect  square,  subtract 
its  square  from  the  given  number  and  divide  the  remainder 


>Fabricius,  BiUiotheca  Graeca  (ed.  Harless)  IX,  176,  178-179:  see  also 
M.  Cantor,  Vorlea  we.  Oeschichte  d.  MathemcUik  1  er  Bd.,  Leipzig,  1894,  p.  461. 

The  mathematical  chapters  of  Bhaskara' s  work  were  translated  into 
English  by  H.  T.  Colebrooke  in  a  publication,  entitled,  Algebra  with  arith- 
metic and  mensuration f  from  the  Sanscrit  of  Brahmegupta  and  Bhaskara,  London, 
1817.  This  translation  gives  only  meagre  information  on  the  practical  execu- 
tion of  computations.  On  this  point  greater  detail  is  given  in  the  English 
translation  of  the  LHavati  made  by  Taylor  (Bombay,  1816)  and  in  0.  I.  Ger- 
hardt's  Rechenbuch  des  Maximus  PlanudeSf  Halle,  1865.  The  present  knowledge 
of  Hindu  methods  of  computation  is  derived  partly  from  the  Hindu  works,  but 
mainly  from  the  arithmetic  of  Planudes,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  who  avowedly  used  Hindu  sources. 

*L.  Rodet,  Leccns  de  calcul  d'Aryabhata,  p.  9,  18,  etc. 


Numerical  Equations.  175 

by  twice  the  divisor.  Planudes  proceeds  to  roots  of  larger 
numbers.  He  finds  for  the  square  root  of  1690196789  the 
value  41112^444t-  Finally  he  suggests  some  modifica- 
tions of  the  process  which  from  the  modem  point  of  view 
are  far  from  being  improvements.*  Planudes  begins  by  mul- 
tiplying the  number  by  3600.  At  the  close  he  divides  the 
square  root  by  60.  This  method,  which  Planudes  claims  for 
himself,  is  found  also  in  an  earlier  work  by  John  of  Seville, 
an  Arabic  author  to  be  mentioned  later.  The  multiplication 
by  3600,  according  to  the  sexagesimal  system,  is  in  principle 
the  same  as  the  process  of  adding  zeros,  accordinis;  to  the 
decimal  system,  practiced  as  early  as  850  by  the  Arabic 
authors,  known  as  the  Three  Brothers.' 

Hindu  methods  were  transmitted  to  the  Arabs  and  by 
them  to  the  Europeans. 

John  of  Seville  wrote  a  liber  dghoarismiy  compiled  by  him 
from  Arabic  authors  about  1140  A.  D.,  in  which  2n  zeros 
are  added  to  a  number  of  which  the  square  root  is  sought, 
and  the  square  root  of  this  is  taken  as  the  numerator  of  a 
fraction  whose  denominator  is  1,  followed  by  n  zeros.  Prob- 
ably through  John  of  Seville,  this  mode  of  procedure  became 
known  to  the  European  mathematicians  of  the  Renaissance, 
like  Ciruelo,  Grammateus,  Cardan  and  others.  We  pass  by 
certain  special  formulae  sometimes  used  by  the  Arabs  in 
finding  the  square  and  cube  roots  of  numbers,  but  desire  to 
state  that  to  the  Arabs  belongs  the  credit  of  extending  the 
root-concept  to  higher  orders.  Omar  Alchaijami,  an  astro- 
nomer at  Bagdad  (died  1123),  declares  that  he  taught  how 
to  find  the  sides  of  a  square-square,  a  square-cube,  a  cube- 
cube,  and  so  on,'  and  that  he  gave  arithmetical  proofs  of  his 
processes,  based  on  the  arithmetical  chapters  in  Euclid's 
Elemenlis.  The  last  remark  appears  to  indicate  a  familiarity 
with  the  binomial  series  for  positive  integral  exponents. 

»C.  I.  Gerhardt,  op,  cU,p.X;  Cantor,  op.  cit.  I,  3rd  Ed.,  p.  512:  Bibliolheca 
MathenuUica  (3)  9,  pp.  140,  141. 

^Bibliolheca  MathenuUica  4  (3),  1903,  p.  217. 

'L'Algebre  d'Omar  Alkfiayyami,  ed.  Woepke,  Paris,  1851,  p.  13. 


176  Colorado  College  Publication. 

In  the  solution  of  equations  of  the  first  degree  several 
Arabic  authors  use  the  ''rule  of  two  false  positions/*  The 
rule  of  a  single  ''false  position''  is  one  of  the  very  oldest  in 
mathematics.  It  is  found  in  the  Ahmes  papyrus;  it  is  used 
by  Diophantus,  by  the  Hindus  and  Arabs  in  the  solution  of 
problems.  The  rule  of  "two  false  positions''  is  attributed 
to  the  Hindus.  It  is  used  in  the  solution  of  equations  of  the 
first  degree  by  Abraham  ben  Esra  (1130),  Ibn  Albanna  (1222), 
Alkalzadi  (died  1486),  and  Beha  Eddin  (1547-1622).^  If 
ax+6  =  0,  let  m  and  n  be  any  two  numbers  ("two  false  posi- 
tions"), let  also  am+6  =  M,  an  +  b  =  N,  then  x=(nM—mN)'7- 
(M-N). 

Of  interest  is  the  approximate  solution  of  the  cubic 
x^  +  Q  =  PXy  which  grew  out  of  the  computation  of  x=sin  1°. 
The  method  is  shown  only  in  this  one  numerical  example. 
It  is  given  by  Miram  Tschelebi  in  1498,  in  his  annotations  of 
certain  Arabic  astronomic  tables.'  The  solution  is  attributed 
to  Atabedkin  Dschamschid.  It  is  the  only  known  approx- 
imate arithmetical  solution  of  an  affected  equation  due  to 
Arabic  writers.  We  shall  see  that  on  the  European  continent 
such  solutions  were  published  at  a  somewhat  earlier  date. 
In  the  above  cubic,  P  and  Q  are  both  assumed  positive,  and 
P  larger  than  Q.  Consequently  x  is  small.  Hankel  illus- 
trates the  process  of  solution  by  an  example  of  his  own.  In 
general  terms  the  process  is  as  follows :  Write  x=(Q-\-x^)-7-  P. 
If  Q-7-P=a+R-T-Pf  then  a  is  the  first  approximation,  x 
being  small.  We  have  Q=aP  +  R,  and  consequently  x=a+ 
(/?  +  a')-^P  =  a+6+AS-r-P,  say.  Then  a  +  b  is  the  second  ap- 
proximation. We  have  /2  =  bP+S  — a'  and  Q=(a+b)P+ 
S-a\  Hence x  =  a  +  6  +  (S-a*+(a  +  6)')-rP=a  +  b  +  c+T~ 
P,  say.     Here  a  +  6 + c  is  the  third  approximation,  and  so  on. 

*L.  Matthiessen,  Orundz.  d.  Antiken  u.  modemen  Algebra,  Leipzig,  1878, 
p.  275. 

^Journal  aaiatiqtte,  1853,  s^rie  5,  T.  II,  p.  347.  See  also  Cantor  op,  cit., 
Vol.  I,  1894,  p.  736;  H.  Hankel,  GeschicfUe  d.  Math,  im  Alter  thum  u.  Mittelalier, 
Leipzig,   1874,   pp.  290-292. 


Numerical  Equations.  177 

In  the  practical  application  of  this  process  are  involved 
the  successive  divisions  by  P  and  the  cubing  of  a,  a +6, 
a+6+c,  etc.  The  amount  of  computation  is  considerable. 
If  it  be  remembered,  moreover,  that  the  process  was  Hmited 
to  cases  in  which  P  and  Q  are  positive,  and  P  comparatively 
large,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  has  no  great  value  as  a 
method  of  solving  cubic  equations  by  approximation.  As  the 
Arabs  operated  with  positive  numbers  only,  a  negative  P 
and  Q  would  have  meant  the  solution  of  x'+Px=(3,  to  them 
an  entirely  different  problem.  The  high  praise  given  this 
method  by  HankeP  is  not  warranted  by  the  facts.  Hankel 
says  that  "this  beautiful  method  of  solving  numerical  equa- 
tions stands  second  to  none  of  the  methods  of  approximation 
invented  in  the  Occident  since  the  time  of  Vieta,  in  fineness 
and  elegance. ^^  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  it  an- 
swered well  the  immediate  purpose  of  computing  a:=sin  1°. 

Nearly  300  years  before  the  publication  of  the  above  ap- 
proximation in  1498,  the  genial  Italian  mathematician, 
Leonardo  of  Pisa,  had  solved  the  cubic  x'  +  2a:'+10x=20  to 
a  high  degree  of  approximation,  giving  as  the  answer  x  =  l°22' 
7'' 42'"  33*^4^40'^.  How  he  obtained  this  extraordinary  result 
he  does  not  explain,  and  we  are  left  in  ignorance  of  the  nature 
of  its  solution.' 

The  earliest  known  process  of  approaching  to  a  root  of 
an  affected  numerical  equation  was  invented  by  Nicolas 
Chuquet,  who.  in  1484  at  Lyons,  wrote  a  work  of  high  rank, 
entitled  Le  Triparty  en  la  science  des  nombres.     It  was  never 

printed  until  1880.'    Chuquet  takes  — — r  as  an  intermediate 
value^  of  -  and  -r'  and  proceeds  to  apply  it  to  the  solution  of 

»H.  Hankel,  op.  eit.  p.  292. 

^Qenocchi  in  Annali  di  scicme  maternatiche  e  jisiche  (Tortolini)  VI,  pp. 
165-168,  conjectures  that  Leonardo'fl  mode  of  approximation  was  the  same  as 
that  used  later  by  Cardan,  but  there  is  nothing  to  support  this  conjecture. 

•Printed  in  the  BuUetino  Boncompagni  T.  XIII,  1880;  see  pp.  653-654. 

*Cantor  points  out  that  Pappus  gave  in  his  Mathematical  Collections  Bk. 
VII,  Ivemma  8  (Ed.  Hultsch  II,  688  and  690),  the  same  expression  of  an  inter- 
mediate value  used  by  Chuquet,  but  makes  no  application  of  it  to  the  solution 
of  equations. 


178  Colorado  College  Publication. 

x^+x  =  39Jf.  The  equation  and  its  solution  are  ex- 
pressed in  words.  Only  the  numbers  are  written  in  mathe- 
matical symbols.  The  exposition  is  what  Nesselmann  would 
have  called  *' rhetorical.''  Chuquet  finds  x^5  too  small  and 
x  =  ()  too   large.     The   intermediate   value   is  5 J,   which    is 

A  .1. 1 1 

too  small.     His  intermediate   value  of  6  and  5 J  is    ..     ^ 

or  5§,  which  is  still  too  small.  The  third  intermediate  value 
between  5f  and  6  is  5f ,  and  is  also  too  small.  The  fourth 
intermediate  value  is  5|;  the  fifth  gives  the  accurate  result, 
5^.  The  method  is  very  laborious,  the  rate  of  approximation 
is  slow.  Unlike  most  modes  of  approximation,  it  yields  re- 
sults, not  in  decimal,  but  in  common  fractions. 

The  earliest  printed  method  of  approximation  to  the 
roots  of  affected  equations  is  that  of  Hieronimo  Cardano 
(1501-1576)  of  Milan,  who  gave  it  in  the  Ars  magna  (1545) 
under  the  title  De  regida  aurea}  Cardano 's  method  appHes 
to  e(iuations  of  any  degree,  but  is  shown  by  him  only  for 
cubics  and  (juartics.  Let  all  letters  stand  for  positive 
numbers  and  let  a  and  a-\-l  be  integers,  such  that,  in  the 
equation  f{x)=k,  f{a)  =  k  —  b  and  f{a-{-l)=k  +  b^.  Then  x 
Hes  l)etween  these  integers,  and  we  may  put  x  =  a+0  and 
x  =  a-\-l  —  0£y  where  0  and  e  are  proper  fractions.    Take 

.       /(^)~/(a) b_ 

^~/(a4-l)-/(a)""6+6^^ 

then  x  =  a  +  6  m  R  second  approximation. 

If/(a  +  (?)=A--6'',  take  , 

f{a  +  l)-f{x)  V 


f{a+\)-f{a-^e)     V^-W' 

and  we  have  a  third  approximation  j  =  a  +  l  — (1  — ^)e.  We 
get  /(a+1—  e-\-Oi)  =  k  plus  or  minus  a  small  number.  The 
interval  between  which  the  root  lies  is  thus  narrowed  down 
between  a-\-\—  i-\-Oz  and  either  a-\-0  or  a  +  l,  as  the  case 

»Cardano  IV,  273-274;  see  also  Cantor,  Vol.  II,  2nd  Ed.,  1900,  p.  506. 


Numerical  Equations.  179 

may  be.  With  these  closer  limits  the  above  process  is  re- 
peated until  the  required  degree  of  precision  is  reached.  At 
first  Cardan  assumed  the  coefficients  in  the  given  equation 
to  be  all  positive,  but  later  in  his  work  he  partly  dropped  this 
limitation.  Strange  to  say,  Cardan's  regula  aurea  made  no 
impression  upon  the  mathematicians  of  his  day,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  it  was  the  eariiest  method  applicable 
to  equations  of  all  degrees,  though  not  applied  by  himself 
to  equations  higher  than  the  fourth.  That  the  method 
recjuires  much  computation  hardly  explains  why  Clavius, 
Stevin  and  Vieta  did  not  refer  to  it.  All  pre-Newtonian 
methods  were  laborious. 

In  the  procedure  of  Cardan  we  see  an  interesting  appli- 
cation of  the  rule  of  "two  false  positions.'' 

The  method  of  two  false  positions  had  been  applied  to 
the  extraction  of  square  roots  in  the  Liber  angmenti  et  dimin- 
uaiionis^  (12th  century)  and  later  in  the  Arithmeticae  practicae 
methodus  facUis  (1558)  of  Rainer  Gemma  Frisius.^  In  the 
latter  publication  the  square,  cube,  and  fourth  roots  are  found 
also  by  the  rule  of  single  position.' 

In  1554  J.  Peletier  showed*  that,  if  an  equation  x^=ax+b 
or  x'  =  ax'+6,  where  a  and  b  are  positive  integers,  has  a  ra- 
tional root,  then  this  root  (and  in  the  second  equation  also 
its  square),  must  be  a  factor  of  b.  Along  the  same  line  was  a 
suggestion  of  Raphael  Bombelli  who  in  his  Algebra^  published 
in  Bologna  in  1572,  showed  (page  180)  how  to  look  for  posi- 
tive integral  roots  of  4p'  — 3cp=a,  where  a  and  c  were  given 
positive  integers.*  He  wrote  p^+q=Cj  p^  —  3pq  =  a.  Upon 
assuming  q  positive,  he  obtained ^a  <p<\/cy  which  made  it 
easier  to  find  p.     If  a  =  2,  c=5,  then  p  is  seen  to  be  2.    Some- 

^Libii,  HiMoire  des  actencea  maihimatiques  en  Italie  I.  p.  305,  307,  etc.: 
BiUiciheca  Mathematica  (3)  7,  1906-07,  p.  89. 

*Cantor,  op.  eU.  Vol.  2,  2nd  Ed.,  p.  412. 

*Biblioiheca  Mathematica  (3)  7,  1906-'07,  p.  89. 

^Ualgebre  de  Jaques  Peletier ,  Lyon  1654,  pp.  39-46.  See  Enestrdm  in 
Bibliotheca  Mathematica  (3)  7,  1906-'07,  p.  390. 

^BiUiotheca  Mathematica  (3),  8,  1907-08,  p.  87. 


180  Colorado  College  Publication. 

what  similar  considerations  occurred  in  Raimarus  Ursus^s 
Arithmetica  Analytica  (1601,  Frankfurt  an  der  Oder),  who  de- 
scribes a  process  ascribed  by  him  to  Johannes  Junge  of 
Schweidnitz  in  Prussia.  The  process,  said  to  have  been  first 
thought  out  by  Junge  in  1577,  was  crude  and  uncertain, 
consisting  originally  in  trying  different  numbers.  It  was 
improved  by  Ursus  who  operated  with  the  factors  of  the 
absolute  term.  Just  what  the  nature  of  the  process  was  is 
not  sufficiently  explained  by  Ursus,  and  has  been  the  subject 
of  conjecture  on  the  part  of  Cantor*  and  Enestrom'. 

That  the  problem  of  approximate  solution  was  forcing 
itself  upon  the  attention  of  algebraists  is  still  further  evident 
from  the  work  of  Joost  Biirgi'  (1552-1632),  a  Swiss  who  figures 
in  the  invention  of  decimal  fractions,  logarithms,  and  the 
pendulum  clock.  Interested  in  the  construction  of  trigo- 
nometric tables,  he  finds  graphically  that  the  side  of  a  regular 
nonagon,  determined  by  the  equation 

9-30xH27x*-9xHx'=0 
lies  between  .68  and  .69.    Then  he  proceeds  to  closer  values 
by  a  regula  duorum  falsorum  ^ich  yields  the  first  time  40 
as  the  next  two  digits  and  the  second  time  four  more  digits 
4029,  makmg  the  final  result  x=. 68404029. 

This  problem  of  finding  the  chord  of  the  nth  part  of  a 
circular  arc  by  means  of  equations  of  higher  degrees  was 
studied  also  by  Pitiscus  in  his  Trigonometria  of  1612,  who 
followed  the  line  of  thought  marked  out  by  Biirgi. 

In  Belgium  we  find  Simon  Stevin  (1548-1620)  of  Bruges, 
at  one  time,  busy  with  approximate  solution*.    He  claims  for 
himself  the  invention  of  the  following  process  which  yields 
the  required  root,  one  digit  at  a  time.    To  solve 
x»  =  300x  +  33915024 

^Cantor  op.  cU.  Vol.  2,  2ncl  ed.,  p.  626. 

^Bibliotheca  Maihematica,  (3)  7,  1906-'07,  p.  390. 

»Wolf,  Gesch.  d.  Astronomie,  Muenchen,  1877,  pp.  272-276;  M.  Cantor  op 
cit.  Vol.  II,  2na  Fxl.,  1900,  pp.  646-648. 

*Stevin  Oeuvres,  Leiden,  1634,  Part  I.,  p.  88:  see  also  M.  Cantor,  op.  cU. 
Vol.  IT,  2n(i  ¥A.,  1900,  p.  628. 


Numerical  Equations.  181 

he  puts  in  succession  a:=l,  10,  100,  1000,  and  finds  that  all 
values  of  x,  except  tjie  last,  make  the  left  member  of  the 
equation  smaller  than  the  right  member.  Hence  x  lies  be- 
tween 100  and  1000.  Try  next  x=200,  300,  400;  it  is  seen 
that  300  is  too  small  and  400  is  too  large.  Hence  the  first 
digit  of  the  root  is  3.  To  ascertain  the  second  digit,  take 
x=310,  320,  330;  the  root  lies  between  320  and  330,  hence 
the  second  digit  is  2.  Next  it  is  found  that  321,  322,  323 
are  too  small,  but  that  324  is  exact,  and  is  therefore  the 
value  of  the  required  root.  When  the  root  is  not  an  integral 
number,  Ste\nn  proceeds  to  an  approximation,  using  decimal 
fractions.  As  is  well  known,  Stevin  was  an  enthusiast  on 
decimal  fractions  and  has  a  firmer  claim  on  their  invention 
than  anyone  else.  Ste^ln's  method  was  nothing  but  suc- 
cessive trial  of  different  numbers.  Yet  it  found  some  ac- 
ceptance, for  we  shall  find  trace?  of  it  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

We  have  seen  that  the  sixteenth  century  produced  a 
number  of  great  algebraists  who  worked  more  or  less  on 
affected  numerical  equations.  Italy  had  her  Cardan,  Switz- 
erland had  her  Biirgi,  Belgium  her  Stevin,  but  the  greatest 
of  all  belongs  to  France — Francis  Vieta.  His  researches 
initiate  a  new  era. 

SUMMARY. 

Before  Vieta  the  following  results  were  reached: 

1.  Methods  of  approximation  to  the  square,  cube,  fourth 
and  even  higher  roots  of  numbers  were  devised  which  are 
substantially  the  methods  used  today.  Also  special  formulas 
yielding  approximate  values  of  square  and  cube  roots  were 
used  by  Heron,  by  the  Hindus  and  Arabs,  and  by  F^uropeans 
drawing  from  Arabic  sources. 

2.  Isolated  attempts  to  approximate  to  the  roots  of  af- 
fected equations  were  made  by  an  Arabic  and  a  few  European 
writers.  t 


182  Colorado  College  Publication. 

general  remarks. 

Thus  far,  the  methods  of  solving  affected  equations  by 
approximation  have  sprung  into  being  independently  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  very  much  as  do  thinly  scattered 
flowers  in  a  large  field.  But  from  now  on  we  shall  be  able 
to  trace  in  many  cases  an  interdependence,  showing  cross- 
fertilization.  Often  it  will  be  possible  to  see  how  the  crea- 
tions of  one  author  influenced  the  work  of  later  authors. 

PART  II.     VIETA,  NEWTON,  LAGRANGE. 

Beginning  of  an  interdependent  progressive  development  of 
methods  of  solving  affected  equations.  The  methods  in 
general  use  are  either  hborious  or  insecure. 

To  Francis  Vieta  (1540-1603)  more  than  to  others  do  we 
owe  the  epoch-making  innovation  in  algebra  of  denoting 
general  or  indefinite  quantities  by  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
Vieta  arrived  at  a  partial  knowledge  of  the  relations  existing 
between  the  coeflScients  and  the  roots  of  an  equation.  Un- 
fortunately he  refused  to  avail  himself  of  the  negative  roots 
of  Cardan.  Recognizing  only  positive  roots  he  could  not  fully 
perceive  the  relations  in  question.  He  was  in  the  habit  of 
assigning  to  letters  only  positive  values,  so  that  some  of  his 
algebraic  expressions  mean  less  than  at  first  sight  they  appear 
to  do.  On  the  subject  of  the  approximate  solution  of  equa- 
tions Vieta  achieved  more  and  wielded  a  wider  influence  upon 
later  workers  than  did  any  other  mathematician  of  his  time. 
The  researches  in  question  are  contained  in  a  work  published 
by  Ghetaldi  as  editor,  with  Vieta's  consent,  at  Paris  in  1600, 
under  the  title:  De  nuvfierosa  potestatum  purarum  atque 
adfectarum  ad  exegesin  resolutioiie  tractatus.  Vieta  printed 
his  works  at  his  own  expense  and  distributed  them  as  gifts. 
The  original  editions  are  scarce,  but  in  1646  a  collection  of 
his  writings  was  published  by  Schooten.  One  of  the  earliest 
writers  of  text-books  tci  explain  Vieta 's  procedure  was  Pierre 


Numerical  Equations.  183 

H^rigone,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Cours  Tnath^maiique, 
1634.*  Vieta  begins  with  pure  equations.  Like  Stifel,  he 
shows  familiarity  with  the  binomial  coefficients,  and  extracts 
roots  of  as  high  an  order  as  the  sixth.  In  solving  affected 
equations,  Vieta  is  satisfied  with  a  single  positive  root.  His 
mode  of  procedure  is  not  of  the  nature  of  the  regula  duonim 
falsorum,  used  by  Cardan  and  Biirgi,  but  is  in  closer  align- 
ment with  the  method  of  ordinary  root-extraction  than  any 
method  of  approximation  heretofore  suggested.  Taking 
f{x)=k,  where  the  coefficients  are  numerical  and  the  signs 
are  so  taken  that  k  is  positive,  Vieta  is  careful  to  separate  the 
required  root  from  the  rest,  then  substitutes  an  approximate 
value  for  it  and  shows  that  another  figure  of  the  root  can  be 
obtained  by  division.  A  repetition  of  this  process  gives  the 
next  figure,  and  so  on.  Thus,  in  x*—5x'+500x  =  7905504, 
he  takes  r=20  for  the  approximate  root.  He  computes  next 
7905504 -r*+5r'—500r  and  divides  the  result  by  a  value 
which  in  our  modem  notation  takes  the  form 

l(/(r+8.)-/(r))|-s.» 

where  f{x)  is  the  left  side  of  the  equation  f{x)=kj  n  is  the 
degree  of  the  equation  and  Sj  is  a  unit  of  the  denomination  of 
the  digit  next  to  be  found.  Thus  if  the  required  root  is  243, 
and  r  has  been  taken  to  be  200,  then  s,  is  10;  but  if  r  is  taken 
as  240,  then  Sj  is  1.  In  the  above  example  the  divisor  is 
878295,  and  the  quotient  yields  s,  the  next  digit  in  the  root, 
equal  to  4.    Thus  a: =r+s  =  20+4  =  24,  the  required  root. 

The  roots  which  Vieta  finds  are  all  commensurable, 
although  the  same  process  would  apply  to  incommensurable 
roots. 

Vieta 's    process    is    explained    inaccurately    by    modem 

*A.  De  Morgan,  "  Notices  of  the  Progress  of  the  Problem  of  Evolution," 
in  The  Companion  to  the  (Britiah)  Almanac  for  1839,  p.  36.  This  article,  which 
we  shall  quote  frequently,  contains  much  historical  information  about  Vieta, 
Oughtred,  Harriot,  Wallls,  Newton,  and  especially  Horner.  The  article  is  very 
valuable,  even  though  some  of  De  Morgan's  statements  need  qualification  in 
the  light  of  more  recent  historical  research. 


184  Colorado  College  Publication. 

historians,  including  H.  HankeP  and  M.  Cantor.'  By  them 
it  is  made  to  appear  as  identical  with  the  procedure  given 
later  by  Newton.  The  two  are  not  the  same.  The  difference 
lies  in  the  divisor  used.  We  have  given  a  general  expression 
for  Vieta's  divisor;  Newton  used/^(r).  In  the  above  example 
Vieta's  divisor  is  878295,  while  Newton's  divisor  is  794500. 
The  inaccuracy  in  question  consists  in  attributing  to  Vieta 
the  same  divisor  as  that  used  by  Newton.  The  error  prob- 
ably arose  from  the  fact  that  in  some  quadratic  equations 
given  by  Vieta  the  two  divisors  happen  to  be  the  same  in 
value.  De  Morgan*  describes  Vieta 's  ciivisor  as  being 
/(r+1)— /(r)  — 1.  This  does  not  fit  the  case  except  when 
the  new  digit  to  be  found  is  in  the  unit's  place.  Strange  to 
say,  we  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  historian  who  gives 
a  correct  general  expression  for  Vieta 's  divisor. .  The  advant- 
age of  Vieta 's  divisor  is  that  it  is  more  reliable  than  Newton's; 
its  very  great  disadvantage  lies  in  the  large  amount  of  com- 
putation called  for.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  pure 
root  extraction,  Vieta  uses  the  very  same  divisor.  Thus,  in 
finding  the  sixth  root  of  191,102,976  the  divisor  used  is 
21766120,  the  root  bemg  24. 

Vieta  possessed  a  uniform  mode  of  procedure  for  finding 
roots  of  pure  numbers  and  of  equations.  This  is  not  conceded 
by  Cantor,  but  if  Cantor  had  had  in  mind  a  correct  general  ex- 
pression for  Vieta 's  divisor,  this  fact  would  have  been  evident. 
Vieta  gives  numerous  examples  of  his  definite  fixed  arrange- 
ment of  numerical  work. 

Vieta 's  approximate  solution  of  equations  was  used  in 
France  by  Claude  Francois  Milliet  Dechales  in  his  Mundus 
mathematicuSf  Lyon,  1674,  1690,  but  received,  as  we  shall  see, 
earlier  and  special  attention  in  England. 

But  before  we  cross  the  channel,  we  desire  to  speak  of 
some  further  discoveries  on  the  Continent.     In  the  first  place 

»Hankel.  op.  cit.  pp.  369,  370. 
'Cantor,  Vol.  II,  1901),  pp.  640,  641. 
^Comp.  to  Brit.  Almanac,  1839,  p.  37. 


Numerical  Equations.  185 

we  call  attention  to  a  process  devised  by  the  Italian  Pietro 
Antonio  Cataldi  in  1613  for  the  extraction  of  square  roots 
by  expressing  the  result  in  the  form  of  a  continued  fraction.* 
It  is  of  interest  as  a  forerunner  of  a  process  of  solving  affected 
numerical  equations  by  continued  fractions,  invented  a 
century  and  a  half  later  by  Lagrange. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  a  capital  discovery  which  lies 
on  the  border  line  of  our  subject,  namely  Descartes'  Rule  of 
Signs.  It  was  in  1637  that  Ren6  Descartes  (1596-1650) 
published  his  famous  Discours  de  la  mithodey  containing 
among  others  an  essay  of  106  pages  on  geometry.  In  this 
geometry  is  given,  without  proof,  his  celebrated  rule:  An 
equation  may  have  as  many  positive  roots,  as  it  has  variations 
of  sign,  and  a  complete  equation  as  many  negative  roots  as 
it  has  permanences  of  sign.'  Descartes  gives  the  rule  after 
pointing  out  the  roots  2,  3,  4,— 5  and  the  corresponding  bi- 
nomial factors  of  the  equation  x*—4x*  —  19x'+106x— 120  =  0. 
His  exact  words  are  as  follows : 

"  On  connolt  aussi  de  ceci  combien  il  pent  y  avoir  de  vraies 
racines  et  combien  de  f ausses  en  chaque  Equation :  k  savoir  il 
y  en  pent  avoir  autant  de  vraies  que  les  signes  +  et  —  s'y 
trouvent  de  fois  6tre  changes,  et  autant  de  fausses  qu'il  s'y 
trouve  de  fois  deux  signes  +  ou  deux  signes  —  qui  s'entre- 
suivent.  Comme  en  la  demifere,  ^  cause  qu'apr^+x*  il  y 
a  —  4x*,  qui  est  un  changement  du  signe  +  en  — ,  et  apr^s 
-19x'  il  y  a  +106x,  et  apr^s  +106x  il  y  a  -120,  qui  sont 
encore  deux  autres  changements,  on  connoit  qu'il  y  a  trois 
vraies  racines;  et  une  fausse,  k  cause  que  leB  deux  signes 
—  de  4x*  et  19x'  s'entre-suivent.^' 

Unfortunately  Descartes  did  not  fully  elucidate  this  rule. 
His  statement  lacks  completeness.  For  these  reasons  he 
has  been  frequently  criticized.     Wallis  claimed  that  Descartes 

^Cataldi,  TrattaUt  del  modo  brevissimo  di  trovare  la  radice  quadra  deUi  numeri 
in  Libri  IV,  92,  Note  1,  and  93  Note  1.  See  also  Favaro's  article  in  BuUetino 
Boneompagni  VII,  pp.  534-547 ;  Cantor  II,  1900,  p.  762. 

^Descartes  La  Giinnitrie,  Livre  Troisieme. 


186  Colorado  College  Publication. 

failed  to  notice  that  the  rule  breaks  down  in  case  of  imaginary 
roots,  but  Descartes  does  not  say  that  the  equation  always  hxiSj 
but  that  it  may  have  so  many  roots.  It  is  true  that  Descartes 
does  not  consider  the  case  of  imaginaries  directly;  but  further 
on,  in  his  Geometry,  he  gives  ample  evidence  of  his  ability 
to  handle  the  case  of  imaginaries. 

The  question  arises,  did  Descartes  receive  any  suggestion 
of  his  rule  from  earlier  writers?  There  is  no  evidence  that  he 
did,  but  he  might  have  received  a  hint  from  Cardan,*  whose 
remarks  on  this  subject  have  been  summarized  by  Enestrom' 
as  follows :  If  in  an  equation  of  the  second,  third  or  fourth 
degree,  (1)  the  last  term  is  negative,  then  one  variation  of 
sign  signifies  one  and  only^bne  positive  root,  (2)  the  last  term 
is  positive,  then  two  variations  indicate  either  several  positive 
roots  or  none.  Cardan  does  not  consider  equations  having 
more  than  two  variations. 

The  Rule  of  Signs  was  for  many  years  erroneously  attri- 
buted to  Harriot.  The  blame  for  introducing  this  error  is 
usually  charged  to  Wallis,  but  Wallis  is  not  the  first  to  com- 
mit the  mistake.  Before  him  the  Rule  of  Signs  was  attributed 
to  Harriot  by  Leibniz.' 

Proofs  of  Descartes'  Rule  of  Signs  have  been  given  by 
many  writers.  Leibniz  pointed  out  a  line  of  proof,  but  did 
not  actually  give  it.*  In  1675  Jean  Prestet  published  at 
Paris  in  his  Elemens  des  mathematiques  a  proof  which  he 
afterwards  acknowledged  to  be  insufficient.*  In  1728  Johann 
Andreas  Segner  published  at  Jena  a  correct  proof  for  equations 
having  only  real  roots.*  Many  years  later  he  gave  a  general 
demonstration/  based  on  the  consideration  that  multiplying 
a  polynomial  hy  x—a  increases  the  number  of  variations  by  at 

»Cardano  IV.,  32.^. 

^BiUintheca  Matheynalica,  (3)  7,  1906-'07,  p.  293. 

^Itlem  (3)  10,  1910,  p.  80. 

*Idem  (3)  7,  p.  306. 

^BiUiotheca  Maihematica,  (3)  7,  1906-07,  p.  300. 

^Idem  (3)  7,  p.  307. 

^Histoire  de  V  AcadSmie  de  Berlin,     Ann^e  1756,  pp.  292-299. 


Numerical  Equations.  187 

least  one.  Other  proofs  were  given  by  Jean  Paul  de  Giia  de 
Malves/  Isaac  Milner,'  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Stubner,'  Abraham 
Gotthelf  Kaestner/  Edward  Waring,*  J.  A.  Grunert/  K.  F. 
Gauss/  Laguerre.®  Gauss  showed  that,  if  the  number  of 
positive  roots  falls  short  of  the  number  of  variations,  it  does 
so  by  an  even  number.  •  Laguerre  extended  the  rule  to 
poljmomials  with  fractional  and  incommensurable  exponents, 
and  to  infinite  series. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  French  follower  of  Descartes  was 
Florimond  de  Beaune  (1601-1652).  Among  his  posthumous 
papers  is  the  one  De  limitibus  aequalionum,^^  in  which  he 
establishes  upper  and  lower  limits  for  the  roots  of  quadratics 
and  cubics.  In  x'— /x+?n'=0,  m^/l<x<l;  in  x'  +  te'  — m^x 
+  n'  =  0,  n^ /m^<x<m^ll.  A  Dutch  follower  of  Descartes 
was  Johann  Hudde  (?-1704)  of  Amsterdam,  the  author  of  a 
rule  named  after  him  on  equal  roots."  If  the  terms  of  an 
equation  which  has  two  roots  equal  to  each  other  are  multi- 
plied, respectively,  by  the  terms  of  any  arithmetical  progres- 
sion, then  one  of  the  said  roots  reappears  in  the  new  equation 
thus  obtained.  A  demonstration  to  this  remarkable  rule  was 
furnished  by  Hudde  himself"  and,  over  a  century  later,  again 
by  Fagnano." 

^HUtoire  de  VAcadSmie  deg  Sciences  de  Paris  pour  1741,  pp.  72-96.  See 
Cantor  III,  1901,  pp.  578,  679. 

»Phii.  Transactions  (London)  Vol.  68,  year  1778,  pp.  380-388. 

•Cantor,  III,  1901,  p.  683. 

*DemonMrcUio  theoremntU  Harrioii,  1745. 

^Meditationea  Algeh.,  ed.  tertia,  1782,  p.  110. 

•Crelle'8  Journal,  Vol.  IT,  1827,  pp.  336-344. 

^Crello's  Journal,  Vol.  Ill,  1828,  pp.  1-4. 

^Oeuvres  de  Laguerre,  Vol.  I,  189S,  p.  3. 

»K.  F.  GauBH.  Werke  3.  p.  67. 

^^^Descartes,  Geom.  1659,  II,  pp.  121-152.  De  Beaune's  articles  are  re- 
printed in  Maseres'  Sariptores  Logarilhmi^d,  Vol.  6,  1807,  pp.  217-263.  See  also 
Cantor,  II,  1900,  p.  800. 

**Letter,  De  maximia  et  minimis,  January,  1658,  printed  by  Van  Schooten 
in  Descartes'  Geom.,  1659,  I,  pp.  433-439,  507-509. 

*^See  Enestrom's  statement  of  Hudde's  proof  in  the  Bibliotheca  Mathemaiiea 
(3)  10,  1910,  pp.  267,  268. 

^* Nova  acta  eruditorum,  1776,  p.  1-11.  Another  rule  for  detecting  equal 
roots  was  given  by  John  Hellins  in  the  Philoaoph.  Transactions,  1782,  London, 
pp.  417-425 


188  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Crossing  the  channel  to  England,  we  find  the  earliest 
great  algebraist  there  to  be  Thomas  Harriot  (1560-1621). 
His  posthumous  work,  the  Artis  analyticae  praxiSj  1631,  was 
written  long  before  its  date  of  publication.  Of  special  interest 
is  Harriot's  modification  of  Vieta's  process  of  root  approxi- 
mation. This  is  a  real  improvement.  Harriot  does  not  take 
|(/(r +Sj)  — /(r))| — Si**  as  the  divisor  for  finding  the  next  digit 
as  did  Vieta,  but  forms  only  so  much  of  this  as  is  necessary  to 
determine  that  digit.  Worthy  of  mention  is  also  Harriot's 
habit  of  removing  the  second  term  of  the  equation  before 
beginning  his  approximation,  a  step  which  proved-  advan- 
tageous with  his  arrangement  of  the  work.  De  Morgan's 
statement  that  Harriot  gives  examples  of  affected  equations 
with  roots  computed  to  three  digits,  while  Vieta  gives  exam- 
ples with  roots  of  only  two  digits,  needs  qualification  as  regards 
Vieta.  Of  32  examples  worked  by  Vieta  in  full,  7  answers 
are  expressed  in  3  digits. 

An  indication  of  interest  aroused  in  our  subject  is  found 
in  the  statement^  that  William  Milboum,  curate  at  Brances- 
peth  near  Dumham,  was  well  versed  in  algebra,  having  ex- 
tracted the  approximate  root  of  an  equation  of  the  fifth 
degree  before  he  had  seen  Harriot's  work. 

The  second  Englishman  to  write  on  numerical  equations 
was  WiUiam  Oughtred.  Wallis  says'  that  Oughtred,  in  his 
Clavis  (1631),  refers  readers  to  his  Exegesis  Numerosa,  or 
Numerical  Solutions  of  Affected  Equations,  a  separate  treatise, 
subjoined  in  later  editions  to  his  Clavis,  It  is  thus  subjoined 
to  the  editions  of  1647  and  1648.  Oughtred 's  method  of 
solution  is  that  of  Vieta,  as  distinguished  from  that  of  Harriot, 
but  neither  Vieta  nor  Harriot  are  mentioned  in  the  text. 
If  one  repeats  the  steps  in  the  operations,  one  sees  that  in 
the  hands  of  Oughtred  algebraic  manipulation  was  still  in  a 
crude  state.    Thus,  he  computes  ab  +  ac,  rather  than  a{b+c), 

^ Penny  Cyclopaedia,  Art.  "Horrocks." 
'Treatise  of  Alg^a,  1685,  p.  68. 


Numerical  Equations.  189 

Before  giving  examples  of  solutions  by  Vieta's  method, 
Oughtred  shows  how  one  may  get  by  easy  processes  of  trial 
and  error  the  first,  or  the  first  two  digits  of  a  root  of  a  rather 
simple  equation,  say  x^-72x'+ 238600a: =8725815.  To  find 
the  first  digit,  he  takes  x*+ 238.6 -7.2x'=x)872.5,  and  tries 
a:=4  and  x=5,  and  finds  the  first  digit  to  be  4.  To  find  the 
second  digit,  he  takes  x'--x)238600-72x=x')8725815.  He 
tries  x=47  and  x=48,  and  finds  that  x  is  47.  He  explains, 
next,  how  the  last  computation  may  be  done  by  logarithms. 
Thereby  he  established  for  himself  the  record  of  being  the 
first  to  use  logarithms  in  the  solution  of  affected  equations. 

The  next  improvement  in  Vieta's  process  is  given  in  the 
celebrated  Algebra  of  John  Wallis  (1616-1703),  published  m 
1685  and  1693.  In  Chapter  62  he  solves  a  quartic  equation 
which  arises  in  the  solution  of  a  problem  proposed  by  Dr. 
Pell  to  Colonel  Silas  Titus,  and  by  him  to  Dr.  Wallis,  who, 
as  De  Morgan  remarks,  seems  to  have  considered  it  a  sort 
of  challenge  from  Pell,  and  has  discussed  it  in  a  most  masterly 
manner.  The  problem  calls  for  the  determination  of  a,  6  and 
c  in  the  equations  a' + 6c  =  16,  6' +ac  =  17,  c'+a6  =  18.  In 
Wallis'  solution  of  the  quartic  appears  for  the  first  time  the 
contraction  of  the  divisors  and  remainders.  By  this  impor- 
tant improvement  he  extracts  the  root  of  the  quartic  to  17 
places.  He  uses  Oughtred  *s  marks  of  explanation.  De 
Morgan  solves  the  same  quartic^  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
the  vast  superiority  of  Homer's  jnethod  over  that  of  Vieta, 
even  as  improved  by  Wallis.  From  what  Wallis  says  it 
would  seem  that  Vieta 's  method  was  then  commonly  known 
and  practiced.  This  appears  also  from  the  fact  that  an 
edition  of  Oughtred 's  Key  to  the  Mathematicks  was  published 
by  Halley  as  late  as  1702.  Oughtred 's  text  must  have  done 
more  than  any  other  work  to  popularize  the  method  in 
England. 

It  would  seem  that  at  this  time  investigations  were  being 

^Comp.  to  the  BritUh  Aim.,  1839,  p.  51. 


190 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


carried  on  in  England  on  the  solution  of  numerical  equations, 
which  are  not  generally  known  to  historians  and  are  now 
attributed  to  later  writers.  A  paper  by  John  Collins  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions/  on  "Improvements  in  England 
in  the  resolution  of  equations  in  numbers"  gives  an  accoimt 
of  these.  Even  Cantor  and  De  Morgan  nowhere  mention 
this  article.  CoUins  tells  of  what  "hath  been  observed  by 
divers  of  this  Nation."  If  in  an  affected  equation,  f{x)=N, 
X  be  given  successively  values  that  are  in  arithmetical  pro- 
gression, then  the  absolute  numbers  N  (the  homogdnes  de 
comparaison  of  Vieta)  are  such  that  their  first,  second  or 
third  differences,  etc.,  imitate  the  laws  of  the  pure  powers  of 
an  arithmetic  progression  of  the  same  degree,  the  nth  differ- 
ences being  equal.    Thus,  in  the  equation,  x^—3x^+4x=Nj 


If  a;  be  =  < 


10 
9 

8 
7 
6 


theniV 

will  be 

found 

to  be 


740 

1.  Dif. 

2.  Dif. 

522 

218 

48 

352 

170 

42 

224 

128 

36 

132 

92 

3.  Dif. 

6 
6 


Thus  the  third  differences  are  here  equal,  as  in  the  cubes  of 
an  arithmetical  progression.  "How  to  find  the  greatest 
product  of  an  arithmetical  progression  of  any  number  of 
terms  having  any  common  difference  assigned,  contained  in 
any  number  proposed,  is  shewed  by  Pascal  in  his  tract  du 
Triangle  Arithmetique,  where  he  applies  it  to  the  extraction 
of  the  roots  of  simple  powers."  "When  you  have  a  Majus  and 
Minus,  you  may  interpole  as  many  more  terms  in  the  arith- 
metical progression  as  you  will,"  then  compute  the  absolute 
term.  After  a  rough  approximation  to  the  root  is  secured, 
"the  general  method  of  Vieta  and  Harriot  runs  away  more 
easily."  Collins  refers  also  to  a  "more  subtile  kind  of  inter- 
polation" as  used  in  Briggs'  Arithmelica  logarithmica  and  to 
other  proposed  processes.    The  method  of  differences  may 


^PhU,  Trans,  IV.,  1669,  p.  929. 


Numerical  Equations.  191 

well  serve  the  purpose  of  locating  the  real  roots,  but  the 
efforts  to  raise  it  to  a  method  of  close  approximation  were 
not  crowned  with  success. 

On  account  of  his  zeal  for  collecting  and  diffusing  scientific 
information,  Collins  has  been  called  the  "English  Mersenne." 
In  his  letters  he  frequently  talks  of  the  solution  of  numerical 
equations,*  says  that  Pell  believed  in  the  possibility  of  con- 
structing tables  for  solving  equations,  that  Pell  for  thirty 
years  past  had  "forsaken  Vieta's  method,  and  solved  equa- 
tions by  the  table  of  logarithms,  etc.,"  and  "he  intends  to 
write  a  treatise  of  this  argument.''  But  Pell  never  fulfilled 
his  promises  in  this  matter. 

The  method  of  approximation  given  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
(1643-1727)  was  first  outlined  by  him  in  his  De  analysi  per 
aequationes  numero  terminorum  infinitas^  He  placed  this 
tract  in  the  hands  of  his  teacher,  Isaac  Barrow,  in  1669,  and 
Barrow  sent  it  to  John  Collins,  who  greatly  admired  it.  Bar- 
row urged  Newton  to  have  it  printed,  but  Newton 's  modesty 
prevented  his  compliance.  It  was  not  published  imtil  thirty-five 
years  later,  in  1704.  The  tract  remained  unknown,  except  to 
his  friends  and  the  correspondents  of  John  Collins.  It  con- 
tains the  principle  of  fluxions  partly  worked  out  and  touches 
upon  the  solution  of  numerical  equations  by  successive 
approximations.  Newton  gives  only  one  example,  namely 
the  now  famous  cubic  y'— 2t/— 5  =  0.  He  assumes  that  an 
approximate  value  is  already  known,  which  differs  from  the 
true  value  by  less  than  one-tenth  of  that  value.  He  takes 
y=2.  Thereupon  j/=2+p  is  substituted  in  the  equation 
which  becomes  then 

p*  +  6pH10p-l=0. 

Neglecting  the  higher  powers  of  p,  he  gets  lOp  — 1  =  0;  taking 
p  =  .l+5,  he  gets 

g'+6.35Hll.235  +  .061=0. 

*See  Correspondence  of  Scientiiic  Men   of  the  I7th  Century,  Oxford,  1841, 
Vol.  I,  pp.  165,  216,  243;  Vol.  IT,  198,  218,  472  anl  other  places. 
H)pu9cuia  Netctoni  T,  10-12. 


192  Colorado  College  Publication. 

All  the  more  may  higher  powers  of  the  imknown  quantity  be 
neglected  now.  From  1 1 ,23q  +  .061  =  0  he  gets  g  =  -  .0054 + r, 
and  by  the  same  process,  r=— .00004853.    Finally  j/=2+.l 

-  .0054  -  .00004853 =2.09455147. 

Newton  arranges  his  work  in  a  paradigm.  He  seems  quite 
aware  that  his  method  of  approximation  may  fail.  If  there 
is  doubt,  he  says,  whether  p  =  .l  is  sufficiently  close  to  the 
truth,  find  p  from  6p'+10p— 1=0.  Newton  does  not  show 
that  even  this  latter  method  will  always  answer.  This  ex- 
pedient of  considering  terms  of  the  second  degree  is  frequently 
resorted  to  by  later  writers,  either  to  secure  greater  accuracy 
in  each  step  or  to  attain  greater  safety,  or  both. 

Another  tract  of  Newton,  the  Methodus  fluxionum,  was  at 
one  time  planned  for  publication  in  1671,  but  was  not  pub- 
lished until  1736.  The  tract  begins  with  the  solution  of 
equations,  in  close  agreement  with  what  is  given  in  the  Anal" 
ysis  per  aequationes.  It  was  many  years  before  Newton's 
method  of  approximation  was  duly  appreciated.  In  1673 
and  1674  appeared  John  Kersey's  Algebraj  which  was  looked 
upon  as  classic.  In  announcements  of  this  work,  published 
by  Wallis  and  Collins  in  1672  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, no  mention  is  made  of  Newton's  research.  It  was 
not  until  1685  that  Newton's  method  of  approximation 
reached  the  press.  It  was  in  that  year  that  Wallis  brought 
out  the  first  edition,  in  English,  of  his  Algebra.  This  edition, 
as  well  as  the  Latin  edition  of  1693,  explains  in  Chapter  94 
Newton's  process  of  solving  j/'  — 2j/  =  5,  as  well  as  Newton's 
expression  of  the  value  of  y  in  terms  of  a  and  x  by  a 
rapidly  converging  series,  the  equation  being  y^+axy+aay 

—  x'— 2a'  =  0.  The  two  equations  are  treated  in  much  the 
same  manner.  Wallis  does  not  praise  Newton's  method 
over  the  older;  he  merely  states  that  it  ''is  very  different  from 
that  of  Vieta,  Oughtred,  and  Harriot,  which  is  commonly 
received."  From  now  on,  however,  Newton's  method,  or 
Raphson's  and  Halley's  modification  of  it,  begin  to  be  used 
to  the  exclusion  of  earlier  ones. 


Numerical  Equations.  193 

Five  years  after  the  first  publication  of  Wallis'  Algebra, 
there  appeared,  in  1690,  in  London,  a  tract  by  Joseph  Raphson* 
(1648-1715),  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  bearing  the  title 
Analysis  aequationum  universalis.  A  second  edition,  with  an 
appendix,  appeared  in  1697.  The  method  of  approximation 
explained  in  this  tract  closely  resembles  that  of  Newton.  The 
only  difference  is  this,  that  Newton  derives,  as  we  have  seen, 
each  successive  step  p,  5,  r,  of  approach  to  the  root,  from  a 
new  equation;  while  Raphson  finds  it.  each  time  by  substi- 
tution in  the  original  equation.  In  Newton's  cubic  x'— 2x=5 
Raphson  would  start  with  the  value  2  and  find,  as  did  Newton, 
the  first  correction.  To  find  the  second  correction,  Raphson 
would  not  use  the  new  equation  x*+6a:^+10x— 1  =  0,  but 
substitute  2.1 +5  in  the  given  equation,  finding  5=— .0054. 
He  would  then  substitute  2.0946 +r  in  the  given  equation, 
finding  r= —.00004852,  and  so  on.  Wallis  printed  extracts 
from  Raphson 's  tract  in  the  Latin  edition  of  his  Algebra 
(1693). 

Raphson 's  method  was  used  in  the  eighteenth  century 
quite  extensively.  Raphson  does  not  mention  Newton;  he 
evidently  considered  the  difference  sufficient  for  his  method 
to  be  classed  independently.  He  does  mention  Vieta.  In 
our  opinion,  Raphson 's  paper  is  of  much  greater  historical 
interest  than  is  ordinarily  attached  to  it.  Its  importance 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  process  which  in  our  modem  texts 
goes  by  the  name  of  ''Newton's  method  of  approximation" 
is  really  not  Newton's  method  at  all,  but  Raphson 's  modi- 
fication of  it.    The  forvi  now  so  familiar,  a  —  jrrr  was  not  used 

by  Newton,  but  was  used  by  Raphson.    To  be  sure,  Raphson 
does  not  use  this  notation;  he  writes /(a)  and/^(a)  out  in  full 

*Or  "Ralphson"  a^  the  name  is  printed  in  Cunn's  edition  of  Raphson's 
translation  into  Englir^h  of  Newton's  Universal  ArUhmetick,  London,  1728. 
That  Joseph  Ptalphson  and  Joseph  Raphson  are  the  same  indiNndual  has  been 
proved  by  Miss  Maria  Leonard  who  pointed  out  that  Halley  in  a  Latin  article 
of  1694  refers  to  "Raphson,"  while  in  Cunn's  English  translation  of  that  article 
the  name  is  given  "Rslphson." 


194  Colorado  College  Publication. 

as  polynomials.  Nor  does  Raphson  find  the  first  derivative 
by  the  rule  of  the  calculus;  his  operations  are  purely  alge- 
braical. He  gives  " canons''  or  '* theorems"  for  the  forms 
of  the  fractions,  in  which  he  writes  down  the  polynomials /(a) 
and  f{a)  for  each  equation  up  to  that  of  the  tenth  degree 
inclusive.  A  modem  reader  finds  it  odd  to  see  Raphson 
express  g^^  by  writing  out  each  of  the  ten  factors. 

In  view  of  the  historical  facts  set  forth  here,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  method  of  approximation  should  be  named  after 
Newton  alone.  In  the  first  place,  the  process  actually  given 
by  Newton,  though  not  identical  to  that  of  Vieta,  closely 
resembles  it,  so  that  the  honor  of  invention  falls  largely  on 
Vieta.  In  the  second  place,  Newton  did  little  to  develop  his 
method;  he  solved  the  cubic  x^— 2x=5,  and  that  was  all. 
That  Raphson  worked  independently  of  Newton  we  doubt. 
But  his  version  of  the  process  represents  what  Lagrange 
recognized  as. an  advance  on  the  scheme  of  Newton.  The 
method  is  "  plus  simple  que  celle  de  Newton  ;''^  it  is  essentially 
the  form  which  the  process  has  assumed  in  modem  mathe- 
matics. It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  ''  Newton-Raphson 
method"  would  be  a  designation  more  nearly  representing  the 
facts  of  history  than  is  '* Newton's  method."  We  shall  use 
the  former  designation. 

Nearly  all  eighteenth  century  writers  and  most  of  the 
early  writers  of  the  nineteenth  century  carefully  discriminated 
between  the  method  of  Newton  and  that  of  Raphson.  Then 
appear  writers  like  Euler,  Laplace,  Lacroix^and  Legendre, 
who  explain  the  Newton-Raphson  method,  but  use  no  names- 
Finally,  in  a  publication  of  Budan  in  1807,^  in  those  of  Fourier 
of  1818  and  1831,'  in  that  of  Dandelin  in  1826,*  the  Newton- 

*Lagrange,  Risoluiion  des  iquai.  num.,  1798,  Note  V,  p.  138. 

^NouveUe  mHhodc  pour  la  risoluiion  d.  iqiiat.  num.,  Paris,  1807,  p.  78. 

*Bull.  d.  sciences  par  la  sociHi  philomatiqxie  de  PariSf  ann^  1818,  p.  61 ; 
Fourier,  Analyse  des  Equations  dHerminies,  1831,  p.  169,  173,  177. 

*N.  mimoires  d.  I'acadimie  r.  d.  sciences  et  bellcs4ettres  de  Bnixelles,  T.  3, 
1826,  pp.  28,  29. 


Numerical  Equations.  195 

Raphson  method  is  attributed  to  Newton.  The  immense 
popularity  of  Fourier's  writings  led  to  the  universal  adoption 
of  the  name  "Newton's  method '*  for  the  Newton-Raphson 
process. 

The  solution  of  numerical  equatioiis  was  considered  geo- 
metrically by  Thomas  Baker  in  1684  and  Edmund  Halley 
(1656-1742)  in  1687,  but  in  1694  Halley  "had  a  very  great 
desire  of  doing  the  same  in  numbers. ' '  He  began  by  general- 
izing, so  as  to  apply  to  roots  of  any  order,  certain  algebraic 
expressions  yielding  approximate  cube  and  fifth  roots  of 
numbers  given  in  1692  by  the  French  author  Thomas  Fantet 
de  Lagny  (1660-1734),  in  his  MHhodes  nouvdles  el  abrigSes 
pour  V extraction  et  V approxirnatiori  des  racines.  Halley  was 
then  led  to  a  method  of  solving  affected  equations*  which  he 
considered  more  compendious  than  Raphson 's.  Let  a  be 
assumed  as  near  the  required  root  as  possible.  Substitute 
a  -h  c  f or  X,  and  in  the  resulting  expression,  0  =  ft  +  S6  +  te'  +  .  • , 
reject  powers  of  e  above  the  second.  Then  solve  the  quad- 
ratic for  e.  Of  the  two  values  of  e  thus  obtained,  select  the 
one  suggested  by  the  Hnear  relation  0=b+se,  To  avoid  the 
drudgery  of  root-extraction,  he  follows  De  Lagny 's  idea  of 
approximate  solution,  using  the  formula  VV±5  =  aifca6-5- 
.(2a'zbi6). 

The  only  diffei*ence  between  Halley 's  and  Newton's 
methods  is  that  Halley  solves  a  quadratic  equation  at  each 
step,  Newton  a  linear  equation.  The  use  of  a  quadratic  is 
more  laborious,  but  usually  also  more  exact.  For  a  time 
Halley 's  method  was  received  with  favor.  His  paper  was 
republished  in  the  Miscellanea  Curiosay  London,  Vol.  II., 
1700,  in  Harris'  Lexicon  Technicunij  in  Holliday's  Syntagma 
MathesoSy  London,  1745,  and  in  the  second  English  edition 
of  Newton's  Universal  Arithmetick,  1728. 

While  in  1692  De  Lagny  had  touched  on  approximate 
jnethods  of  extracting  roots  of  numbers,  in  1705  and  1706  he 

^Philosophical  TranaacHons  No.  210,  1694,  p.  136. 


196  Colorado  College  Publication. 

took  up  the  solution  of  equations.*  He  proceeds  to  outline 
the  method  of  differences  which  we  have  already  seen  described 
36  years  earlier  in  England  by  John  Collins.  De  Lagny  does 
not  express  indebtedness  to  English  writers,  nor  have  we  found 
any  indications  of  English  influence.  While  Collins'  article 
simply  contains  gossip  as  to  what  has  been  done  in  England, 
without  proper  elaboration  of  details,  De  Lagny  explains  the 
method  more  systematically,  but  illustrates  it  only  by  solving 
quadratics.  One  device  of  De  Lagny  seems  new.  He  trans- 
forms an  equation  into  one  whose  roots  are  multiplied  by, 
say  100,  then  by  the  method  of  differences,  locates  the  root 
between  two  successive  integers,  which  yields  the  root  of 
the  original  equation  correct  to  within  .01.  We  may  also 
state  here  that  the  method  of  differences  was  discussed  in 
1767  by  Lagrange.'  In  his  second  article,  De  Lagny  solves 
trinomial  cubics  by  series. 

In  1690  appeared  the  TraiU  d'atgdbre  of  Michel  RoUe 
(1652-1719),  an  author  fond  of  strange  words  and  odd  nota- 
tions which  have  prevented  his  work  from  becoming  generally 
known.  Rolle  shows  how  to  transform  an  equation  so  that 
all  coefficients  become  integral  and  the  coefficient  of  the 
highest  power  becomes  unity,  or  so  that  all  roots  have  their 
signs  changed,  or  so  that  the  signs  (of  certain  equations) 
become  alternately  plus  and  minus.  Of  interest  is  his 
*^  method  of  cascades.''  Taking  the  largest  negative  co- 
efficient — gf,  he  divides  g  by  the  coefficient  of  the  highest 
power  of  the  unknown,  then  adds  1  to  the  quotient  and  enough 
more  to  get  a  positive  integer  h.  Here  he  recognizes  /i  as  a 
superior  limit  of  the  positive  roots.  He  takes  0  and  h  as  the 
extreme  limits  or  "hypotheses"  of  the  positive  roots.  Any 
two  values  of  the  variable  which  give  to  f{x)  opposite  signs 
are  called  "hypotheses."  He  then  finds  intermediate  "hy- 
potheses" or  limits  by  taking  the  arithmetic  mean  of  the 

^HiaUnre  de  VAcad&mie  dea  sciences,  Ann^e,  1705,  pp.  277-300:  ann^e  1706, 
pp.  296-319. 

'RisoltUion  dea  iquationa  numirufiiea,  1798,  p.  10. 


Numerical  Equations.  197 

previous  limits  and  then  testing  for  the  location  of  the  roots. 
By  repetition  of  this  process  approximations  to  a  root  may 
be  made.  The  process  is  very  cumbrous.  These  consider- 
ations led  him  to  the  "method  of  cascades.'*  In  an  equation 
in  V  which  has  alternating  signs,  put  v  =  x+z  and  arrange  the 
result  according  to  descending  powers  of  x.  The  coefficients 
of  x**,  a;"""*,  .  .  . ,  when  equated  to  zero,  are  called  "  cascades.'' 
The  modem  reader  recognizes  these  ''cascades"  as  the 
successive  derivatives  of  the  original  equation  in  v,  each  put 
equal  to  zero.  Now  comes  Rolle's  theorem:  The  roots  of 
any  Cascade,  beginning  with  the  last  cascade  and  ascending 
to  the  original  equation,  are  always  hypotheses  (limits)  of 
the  cascade  of  the  next  higher  grade.  In  case  of  imaginary 
roots,  this  theorem  needs  restriction,  as  was  recognized  by 
Rolle.  The  modem  version  of  it  is :  Between  two  successive 
roots  of /*(v)  =0  there  cannot  be  more  than  one  root  of /(v)  =  0. 
To  ascertain  the  root-limits  of  a  given  equation,  Rolle  begins 
with  the  cascade  of  lowest  degree  and  ascends,  solving  each 
as  he  proceeds.  The  process  is  very  laborious.  In  his  Algdbre 
he  gives  no  demonstrations  of  his  theorem,  but  he  is  said  to 
have  attempted  proofs  in  another  publication  issued  soon 
after;*  but  which  is  so  rare  that  none  of  the  historical  writers 
have  had  the  opportunity  to  examine  it.  What  modem  texts 
call  Rolle 's  theorem  is  quite  different  from  the  theorem  pub- 
Ushed  by  Rolle  in  his  AlgHyre.  As  pointed  out  by  Enestrom,' 
the  modem  theorem'  is  given  in  restricted  form  in  Ch.  Rey- 
neau's  Analyse  demonlr^,  (I,  p.  290),  Paris,  1708.  This 
author  refers  to  Rolle  for  his  elaborate  presentation  of  the 
theory  of  "cascades."  From  that  fact  Enestrom  conjectures 
that  Rolle  himself  gave  the  theorem  now  known  by  his  name 

»Cantor,  Vol.  Ill,  1901.  p.  123. 

^BMioiheca  Maihemalica  (3)  7,  p.  302. 

•Reyneau's  statement  is  thus:  "  Lea  racines  d'une  Equation,  dont  toutes 
les  racines  sont  relies,  positives  et  in^gales,  sent  le«  limites  de  I'equation 
nouvelle  qui  vient  de  la  multiplication  de  chaque  terme  de  la  premiere  par  le 
nombre  qui  est  I'  exposant  de  I'  inconnue  de  ce  terme,  et  de  son  dernier  terme 
par  »ero." 


198       Colorado  College  Publication. 

in  the  publication  above  referred  to  as  having  been  hitherto 
inaccessible  to  historians. 

In  1707  the  Arithmetica  universalis  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
was  published;  it  contains  among  its  rich  material  some 
references  to  our  subject.  "You  may  know  almost  by  this 
rule  how  many  roots  are  impossible;*'  then  follows  the  famous 
Newton's  rule  on  the  number  of  real  and  imaginary  roots 
which  remained  without  proof  until  Sylvester  estabhshed  in 
1864  a  general  theorem  which  includes  Newton 's  rule  as  a  par- 
ticular case.  However,  some  light  upon  the  nature  of  New- 
ton's rule  was  thrown  not  long  after  the  appearance  of  the 
Arithmetica  universalis,  by  Colin  Maclaurin  (1698-1746)* 
and  George  Campbell,'  who  published  interesting  papers 
on  imaginary  roots.  The  tests  which  they  set  labor  under  the 
restriction  of  not  revealing  the  existence  of  more  than  two 
imaginary  roots  in  an  equation. 

Newton  states  Descartes'  rule  of  signs  in  accurate  form 
and  gives  formulae  expressing  the  sum  of  the  powers  of  the 
roots  up  to  the  sixth  power  and  by  an  "and  so  on"  makes  it 
evident  that  they  can  be  extended  to  any  higher  power. 
Newton's  formulae  take  the  implicit  form,  while  similar 
formulae  given  earlier  by  Albert^  Girard  take  the  explicit  form, 
as  do  also  the  general  formulae  derived  later  by  Waring. 
Newton's  formulae  were  derived  by  the  method  of  induction 
by  A.  G.  Kaestner  in  an  article  prepared  in  1757  but  not  pub- 
lished until  1771.*  Newton  uses  his  formulae  for  fixing  an 
upper  limit  of  real  roots;  the  sum  of  any  even  power  of  all 
the  roots  must  exceed  the  same  even  power  of  any  one  of 
the  roots.  The  2m^A  root  of  the  sum  of  the  2m^/i  powers 
of  the  roots  exceeds  the  largest  root  by  an  amount  which, 
becomes  smaller,  the  larger  m  is  taken.  Newton  finds  limits 
also  in  another  way:    A  number  is  an  upper  limit,  if,  when 

^PhU.  Transactions  Vol.  34,  pp.  104-112,  Vol.  36,  1729,  pp.  59-96. 
*Phil,  Transactions  Vol.  35,  1728,  pp.  515-531. 
^Dissertationes  math,  et  phys.,  Altenburgi,  1771,  p.  1-8. 


Numerical  Equations.  199 

substituted  for  x,  it  gives  to  f{x)  and  to  all  its  derivatives  the 
same  sign. 

A  well-known  upper  limit  for  the  roots  of  an  equation  was 
established  in  1748  by  Colin  Maclaurin\  He  proved  that 
such  a  limit  is  obtained  by  adding  unity  to  the  absolute  value 
of  the  largest  negative  coefficient  of  the  equation. 

In  1717  Brook  Taylor'  (1685-1731)  made  an  application  of 
the  celebrated  series  which  bears  his  name  to  the  solution  of 
numerical  equations.  He  assumes  that  by  the  intersection  of 
curves  or  by  some  other  device  a  rough  approximation  to  a  root 
of  the  equation  /(i)  =  0  has  been  found.  Let  a  be  this  approxi- 
mation, also  let  f(a)  =  k,  f'{a)=k'y  f''(a)  =  k''y  and  x  =  a  +  s. 
He  expands  0=/(a  +  5)  by  his  theorem,  discards  all  powers  of 
8  above  the  second,  substitutes  the  values  of  /r,  fc',  k^^  and 
then  solves  for  s.  By  repetition  of  this  process,  close  approxi- 
mations are  secured.  It  is  asserted  without  proof  that  the 
values  of  s  yield  twice  as  many  decimal  places  as  were  accurate 
in  a  at  the  start,  that  j=a  +  s  is  therefore  accurate  to  three 
times  as  many  decimal  places  as  is  a  alone.  Taylor  gives  in 
this  article  essentially  Halley's  method  of  1694,  expressed 
in  the  language  of  fluxions.  In  each  step  of  the  approxi- 
mation Taylor  retains  terms  involving  s  to  the  second  power, 
while  the  Newton-Raphson  procedure  retains  only  those 
involving  s  to  the  first  power.  But  there  is  another  difference 
between  Taylor  and  his  predecessors.  Taylor  makes  the  im- 
portant observation  that  the  method  of  fluxions  solves  not 
merely  the  ordinary  equations,  but  also  equations  involving 
radicals  or  transcendental  fimctions. 

The  first  application  of  the  Newton-Raphson  process  proper 
to  the  solution  of  transcendental  equations  was  made  by  Thomas 
Simpson  (1710-1761),  in  his  Essays  .  .  ,  on  Mathematicks, 
London,  1740.  He  presents  the  Newton-Raphson  method 
there  as  a  "new  method."  The  exposition  is  in  the  language 
of  the  calculus  (fluxions). 

*Maclaurin,  Treatise  of  Algebra,  London,  1748,  p.  172. 
^PhUosophical  Transactions,  1717.  Vol.  30,  pp.  612-622. 


200  Colorado  College  Publication. 

The  use  of  the  calculus  in  the  discussion  of  methods  of 
approximation  appears  also  in  researches  carried  on  by  le 
Marquis  de  Courtivron*  (1715-1785)  who  simplified  the  trans- 
formations in  Newton 's  process  by  using  the  rules  of  differ- 
entiation for  finding  the  coefficients  of  the  transformed 
equation.  He  then  expresses  the  roots  in  the  form  of  an  in- 
finite series,  thereby  reaching  results  similar  to  results  com- 
municated by  Euler.  The  convergence  of  the  series  fails  to 
receive  proper  attention. 

Euler  made  further  application  of  the  calculus  to  the  so- 
lution of  numerical  equations  in  1755  in  hiia  InstituHanes  cal- 
culi differmtialis,  sec.  224,  234,  235.  He  used  Taylor's 
Theorem,  expressing  it,  of  course,  in  the  notation  of  Leibniz. 

De  Gua  de  Malves  (1712-1785)  gave  two  proofs  of  Des- 
cartes' rule  of  signs,'  as  already  stated,  and  he  deduced  from 
it  some  interesting  consequences  as  to  the  connection  between 
zero-coefficients  and  imaginary  roots  which  amount  to  the 
following:  The  absence  of  2m  successive  terms  indicates  2m 
imaginary  roots,  while  the  absence  of  2m+ 1  successive  terms 
indicates  2m +2  or  2m  imaginary  roots,  according  as  the  two 
terms  between  which  the  deficiency  occurs  have  like  or  imlike 
signs.  He  also  established  the  theorem  that  an  equation 
can  never  have  all  its  roots  real,  unless  the  equations  of 
inferior  degree,  gotten  by  differentiation,  have  all  their  roots 
real  also;  He  endeavored  to  establish  also  other  criteria  for 
complex  roots  involving  relations  between  the  coefficients  of 
the  equation,  as  Newton,  Stirling,  Maclaurin  and  Campbell 
had  done. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  extensive  researches  were 
carried  on  upon  the  theory  of  equations.  This  fact  is  e\ddent 
as  soon  as  we  mention  the  names  of  Waring,  Euler,  Clairaut, 
B^zout,  Lambert,  S^jour,  Vandermonde,  Marguerie,  Malfatti, 
Bring,   Hulbe,   Segner,  Mourraille,  and  finallj''  the  greatest 

^Histoire  de  VAcad&mie  Roy.  des  Sciences,  Ann^  1 744 ,  m^moirei*,  pp.  406-414. 
^Histoire  de  VAcadimie  dee  Sciencee  de  Paris.     Annde,  1741,  pp.  72-96. 
See  also  a  second  paper  of  the  same  year,  pp.  435-494. 


Numerical  Equations.  201 

name  of  all,  Lagrange.  Several  of  these  worked  in  the 
special  field  of  numerical  equations. 

Edward  Waring  (1734-1798),  published  his  first  important 
book,  the  Miscellanea  analyiica,  in  1762,  two  years  after  his 
election  to  the  professorship  of  Mathematics  at  Cambridge. 
But  as  early  as  1757  he  had  found  the  necessary  and  sufficient 
relations  which  must  exist  between  the  coefficients  of  a  quartic 
and  quintic,  for  two  and  for  four  imaginary  roots.  Such 
relations  were  published  by  him  in  1764  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions.  Waring  was  the  first  to  do  this  for  the  quintic. 
These  criteria  were  derived  by  a  new  transformation,  namely 
the  one  which  )ields  an  equation  whose  roots  are  the 
squares  of  the  differences  of  the  roots  of  the  given  equation.* 
He  gives  other  modes  of  searching  for  imaginary  roots  and 
deduces  formulae  for  the  sums  of  powers  of  the  roots  by  a 
new  process.  FormulsB  for  the  sums  of  powers  of  the  roots, 
different  from  Newton's,  had  been  derived  also  by  J.  H. 
Lambert.'  To  effect  the  separation  of  the  roots.  Waring 
transforms  an  equation  into  one  whose  roots  are  the  recip- 
rocals of  the  differences  of  the  roots  of  the  given  equation. 
The  reciprocal  of  the  largest  of  the  roots  of  the  transformed 
equation  is  less  than  the  smallest  difference  between  any 
two  roots  of  the  given  equation.  Let  A  be  this  reciprocal, 
and  n  an  upper  limit  of  the  roots  of  the  given  equation,  then 
the  subtraction  of  A,  24,  3A,  etc.,  from  n  will  give  values 
which  separate  all  the  real  roots.' 

In  the  Meditationes  algebraiccB  which  Waring  brought  out 
in  1770,  eight  years  after  the  Miscellanea  analytica,  the 
subjects  contained  in  the  earlier  work  are  treated  more  fully 
and  new  results  are  added.  Starting  with  RoUe's  researches 
he  deduces  new  rules  on  the  separation  of  the  roots  and  the 
detection  of  imaginary  roots.*    In  this  work  of  Waring  for 

^MiseeUanea  AnalyHea,  p.  17. 

*Aeia  HdveHca,  B&«ileae,  Vol.  Ill,  1758,  pp.  128-168. 

'Miaedlanea  analyticaf  p.  21. 

H)j>.  cii,,  p.  68.  Another  English  writer  on  this  topic  is  Isaac  Milner, 
who  contributed  a  paper  to  the  Philoeoph.  Transactions,  Vol.  68,  for  the  year 
1778,  London.  1779,  pp.  380-388. 


202  Colorado  College  Publication. 

the  first  time  we  find  a  process  described  for  approximating 
to  the  values  of  imaginary  roots.  If  a+i6  is  an  approxi- 
mate value  of  Xj  substitute  x=a+a'+(b-\-V)i\  expand  and 
retain  only  the  first  powers  of  a'  and  6'.  Equating  real 
numbers  to  each  other  and  the  imaginary  numbers  to  each 
other,  two  equations  are  obtained  which  yield  rough  values 
for  a'  and  V}  This  process  is  simply  Newton's  method 
extended  to  imaginary  roots. 

Three  times  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Parisian  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  considered  the  subject  of  imaginary  roots. 
The  first  time  was  in  1741  when  De  Gua  presented  papers 
of  which  we  have  already  spoken;  the  second  time  was  when 
Alexis  Fontaine  (about  1705-1771)  presented  his  papers  with 
a  scheme  of  detecting  imaginary  roots.'  He  considers 
equations  as  made  up  of  linear  factors,  real  or  imaginary, 
and  studies  all  the  combinations  which  can  be  formed  of  such 
factors.  For  each  system  of  factors  he  searches  the  charac- 
teristic relation  which  must  prevail  among  the  coefficients 
of  the  equation.  He  forms  tables  displaying  the  different 
systems  and  the  characteristic  relation  for  each.  For  the 
quartic  his  table  exhibits  617  special  cases.  The  idea  is 
practically  inoperative  and  theoretically  imperfect.'  The 
third  time  that  the  Academy  discussed  this  subject  was  in 
1772  when  Achille  Pierre  Dionis  du  S^jour  (1734-1794)  dis- 
cussed the  roots  of  the  cubic  and  quartic  in  a  way  that  drew 
out  appreciative  remarks  from  Lagrange.* 

Imaginary  roots  were  also  considered  about  this  time  by 
Euler,*^  who  established  three  criteria  (two  of  them  previously 
given  by  Newton)  which,  though  necessary  conditions,  are 

^Op.  cU.,  p.  268. 

^HUtoire  de  Vacadimie  des  sciences  de  Paris.  Ann6e,  1747,  pp.  666-677; 
Mimoires  donnis  d  Vacad.  roy.  des  sciences^  rum  imprimis  dans  leur  temps.  Par 
M.  Fontaine,  Paris,  1764,  pp.  432-588. 

^See  Lagrange,  RisoliUion  des  6qiuU.  num.,  Note  VII. 

*Histaire  de  Vacadimie  roy.  des  sciences,  ann6e,  1772,  II.  Partie,  Paris^ 
1776,  pp.  377-456.     Lagrange  Oeuvres,  T.  XIV,  p.  71. 

*.V.  Comm.  Petr.  Tom.  XIII,  pro  anno  1768,  Petropoli  1769,  p.  89-119. 


Numerical  Equations.  203 

not  suflRcient,  to  establish  the  nature  of  the  roots.    Criteria 

that  are  both  necessary  and  sufficient  were  suggested  by 

Lagrange.*    He  institutes  tests  to  see  whether  the  equation 

has  factors  x^—ax+by  where  b<a^/iy  or  not.     Imaginary 

roots  are  present  always  and  only  when  such  factors  exist. 

Lagrange  also  derives  the  familiar  criteria  of  the  nature  of 

the  roots  of  the  cubic  x'— Ba;  +  C=0;  all  roots  are  real,  two 

are  equal,  or  two  imaginary,  according  as  48*  is  greater, 

equal  to,  or  less  than  27C'.    He  gives  similar  criteria  for  the 

quartic  and  remarks  that  Waring  had  published  these  results 

before  him. 

,  Among  eighteenth  century  mathematicians  interested  in 

methods  of  approximation  was  Johann  Heinrich  Lambert 

(172S-1777)'.    InO=a-bx+cx^-  .  .  +px"',  let  x=k+y  SLud 

reject  terms  involving  the  higher  powers  of  y.    The  process 

is  substantially  that  of  Newton  and  Raphson  though  their 

researches  are  nowhei*e  mentioned  and  the  process  appears  to 

be  original  with  Lambert. 

The  only  difference  between  Lambert's  and  the  Newton- 

kf'(k)'-f(k) 
Raphson  procedure  is  that  Lambert  takes 777l\ —  ^^  the 

corrected  value  of  the  approximation,  while  in  the  Newton- 

Raphson  process,  k  —  jjjr:  is  taken.    In  other  words,  the  only 

difference  lies  in  the  mode  of  writing  a  fractional  value.' 

At  nearly  the  same  time  as  Lambert,  Lagrange  published 
his  great  paper,  Sur  la  risolutian  des  Rations  num&riques.^ 
He  explains  the  separation  of  the  real  roots  by  substituting 
for  X  the  terms  of  the  progression,  0,  D,  2  D,   .    .    .  where 

^Lagrange,  "Sur  la  determination  du  nombre  des  racines  imaginaires  dan« 
lee  Equations  literales"  in  Nouveavx  mhnoirea  de  Vacad.  roy.  de»  sciences,  annie 
1777,  BerUn,  1779,  pp.  111-139;  Lagrange,  Oeuvres  T.  IV,  pp.  343-374. 

'Acta  Helvetica,  Basileae,  Vol.  Ill,  1758,  pp.  128-168. 

•The  very  same  expression  as  that  of  Lambert  was  given  before  this  by  a 
Mr.  Wa«<tel  of  the  English  Navy  Office  and  published  in  Harris'  Lexicon  Tech- 
nicum  (1704).     See  De  Morgan  in  Companion  to  the  Brit.  Aim,,  1839,  p.  52. 

^Mimoires  de  Vacad.  roy.  des  sciences,  ann6e,  1767,  Berlin,  1769,  pp.  311- 
362 ;  Lagrange,  Oeuvres  T.  2,  pp.  539-578. 


204  Colorado  College  Publication. 

D  must  be  less  than  the  least  diflference  between  the  roots. 
The  computation  of  D  is  difficult;  Lagrange  has  suggested 
three  ways:  One  way  in  the  year  1767,  another  in  1795  and 
a  third  way  in  1798.  The  first  depends  upon  the  formation 
of  the  equation  of  the  squared  differences  of  the  roots  of  the 
given  equation.  This  new  equation  enables  him  also  to  de- 
termine the  number  of  imaginary  roots.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  Waring  before  this  had  derived  this  important  equation, 
but  in  1767  Lagrange  had  not  yet  seen  Waring 's  writings. 
Lagrange's  exposition  of  this  subject  is  far  more  elegant  than 
that  of  Waring.  Lagrange  finds  equal  roots  by  computing 
the  highest  common  factor  between /(x)  and/'(x).  Lagrange 
proceeds  to  develop  a  new  mode  of  approximation,  that  by 
continued  fraction.  Cataldi  had  used  these  fractions  in 
extracting  square  roots.  Lagrange  puts  x=p  +  l/t/,  then  in 
the  resulting  equation  he  puts  y  =  q+l/Zy  and  so  on.  The 
value  of  X  thus  appears  in  the  form  of  a  continued  fraction 
which  yields  alternately  two  kinds  of  approximate  values, 
one  kind  always  less  than  the  required  root,  and  the  other 
kind  always  greater.  In  the  case  of  rational  roots,  the  con- 
tinued fraction  is  finite.  In  the  case  of  irrational  roots,  the 
magnitude  of  the  error  appears  at  every  step  in  the  process, 
which  is  not  true  in  Newton's  or  Raphson's  process.  These 
topics  are  all  discussed  much  more  fully  in  Lagrange's  Ad- 
ditions au  m^moire  sur  la  risolution  des  Equations  numirique}  • 
Lagrange 's  method  of  approximation  can  be  used  without 
danger  of  failure.  Unlike  the  older  methods  it  has  no  cases 
of  failure.  Yet,  though  theoretically  perfect,  so  that  Lagrange 
could  say,  ''cette  m^thode  ne  laisse,  ce  me  semble,  rien  k 
d^sirer,"  it  is  of  little  value  in  practice,  for  the  root  appears 
in  the  form  of  a  continued  fraction  and  the  computation  of 
it  is  laborious,  notwithstanding  certain  short  cuts  suggested 
by  Lagrange.  He  had  a  theoretically  perfect,  though  prac- 
tically an  extremely  laborious  method  for  finding  imaginary 

^Mimoires   de  Vacad.  roy.  des   sciences,  annie,    1768,  T.  24,  Berlin,   1770, 
pp.  111-180;  Oeuvres  T.  2,  pp.  581-652. 


Numerical  Equations.  205 

roots.  If  a+i6  and  a— i6  are  a  pair  of  such  roots,  then  the 
equation  of  the  squared  differences  of  the  roots  has  a  negative 
root,  —  46\  Find  this  negative  root  and  from  it  find  6. 
Substitute  a+i6  in  the  given  equation;  from  it  derive  two 
equations  by  equating  the  real  terms  and  the  imaginary 
terms  each  separately  to  zero.  For  b  insert  its  numerical 
value.  The  two  last  equations  have  the  root  a  in  common, 
which  can  be  determined  by  the  method  of  the  greatest 
common  divisor.  Thus  the  roots  adzib  are  found.  Lagrange 
explains  the  case  of  equal  imaginary  roots. 

The  Newton-Raphson  process  was  in  great  favor  with 
many  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Euler  speaks  of  it 
as  the  best  known  process.*  In  England,  Charles  Hutton 
(1737-1823),  used  it  in  1777  in  the  computation  to  15  places 
of  the  sine  of  an  arc  of  1  minute.  He  took  the  equation 
a*— 5a' + 5a =6,  where  b  is  the  chord  of  a  given  arc  and  a 
the  chord  of  its  fifth  part.*  Hutton  says,  *^I  was  always  of 
opinion  that  Raphson's  was  an  easier  and  readier  method  of 
resolving  high  equations  than  Halley's,  etc.,  as  it  is  both 
clearer  and  requires  less  time."'  Francis  Maseres  (1731-1824) 
says  that  it.  "is,  in  general,  preferable  to  every  other."*  In 
1800  Maseres  published  Tracts  on  the  Resolution  of  Equations. 
He  was  a  leader  in  England  of  a  reactionary  movement  to 
dispense  with  negative  and  imaginary  numbers  in  algebra. 
In  one  article  he  takes  pains  to  modify  Raphson's  process, 
so  as  to  make  it  conform  with  his  self-imposed  restriction 
upon  the  number  concept.  As  regards  the  degree  of  accuracy 
obtained  by  Raphson's  processes,  Maseres  observed,  as  others 
have  done,  that  if  the  answer  is  correct  to  n  places,  the  next 
step  in  Raphson's  process  is  correct  to  2n— 1  or  2n  places. 
James  Ivory  of  the  Military  College  at  Marlow  in  1801  worked 


>Euler,  Algebra  2.  Theil,  St.  Petersburg,  1770,  Cap.  16,  p.  201. 
^Maseres,  Scriptores  LogarUhmici  Vol  6,  1807,  451-474. 
*Loe,  eii.,  p.  455. 
*Loc.  cU.  p.  353. 


206  Colorado  College  Publication. 

out  a  method  of  ascertaining  the  number  of  exact  figures* 
which  involved  a  laborious  modification  of  Raphson's  method. 

An  interesting  text,  the  Analysis  aequationum,  was  pub- 
lished in  1784  in  Dublin  by  Guil.  Hales.  The  author  explains 
how  the  maximum  (and  minimum)  root  may  be  obtained  by 
computing  the  2**^  root  of  the  sum  of  the  2"**  powers  of 
the  roots.  Hales  shows  also  how  the  presence  of  imaginary 
roots  is  revealed  by  the  successive  sums  of  powers.  He 
explains  the  method  of  Newton  and  Halley  and  refers  to 
the  work  of  Raphson,  Bernoulli,  Courtivron,  Euler,  Taylor 
and  Simpson. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Newton-Raphson  method  of 
approximation  to  the  roots  of  numerical  equations,  as  it  was 
handed  down  from  the  seventeenth  century,  labored  under 
the  defect  of  insecurity  in  the  process,  so  that  the  successive 
corrections  did  not  always  yield  results  converging  to  the 
tme  value  of  the  root  sought.  The  removal  of  this  defect 
has  been  attributed  to  Fourier,  and  is  generally  considered 
among  the  more  important  results  reached  by  Fourier  on 
numerical  equations.  But  Fourier  was  anticipated  50  years 
by  J.  Raym.  Mourraille. 

Newton's  method  was  pronounced  insecure  by  Lagrange. 
The  a  priori  determination  of  the  conditions  under  which  the 
method  can  be  used  safely  seemed  to  Lagrange  difficult,  if 
not  impossible.^  But  we  shall  see  that  Mourraille  had  re- 
moved these  difficulties  thirty  years  before  Lagrange  issued 
his  book  of  1798.  Mourraille 's  researches  are  contained  in 
his  TraiU  de  la  resolution  des  Equations  en  g^niral  (Marseille 
et  Paris,  1768).  This  large  quarto  volume  of  445  pages  has 
quite  escaped  the  notice  of  mathematicians.  The  only  re- 
view of  it  that  we  have  seen  is  in  the  Journal  des  Scavans 
in  Amsterdam,  March,  1769.  We  have  seen  no  mention  of 
the  book  in  publications  on  the  solution  of  numeiical  equations. 

^Maseres,  Scriptores  Logarithmici,  Vol.  6,  pp.  351-359. 
^Lagrange,  RisoluHon  des  Equations  numirigues,  1798,  Note  V. 


Numerical  Equations.  207 

Mourraille  was  for  fourteen  years,  until  1782,  secretary  de  la 
classe  des  sciences  of  the  academy  at  Marseille.  At  the  time 
of  the  French  revolution  he  became  mayor  of  Marseille,  and 
during  the  political  upheavals  that  followed  he  was  accused  of 
several  crimes.* 

The  main  object  of  Mourraille  was  to  perfect  Newton's 
method.  He  states  that  he  consulted  only  the  researches  of 
Newton,  Maclaimn  and  some  other  English  writers,  and  the 
French  work  (the  Analyse  demontrie)  of  Reyneau.  He  was  a 
great  admirer  of  Newton.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  Newton, 
and  (as  will  be  seen  later)  Lagrange  approached  the  problem 
of  approximation  by  purely  analytical  considerations,  while 
Mourraille  and  Fourier  both  introduced  also  geometrical  con- 
siderations and  thereby  both  arrived  at  analjiiical  criteria 
which  are  sufficient  to  insure  security  in  the  operation  of 
Newton's  method.  Mourraille  arrives  at  the  general  con- 
clusion that  one  needs  only  select,  as  the  first  approximation, 
a  value  A  for  x,  such  that  the  curve  is  convex  toward  the 
axis  of  X  for  the  interval  between  A  and  the  root.  He  shows 
that  this  condition  is  sufficient,  but  not  necessary.  With 
great  clearness  he  explains  from  a  drawing  the  possibiUties 
of  failure  of  Newton 's  method.  Whether  the  curve  is  concave 
or  convex  toward  the  axis  of  x  is  determined  by  the  methods 
of  the  calculus.  Not  only  did  Mourraille  anticipate  Fourier 
in  the  establishment  of  sufficient  conditions,  but  he  obtained 
simpler  conditions.  Fourier  demands  that  in  f{x)  =0,  neither 
f{x)  nor/''(x)  shall  vanish  for  the  interval  above  referred  to. 
The  condition  relating  to  fix)  is  not  necessary,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Darboux;  Mourraille  does  not  give  it.  Mourraille 
advances  a  new  rule  of  his  own  to  determine  whether  certain 
roots  are  distinct,  or  equal,  or  imaginary.  This  is  the  very 
rule  worked  out  independently  and  published  with  greater 
detail  sixty-three  years  later  by  Fourier  under  the  name  of 

^Hiaioire  de  Vacadimie  de  Marseille,  par  M.  J.  6.  Lautard,  1.  partie,  Mar- 
seiUe,  1826,  pp.  266,  382,  389,  396,  465;  2.  partie,  1829,  pp.  49,  334.  Aiso 
Histoire  de  MarseiUe,  par.  A.  Fabre,  t.  II,  1829,  pp.  409,  496. 


208  Colorado  College  Publication. 

"Rule  B."  Mourraille  gives  careful  consideration  to  equal 
roots,  and  the  case  of  a  single  root  at  a  point  of  inflexion, 
when  the  curve  is  concave  to  the  axis  of  x  in  its  neighborhood, 
on  both  sides.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Mourraille,  like 
Reyneau  before  him,  [avoids  all  reference  to  Descartes  rule 
of  signs. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  years  1768  to  1770  were 
years  of  great  activity  in  the  theory  of  equations.  Lam- 
bert, Euler  and  Lagrange  published  articles  on  numerical 
equations.  Of  these,  the  ones  bearing  on  the  method  of 
series,  will  be  discussed  later.  In  one  paper,  Lambert  enters 
upon  an  elaboration  of  some  of  the  results  reached  by  Waring* 
giving  special  attention  to  the  limits  of  the  roots  and  the  so- 
lution of  the  quartic. 

The  crude  mode  of  approximation  published  by  Stevin, 
consisting  merely  of  successive  trials,  appears  here  and  there 
during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  It  was 
given  in  Philipp  Ronayne's  Algebra,  London,  1717  and  1727, 
and  in  John  Kersey's  Algebra,  1673-74.  Kersey's  chapter 
on  Stevin 's  method  was  reprinted  in  William  Frend's  Algebra, 
London,  1796,  pp.  502-513.  The  first  method  of  approxi- 
mation explained  by  Jean  Antoine  Nicolas  de  Condorcet 
(1743-1794)  in  his  article  on  *' Approximation"  in  the  Ency- 
clopidie  m^thodique  (about  1784)  is  substantially  the  method 
of  Stevin.  The  only  modification  introduced  by  Condorcet 
is  a  transformation  which  multiplies  the  roots  by  10  every 
time  that  a  new  digit  in  the  root  is  to  be  found. 

We  proceed  now  to  the  efforts  put  forth  to  find  roots  of 
equations  by  the  method  of  series.  The  earliest  mathema- 
tician to  suggest  the  method  of  recurring  series  was  Daniel 
Bernoulli  (1700-1782)  who  in  1728  wrote  the  Observationes  de 
seriebus  recurrentibus.^  In  the  case  of  a  quartic,  bring  it 
into  the  form  l=ax+bx^-{-cx^  +  ex*^  then  select  arbitrarily 

^Beytraege  Z.  Gehrauche  d.  Math.  v.  deren  Anwend.  Zweyter  Theil,  Berlin, 
1770,  S.  184-249. 

^Commentarii  Academiae  Petropolitanae,  1728,  T.  Ill,  pp.  85-100.  Cantor 
III,  643. 


Numerical  Equations.  209 

four  numbers,  A,  By  C,  D,  and  find  a  fifth,  E,  thus,  E=aD  + 
bC+cB+eA,  also  a  sixth  by  the  same  recursion  formula, 
F=aE+bD+cC+eA,  and  so  on.  If  the  process  be  con- 
tinued to  a  certain  point,  and  the  last  two  numbers  found  be 
designated  by  M  and  Nj  then  x  =  M-i'N  is  an  approximate 
root.  Thus,  if  l  =  -2x+5x'-4xHx*,  then  A-B  =  C=D  =  1 
yields  £^=0,  F=2,  G=-7,  H=25,  /=-93,  K=341,  L  = 
—  1254.  Here  x^K-r-L  is  a  fairly  close  approximation,  for 
when  substituted  in  the  equation  it  gives  1=0.999487.  The 
process  is  similar  for  equations  of  higher  degree.  Bernoulli 
gives  no  proof,  but  is  aware  that  this  process  does  not  neces- 
sarily yield  results  which  converge  to  a  root  when  the  equa- 
tion has  equal  roots  or  complex  roots. 

Leonhard  Euler  (1707-1783)  perfected  this  method  in 
the  17th  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  his  IniroducHo  in  ana- 
lysin  infinitorum,  Lausannae,  1748.  By  the  use  of  partial 
fractions  and  the  expansion  into  infinite  series  by  the  method 
of  undetermined  coefficients,  he  arrives  at  general  expressions 
for  the  coeflScients  P  and  Q,  of  the  nth  and  (n  +  l)th  terms, 
such  that  the  ratio  Q-^P  approaches  the  largest  root  of  the 
equation,  as  n  increases  indefinitely.  The  results  rest  on  the 
supposition  that  there  is  a  real  root  larger  than  all  other  real 
roots  and  larger  than  the  moduli  of  complex  roots.  He  finds, 
P=i4p'*+-Bg"+  .  .  .  ,  where  /),  5,  .  .  .  are  roots  of  the 
equations.  If  p  is  the  largest  root,  then  for  very  large  values 
of  n,  P  is  nearly  equal  to  Ap^.  Similarly  Q  is  nearly  equal 
to  ilp'*+*;  hence  the  ratio  Q-r-P  is  nearly  equal  to  P.  By 
transforming  the  given  equation  into  another  whose  roots 
are  the  reciprocals  of  the  given  equation,  the  smallest  root 
of  the  given  equation  can  be  found  by  this  process.  The  idea 
of  considering  high  powers  of  other  roots  negligible  in  com- 
parison with  the  like  powers  of  the  root  which  is  numerically 
the  largest  is  due  to  Newton,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  deter- 
mined on  this  principle  an  upper  limit  of  the  roots. 

A  most  interesting  variation  of  the  method  of  recurrent 


210  Colorado  College  Publication. 

series  which  is,  however,  not  generally  applicable,  failing, 
for  instance,  when  the  second  term  of  the  equation  is  wanting, 
was  given  by  Euler  in  his  Algebra^  St.  Petersburg,  1770, 
2nd  part,  chap.  16,  p.  201.  Euler  finds  for  each  equation  a 
series  of  numbers,  a,  6,  c,  etc.,  such  that  any  number  divided 
by  its  preceding  gives  an  approximation  to  a  root,  which  is 
the  closer  the  further  the  series  is  continued.  By  this  process 
the  largest  root  is  usually  obtained,  but  no  critical  study  of 
the  conditions  under  which  it  is  appUcable  is  given  by  Euler. 

This  subject  of  recurrent  series  is  treated  by  Lagrange 
in  Note  VI  of  his  Resolution  des  ^qiuUions  num6riques.  He 
gives  devices  for  securing  more  rapid  convergence,  and  for 
approximating  to  any  real  root  of  an  equation,  provided  one 
knows  in  advance  the  limits  which  separate  that  root  from 
the  others. 

One  of  the  earliest  applications  of  series  to  equations 
was  made  by  Brook  Taylor*  in  1717  by  expressing  the  root 
of  a  quadratic  equation  in  the  form  of  an  infinite  series. 

A  method  of  determining  the  roots  of  cubic  equations  by 
infinite  series  was  given  in  1838  by  Francois  Nicole  (1683- 
1758).^  His  prime  object  was  to  assist  the  practical  com- 
puter, who  could  not  obtain  the  numerical  values  of  the  real 
roots  from  the  algebraic  solution.  He  derived  the  infinite 
series  by  expanding  each  of  the  two  radical  expression^  in 
the  algebraic  solution  by  the  binomial  formula,  and  elim- 
inating the  imaginary  terms  by  adding  the  two  expansions. 
This  mode  of  treatment  was  made  easily  accessible  to  mathe- 
maticians by  Alexis  Claude  Clairaut  (1713-1765)  who  inserted 
it  in  his  EUmmts  d'olgibre,  Paris,  1746,  a  popular  work 
which  was  translated  into  German  in  1752  by  C.  Mylius. 

The  values  of  roots  were  determined  by  Thomas  Simpson 
by  the  reversion  of  series'  in  1743,  and  by  infinite  series  in 
his  Algebra  of  1745,  second  edition  1755  (Section  XII).     We 

^Philosophical  Transactions,  Vol.  30,  pp.  612-622. 
^\fem.  Acad.  Par.,  1838,  pp.  99,  100. 
^Stath'l  Dissertations y  London,  1743,  p.  102. 


Numerical  Equations.  211 

have  previously  spoken  of  Courtivron's  discussion  of  the 
Newton-Raphson  process  which  led  him  to  expressions  for 
the  roots  in  the  form  of  infinite  series. 

The  subject  of  trinomial  equations,  which  received  a  very 
marked  attention  a  century  later,  was  first  studied  at  this 
time  by  J.  H.  Lambert.^  The  value  of  x  in  an  equation 
x^+px==g  appears  in  the  form  of  a  rapidly  converging  in- 
finite series,  and  Lambert  gives  the  condition  of  its  conver- 
gence.   Such  series  were  given  also  by  Malfatti.* 

In  a  second  publication,  Observationes  anoLyiiques,^  Lam- 
bert tells  that  when  he  arrived  in  BerUn  in  1764  he  com- 
municated to  Euler  and  later  to  Lagrange  his  results  on 
trinomial  equations,  published  in  1758,  in  the  Acta  Helyetica, 
whereupon  Euler  extended  them  to  quadrinomial  equations, 
while  Lagrange  reached  still  further  generalizations.  Euler  *s 
paper,  Observationes  circa  radices  aeqmiiionum^*^  leads  up  to  a 

A     B 

series  giving  the  largest  root  of  1  =  — I — 5.  By  induction  he 

X        X 

A      B 

arrives  at  the  corresponding  series  f or  1  =  --j  +  — .   Proceeding 

to  quadrinomial  and  to  general  equations  and  following 
devious  paths,  Euler  arrives  at  results  indicating  that  any 
root, — more  than  that,  any  power  of  a  root, — may  be  repre- 
sented by  an  infinite  series. 

The  important  research  by  Lagrange,  to  which  Lambert 
alludes,  contains  the  solution  of  the  equation  X—x+(p(x)=Q 
(where  ip{x)  is  any  function)  by  an  infinite  series,  now  known 
as  "Lagrange's  reversion  formula.''*  In  Note  XI  of  his  book 
Resolution  des  iqua^ions  num&riques  Lagrange  states  that  his 
formula  yields  the  root  which  is  numerically  the  least.     Felice 

Mcto  HdveUca,  Baaileae,  Vol.  Ill,  1758,  pp.  128-168. 

*B<mcampagni  BuU,,  T.  IX,  p.  469. 

*N.  mhnairtB  de  Vacad.  roy.  dea  sciences,  annie,  1770,  Berlin,  1772,  pp. 
226-244. 

*N.  C&mm.  Petr.  T.  XV  pro  anno  1770.     PetropoU  1771,  pp.  51-74. 

•"Nouvelle  m^thode  pour  r^aoudre  les  ^uations  littdrales  par  le  moyen 
des  s^es"  in  MHnoires  de  Berlin  T.  24, 1770;  Lagrange,  Oeuvres  T.  Ill,  pp.  5-73. 
"Sur  le  probleme  de  Kapler,"  in  the  same  memoirs,  T.  25,  1771 ;  Oeuvres  T.  Ill, 
pp.  113-138. 


212  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Chio  (1813-1871)  has  shown  that  this  is  not  always  true  and 
has  given  a  theorem  in  regard  to  this.* 

In  1776  Euler  completed  two  more  articles  on  this  sub- 
ject.' In  the  first  he  speaks  in  high  appreciation  of  Lam- 
bert's expansion  in  series  of  the  root- values  of  trinomial 
equations.  In  the  two  articles  Euler  discusses  the  repre- 
sentation by  series  of  the  roots  and  of  powers  of  the  roots, 
and  endeavors  to  simplify  and  clarify  a  subject  which  was 
then  still  enveloped  in  considerable  mystery.  Euler  makes 
no  reference  to  the  papers  of  Lagrange,  published  a  few  years 
before.  In  a  third  article  written  in  1776,  but  not  published 
until  twelve  years  later,'  Euler  deduces  still  another  series 
for  solving  equations,  but  fails  to  consider  the  all  important 
question  of  its  convergence. 

In  1794  the  subject  of  trinomial  equations  demanded  the 
attention  of  Adam  Ehregott  Leberecht  Hulbe  (1768-?)  who 
in  a  remarkable  and  much  neglected  book*  derives  series 
yielding  the  roots  of  x'^  +  Qx+R^O  and  x'^  +  Qx^-^+R^Q, 
and  pays  some  attention  to  the  question  of  convergence. 

That  the  solution  of  equations  by  series  demanded  the 
attention  also  of  Italian  mathematicians  is  evident  from  an 
article*  of  Padre  Stanislao  Canovai  (1740-1811),  who  refers 
to  Lagrange  and  Waring  and  tries  to  simpHfy  the  mode  of 
exposition  of  their  theories.  An  attempt  to  find  a  general 
solution  of  equations  is  that  of  Pietro  Franchini  (1768-1837), 
who  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Rome,  later  in  Lucques.' 
He  derives  infinite  series  for  the  calculation  of  the  roots,  but 
does  not  test  their  convergence. 

^Comptes  Rendus,  Paris,  1846,  p.  492. 

W.  Acta  Petr.  IV,  1786,  pp.  55-73,  pp.  74-95. 

«.V.  Acta  Petr.  T.  VI,  ad  ann.,  1788.     Petropoli,  1790,  pp.  16-24. 

*Analyti8che  EiUdeckungerif  Berlin  iind  Stralsund,  1794,  Capitel  4  und  5. 

^AUi  dell  'accademia  deUe  ncienze  di  Siena  detta  d4  Fisio-CriHci,  T.  VII, 
1794,  pp.  29-45. 

•Franchini,  "Sur  la  resolution  des  Equations  d'un  degr^  quelconque," 
Mimoirea  de  I'acad.  rf.  seien.  de  Turin,  annie,  1792  a  1800,  T.  VI.  Turin  1801, 
Pt.  II,  pp.  115-126. 


Numerical  Equations.  213 

In  1777  Lagrange  wrote  to  Lorgna*  that  his  researches  on 
numerical  equations,  published  in  1767  and  1768  had  not  re- 
ceived the  attention  they  deserved.  In  1798  Lagrange 
published  his  work,  De  la  risoliUion  des  Equations  num^riques 
de  Urns  les  degrSs,  Paris,  an  VI,  to  which  we  have  already 
made  frequent  reference.  Lagrange  sent  a  copy  to  Pietro 
Paoli,  with  the  remark,'  "It  contains  my  old  memoirs  on  the 
solution  of  numerical  equations,  with  numerous 

notes  on  these  memoirs  and  other  pomts  in  the  theory  of 
equations.  I  added  these  notes  to  direct  the  attention  of 
mathematicians  to  this  important  subject  in  analysis  which 
they  seem  nearly  to  have  abandoned. ' '  There  is  much  in 
the  way  of  historical  and  critical  exposition  in  these  notes. 
A  second  edition  of  this  great  book  appeared  in  1808;  a  third 
in  1826  with  an  introductory  analysis  of  the  book  by  Louis 
Poinsot  (1777-1859),  first  published  in  1808  in  the  Magasin 
encydopidique.  On  the  subject  of  the  Newton-Raphson 
method  of  approximation,  Poinsot,  who  had  not  seen  Mour- 
raille's  improvements  offers  the  suggestion  that,  since  this 
method  cannot  be  used  with  safety,  because  the  subtangent 
may  yield  corrections  diverging  from  the  true  value  of  the 
root,  one  might  draw  the  chord  of  the  arc  whose  extremities 
correspond  to  the  two  abscisses  which  mark  the  limits  of  the 
root  sought.  As  this  chord  crosses  the  axis  of  x  at  a  point 
between  these  limits,  that  point  is  sure  to  yield  a  value  closer 
to  the  value  of  the  root.  Poinsot  does  not  consider  the  case 
of  equal  roots,  nor  does  he  suggest  an  analytical  plan  for 
carrying  out  the  computation. 

This  great  book  of  Lagrange  wielded  a  wide  and  deep  in- 
fluence upon  mathematicians.  There  are  few  prominent 
writers  on  equations  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  who  do  not  refer  to  this  publication  and  make  num- 
erous extracts  from  it.    The  historical  and  critical  notes  at 

^Lagrange,  Oeuvres,  T.  XIV,  p.  253. 

^^£emoire  della  regia  acead.  di  scienze  in  Modena,  Serie  III,  T.  I,  1898, 
p.  109. 


214  Colorado  College  Publication. 

the  end  met  with  especial  appreciation  not  only  in  France, 
but  also  in  England,  Germany  and  Italy. 

SUMMARY. 

1.  The  finding  of  a  number  superior  to  the  largest  real 
root  and  inferior  to  the  least  is  taken  up  by  De  Baune  (1659), 
Newton  (1707),  Maclaurin  (1748). 

2.  The  separation  of  the  real  roots  is  studied  by  Rolle, 
Waring  and  Lagrange.  The  last  two  use  the  Protean  "equa- 
tion of  the  squared  differences." 

3.  Descartes  rule  of  signs  discovered,  (1637). 

4.  Criteria  for  imaginary  roots  given  by  Newton,  Stirling, 
Maclaurin,  Campbell,  De  Gua,  Waring,  Euler,  Fontaine, 
S^jour,  Lagrange.  Those  of  Waring  and  Lagrange  alone 
are  at  the  same  time  both  necessary  and  sufficient,  but  they 
are  excessively  laborious. 

5.  Hudde  gives  test  for  equal  roots,  (1659). 

6.  Vieta  extends  the  process  of  evolution  to  the  approx- 
imation to  the  roots  of  affected  equations,  (1600).  His 
method  is  used  by  Dechales  and  Oughtred;  it  is  slightly  im- 
proved by  Harriot  and  Wallis,  and  greatly  improved  by 
Newton,  (1669),  by  simplifying  the  divisor. 

7.  Raphson's  modification  of  Newton's  process  now  goes 
by  the  name  of  "Newton's  method."  We  shall  call  it  the 
'' Newton-Raphson  method."  It  is  re-invented  by  Wastel 
and  Lambert.  Newton's  original  method  is  modified  by 
Halley  and  Taylor.  All  these  methods  are  insecure.  Thomas 
Simpson  first  applied  the  Newton-Raphson  process  to  trans- 
cendental equations. 

8.  Waring  outlines  process  of  approximating  to  imaginary 
roots  by  Newton's  method. 

9.  The  Newton-Raphson  process  is  made  secure  by 
Mourraille,  (1768),  but  his  work  is  overlooked. 

10.  Method  of  differences  explained  by  Collins  (1669),  and 
De  Lagny  (1705).     It  is  defective  and  impractical. 


Numerical  Equations.  215 

11.  Cataldi,  (1613),  expresses  the  square  root  in  terms 
of  a  continued  fraction. 

12.  Lagrange  invents  method  of  solving  affected  equations 
by  continued  fractions  (1767),  which  is  general  (including 
imaginary  roots),  secure  and  elegant,  but  tedious  in  practice. 

13.  Solutions  by  recurrent  series  are  developed  by  Daniel 
Bernoulli  (1728),  Euler  and  Lagrange. 

14.  Solutions  by  infinite  series  are  given  by  De  Lagny  and 
Nicole  (for  cubics),  by  Lambert,  Malfatti  and  Hulbe  for  tri- 
nomial equations;  by  Courtivron,  Simpson,  Euler,  Lagrange, 
Canovai,  Franchini  for  general  equations. 

15.  Lagrange  ^s  celebrated  work,  the  Resolution  des  6quar 
tions  numeriques  de  tons  les  degr6s  is  published  in  1798. 

GENERAL   REMARKS. 

With  the  publication  of  Lagrange's  great  book  of  1798, 
containing  his  own  rich  researches  and  a  critical  summary 
of  the  work  of  other  investigators,  a  brilliant  period  in  the 
history  of  the  theory  of  equations  is  drawing  to  its  close. 
Seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century  mathematicians  have 
grappled  with  the  problem  of  the  solution  of  numerical 
equations,  wrestled  with  it,  overcome  and  exhausted  it  for 
the  time  being.  The  great  problems  have  found  a  solution. 
To  be  sure,  the  solution  may  be  mainly  theoretic;  some  de- 
vices for  actual  attainment  of  root-values  may  be  so  round- 
about and  involved  as  to  be  prohibitive  in  practice.  But 
the  theory  is  sufficiently  advanced  to  afford  the  possibility 
of  approximation  to  all  the  roots  of  algebraic  equations  with 
numerical  coefficients,  whether  the  roots  be  equal  or  unequal, 
commensurable  or  incommensurable,  real  or  imaginary. 

As  we  halt  between  two  periods,  the  query  arises,  where 
may  we  look  for  the  next  opening  of  discovery?  On  what 
field  will  the  joy  of  combat  be  felt  next?  Or  is  all  conflict 
at  an  end?  Has  the  territory  been  conquered  as  fully  as  it 
can  be?  No  general  algebraic  solution  of  higher  equations 
is  possible;  is  the  further  progress  of  approxinuUe  solution 
stopped  by  some  similar  circumstance? 


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PART  III.     MODERN  TIMES. 

Refinement  of  old  methods.     New  methods  and  fuller  conques 
of  the  im,aginary. 

1.  The  Newton-Raphson  and  Allied  Processes. 

During  the  niiK'toiriibh  century  many  theoretical  studies 
of  the  Ne^toii*RiX])hson  method  and  of  allied  methods  were 
carrieci  on,  tnspecially  in  France.  Inasmuch  as  the  Newton- 
Raphson  method  presupposes  that  a  fairly  close  approxi- 
nmtion  to  a  root  i.s  known  before  the  method  is  set  in  opera- 
tion, it  is  evident  that  the  study  of  it,  in  its  broader  aspect, 
includes  the  a!t-irnf>ortant  question  of  the  separation  of  the 
roots  and  then^fart*  also  the  detection  of  numbers  larger  (or 
sniitlJer)  than  all  the  real  roots  of  an  equation.  We  find  it 
convenient  to  group  rill  these  researches  under  the  present 
ht^iid. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  method  of  Vieta  which  is 
the  grand-parent  of  the  Newton-Raphson  process,  was,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  given  a  renewal  of 
youth  by  Heinrich  Bauer*  of  Potsdam.  That  Bauer's  pro- 
cedure is  essentially  that  of  Vieta  was  first  pointed  out  by 
the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences  to  which  Bauer  had  sub- 
mitted his  paper  prior  to  its  publication.  Vieta 's  method 
found  a  rejuvenescence  also  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1829 
by  Egen  of  Soest  in  Prussia.' 

A  dissertation  on  numerical  equations  was  published  in 
Leipzig,  in  Latin,  by  Mauricius  de  Prasse,  in  two  parts.' 
The  first  part  appeared  in  1807,  the  second  in  1811:     Prasse 

^Ueber  die  allgemeine  ErUwickelung  oiler  moeglichen  Wurzeln  der  numerischen 
algebraischen  Gleichungen  jedes  Grades,  nach  einer  neuen  Formel.  Von  Hein- 
rich Bauer,  Potsdam,  1810;  second  edition,  1825. 

'Egen,  Ueber  die  Methoden  Zahlengleichungen  durch  Ndherung  aufztUoesen. 
Elberfeld,  1829.  See  O.  Berger,  "  Entwickelungsgang  der  Auflosungstheorie 
algebraischer  Zahlengleichungen  "  im  Programm  des  Gymna&iums  m  Lemgo  fuer 
daa  Schidjahr,  1848-49. 

'Mauricius  de  Prasse  De  AeqtuUionibua  numerids  altiorum  ordinum  com- 
mentatio,  I.,  1807;  II.,  1811;  Lipsiae. 


218  Colorado  College  Publication. 

wrote  under  the  influence  of  Lagrange,  but  failed  to  develop 
new  results. 

The  discovery  of  numbers  above  the  greatest  root  and 
below  the  least,  continued  to  command  the  attention  of  certain 
writers.  In  1815  Bret,  professor  at  Grenoble,  printed  three 
theorems,*  of  which  the  following  has  frequently  found  its 
way  into  books  on  equations:  If  fractions  are  formed  by 
giving  each  fraction  a  negative  coefficient  in  an  equation  for 
its  numerator,  taken  positively,  and  for  its  denominator  the 
sum  of  the  positive  coefficients  preceding  it,  if  moreover  unity 
is  added  to  each  fraction  thus  formed,  then  the  largest  number 
thus  obtainable  is  larger  than  any  root  of  the  equation. 

Noteworthy  is  also  the  following  superior  limit,  due  to 
V^ne  :^  If  P  is  the  greatest  negative  coeflScient,  and  if  S  be 
the  greatest  coeflScient  among  the  positive  terms  which  pre- 
cede the  first  negative  term,  then  will  P-t-«S  +  1  be  a  superior 
limit  to  the  positive  roots  of  the  equation. 

The  subject  of  limits  was  taken  up  again  in  1843  by  Thi- 
bault'  who  gives  two  rules  for  the  upper  Umit  of  the  roots 
and  then  proceeds  to  explain  an  easy  detection  of  commen- 
surable roots  in  the  case  of  an  absolute  term  with  a  large 
number  of  factors.  Half  a  century  later,  in  1892,  Fouret 
says  that  in  works  on  algebra  the  rule  of  Newton  on  the 
superior  limit  of  roots  is  usually  given,  which  says  that  any 
value  of  X  which  renders /(x)  and  its  derivatives  of  the  same 
sign,  is  such  an  upper  limit.  In  place  of  the  ordinary  pro- 
cedure of  substituting  —  x  for  x,  in  order  to  find  an  inferior 
limit,  Fouret  suggests  the  following  in  completion  of  Newton's 
nile:*  The  value  of  x,  positive  or  negative,  which,  when 
substituted  in/(x)  and  its  successive  derivatives,  gives  results 
alternatively  positive  and  negative,  is  an  inferior  limit.     He 

^Annales  de  mathimatiques  purea  et  appliquea  (Gergonne),  T.  6,  1815,  pp. 
112-122. 

^Mitnoirea  de  Vacad^mie  de  Bruxelles,  1822,  1824. 

^NouveUes  Annales  de  math.y  T.  II.,  1843,  pp.  517-527. 

*  Bulletin  de  la  8ocUt6  math,  de  France,  T.  20,  1892,  pp.  4-6. 


Numerical  Equations.  219 

also  gives  a  rule  for  the  inferior  limit,  suggested  by  one  of 
Thibault's  rules  for  the  superior  limit.  ^  Articles  on  superior 
and  inferior  limits  were  also  wiitten  by  Mourgues,'  by  Gislard 
Vanson/  and  by  Laguerre,  as  we  shall  see  later. 

A  test  for  the  absence  of  all  roots  from  a  given  interval 
was  given  by  Bellavitis  in  1846  which  is  of  practical  value, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  is  quite  involved.* 

Of  importance  in  the  detection  of  imaginary  roots  is  the 
memoir,  published  in  1807  in  Paris  by  the  French  physician 
F.  D.  Budan,  under  the  title  NouveUe  rrdihode  pour  la  riso- 
liUian  des  iqiuUions  rCum^riques,  It  contained  results  reached 
by  him  as  early  as  1803.  Budan  gjves  (p.  26)  the  theorem, 
deduced  from  Descartes'  Rule  of  Signs,  that  an  equation 
whose  roots  are  all  real  cannot  have  as  many  as  n  roots  be- 
tween zero  and  a  positive  number  p,  unless  the  equation  has 
at  least  n  more  variations  in  sign  than  the  equation  obtained 
by  writing  x— p  for  x.  The  enunciation  of  this  theorem  is 
followed  by  the  remark  that  "we  have  strong  reasons  for  the 
belief'  that  this  proposition  is  **  applicable  to  any  equation,'' 
whose  roots  are  not  necessarily  all  real.  What  is  nowadays 
known  as  '* Budan 's  theorem"  is  the  theorem  given  above, 
generalized  for  "any  equation."  From  these  statements  it 
follows  that  in  1807  Budan  had  not  only  not  proved  the  general- 
ized theorem,  but  had  not  yet  satisfied  himself  that  it  is 
really  true.  This  fact  is  of  importance  in  the  consideration 
of  the  question  of  priority  between  Fourier  and  Budan. 
In  1811  Budan  read  a  paper  before  la  premiere  classe  de  1' 
Institut,  in  which  he  aimed  to  give  a  rigorous  demonstration 
of  the  general  theorem  known  by  his  name.  The  paper  was 
referred  to  Lagrange  and  Lrcgendre,  who  reported  that  the 
proof  lacked  certain  developments  which  could,  however,  be 
easily  supplied,  that  the  theorem  was  new  and  useful,  though 

^Loc,  cU.f  p.  37. 

W.  Ann.  Terq.,  18.50,  Vol.  9.  p.  108-115. 
»Ar.  Ann.  Terq.,  1852,  Vol.  XI,  p.  61,  107. 

*Memarie  dell'  I.  R.  latittUo  Veneto  di  scienze,  etc.,  Vol.  III.,  1846,  §34; 
also  1860,  p.  183. 


220  Colorado  College  Publication. 

not  always  capable  of  indicating  the  limits  of  each  of  the  real 
positive^roots,  that  it  can  be  applied  to  negative  roots  by 
writing  —  x  for  x,  that  it  is  an  "extension  of  Descartes'  Rule/' 
In  1822  Budan's  pamphlet  of  1807  was  re-published,  along 
with  his  proof  of  1811,  Lagrange  and  Legendre's  report  on 
the  same,  and  some  additional  notes  by  Budan.  We  shall 
see  that  Budan 's  theorem  is  nearly  identical  in  principle, 
although  different  in  statement,  to  a  theorem  of  Fourier 
which  was  printed  in  1820,  although  discovered  by  Fourier 
much  earlier. 

Legendre*  set  up  a  simple  upper  limit  for  the  positive 
real  roots.  He  applied  •  the  Newton-Raphson  process  to 
finding  the  greatest  root  f  of  a  "fonction  omale''  (a  function 
either  steadily  increasing  or  steadily  decreasing  while  x  is 
increasing  from  zero.)  After  depressing  the  degree  of  the 
equation,  through  division  by  x— ^,  he  repeats  the  process 
with  the  new  equation.  As  a  second  method,  Legendre 
breaks  an  equation  up  into  two  simple  **  omale''  functions  and 
finds  the  intersection  of  their  graphs.  Finally,  Legendre 
proceeds  to  the  determination  of  imaginary  roots,  using  here 
the  integral  calculus.  The  search  of  a  root  is  reduced  by  him 
to  the  solution  of  a  binomial  equation. 

Legendre's  research  on  the  "fonction  omale"  was  dis- 
cussed by  fivariste  Galois,^  who  suggests  a  substitute  for  one 
of  the  processes  indicated  by  Legendre. 

In  1818  B^rard  of  Nismes  published  a  pamphlet,  entitled 
MUhodes  nouvelles  pour  determiner  les  racines  des  Equations 
num^riques,  which  lays  stress  on  geometric  and  mechanical 
aids  to  computation,  later  perfected  by  Lalande.  B6rard 
approximates  to  the  roots  of  equations  by  Newton's  method 
which  he  endeavors  to  render  sure  by  certain  new  modes  of 
verification  first  published  by  him  in  1810  in  his  Opuscules 

^M&maires  d.  l*acad.  r.  d.  sciences  de  I'InstUtU  de  France^  Ann4e  1816,  I, 
page  x;  TfUorie  des  nombres,  Paris,  1830,  T.  II.,  pp.  396-463. 

^BulleHn  d.  scien.  math,  de  M.  FSrusaac,  T.  13,  1830,  p.  413. 


Numerical  Equations.  221 

mathimatiques.^  The  theory  is  vitiated  by  the  use  of  a  false 
theorem,  advanced  by  him,  on  the  number  of  real  and  imagin- 
ary roots. 

The  subject  of  imaginary  roots  continued  to  command 
the  attention  of  mathematicians  with  ever  increasing  interest. 
Not  only  in  France,  but  also  in  Italy  and  in  Germany  we  meet 
with  serious  attempts  to  conquer  this  field. 

In  a  paper ^  of  1823  an  Italian  investigator,  Geminiano 
Poletti,  passes  in  critical  review  the  methods  of  finding  im- 
aginary roots,  namely,  Lagrange's  method  by  the  equation 
of  the  squared  differences  of  the  roots,  Euler's  method  of 
forming  two  equations  by  equating  the  reals  and  the  imagin- 
aries,  and  Legendre's  modification  of  this.  Poletti  then  pro- 
ceeds to  his  own  method  of  formmg  two  equations,  the  first 
of  which  contains  the  real  parts  of  complex  roots  and  the 
other  the  squares  of  the  imaginary  parts,  and  then  solving 
each  by  Budan's  process. 

The  solution  of  numerical  equations  was  studied  with 
predilection  by  Joseph  Fourier  (1768-1830).  He  made  it 
the  subject  of  his  earliest  researches.  "About  the  close  of 
the  year  1789,"  says  Arago,  "Fourier  repaired  to  Paris  and 
read  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  a  memoir  on  the  resolu- 
tion of  numerical  equations  of  all  degrees.  This  work  of 
his  early  youth  our  colleague,  so  to  speak,  never  lost  sight  of. 
He  explained  it  at  Paris  to  the  pupils  of  the  Polytechnic 
School ;  he  developed  it  upon  the  banks  of  the  Nile  in  presence 
of  the  Institute  of  Egypt ;  at  Grenoble,  from  the  year  1802,  it 
was  his  favorite  subject  of  Conversation  with  the  professors 
of  the  Central  School  and  of  the  Faculty  of  Sciences;  this 
finally  contained  the  elements  of  the  work  which  Fourier 
was  engaged  in  seeing  through  the  press  when  death  put  an 
end  to  his  career."* 

'Cauchy,  Oeuvres  compUtes,  Ire  s^rie,  T.  V.,  Paris,  1895,  p.  501. 

'"Nuovo  metodo  per  determinare  le  radici  immaginarie,  etc.'*  di  G.  Pol- 
etti, M.  Accad.  Torino,  1826,  T.  XXX.,  pp.  49-80;  1831  T.  XXXV. 

*F.  Arago,  Biographies  of  Di^inguiahed  Scientific  Men.  First  Series.  Bos- 
ton, 1859,  p.  380.     (Joseph  Fourier). 


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226  Colorado  College  Publication. 

the  two  roots,  if  real,  lie  between  a  and  r,  and  we  make  the 
same  tests  for  these  limits  that  we  made  for  a  and  b.  Fourier 
asserts,  without  offering  formal  proof,  that,  continuing  this 
process,  we  can  surely  determine  whether  the  two  roots  are 
real  or  complex. 

Dropping  the  restriction  that  the  index  of  f"{x)  is  zero, 
Fourier  tests  the  nature  of  the  two  or  more  roots,  which  by 
Theorem  A  may  lie  between  a  and  6.  He  examines  the 
indices  from  right  to  left  until  the  index  1  is  reached.  Let 
the  corresponding  function  be  /'*(x).  By  Theorem  A,  /'•(x) 
=0,  has  only  one  root  between  a  and  6;  this  is  real.  It  is 
shown  that  the  index  to  the  right  of  1  must  be  2.  If  the 
index  to  the  left  of  1  is  not  0,  it  can  be  made  0  by  narrowing 
the  limits  from  a — b  to  a' — b\  Suppose  now  that  the  three 
indices  in  question  are  0, 1,  2,  and  that  no  index  1  has  appeared 
during  the  change  of  limits  farther  to  the  right  in  the  series. 
In  this  case,  and  this  only  need  we  look  for  complex  roots. 
In  other  cases,  where  the  indices  0,  1,  2,  do  not  appear,  Four- 
ier's process  affects  a  separation  of  the  roots.  The  indices 
0,  1,  2,  show  that  between  a'  and  fe',  /'*+*(x)  =0  has  no  roots, 
and  /"(x)  =  0  has  one  real  root,  while  f'^^^{x)=0  cannot  have 
more  than  two  roots.  If /"^^x)  =  0  has  two  real  roots,  then 
the  root  <p  of  /**(x)=0  must  yield  opposite  signs  for  /""'"H^) 
and  /"^^  (<p) ;  otherwise  the  signs  are  alike.  If  Z**""*  (x)  =  0  has 
two  complex  roots,  it  follows  that/(x)=0  has  two  also.  In 
proceeding  to  separate  the  remaining  roots  between  a  and  fe, 
diminish  each  of  the  indices  to  the  right  of /"(x)  by  2  and  pro- 
ceed with  the  new  series  of  indices  as  before. 

By  this  process,  which  is  not  as  difficult  in  practice  as 
might  be  inferred  from  our  statement  of  it,  Fourier  separated 
the  real  roots  and  determined  the  number  of  complex  roots. 
He  felt  that  he  had  made  a  real  advance  over  Lagrange. 
Lagrange  had  disposed  of  this  question  by  computing  the 
least  difference  between  successive  roots.  As  this  computa- 
tion is  usually  exceedingly  long  and  tedious,  it  is  of  little 
value  in  practice. 


Numerical  Equations.  227 

One  point  in  Fourier's  exposition  deserves  closer  attention. 
Fourier  says*  that,  if  two  roots  which,  according  to  Theorem 
A,  are  to  be  looked  for  between  a  and  b  are  "lost"  in  the 
interval,  it  is  because  some  derivative,  say /'*(x),  vanishes  for 
a  value  <p  that  lies  between  a  and  6,  while  its  two  neighboring 
derivatives  assume  like  signs  for  x=<p,  "This  is  the  general 
character  of  imaginary'  roots,  that  the  series  of  signs  loses  in 
this  case  two  variations.  If  the  middle  function  vanishes, 
then  ^  is  a  critical  value,  which  corresponds  to  a  pair  of  im- 
aginary roots.'*  This  statement  was  commented  upon  by 
Gauss'  who  says:  "Fourier  calls  such  places  critical;  each 
such  critical  place  insures  accordingly  the  loss  of  two  real 
roots;  when,  however,  Fourier  at  the  same  time  asserts  that 
two  roots  thus  dropping  out  become  imaginary,  we  cannot 
admit  his  mode  of  expression,  for  it  may  easily  give  rise  to 
misconception.  To  be  sure,  it  is  true  that  the  equation  X=0 
contains  altogether  exactly  as  many  pairs  of  imaginary  roots 
as  there  are  such  critical  places;  but  the  values  of  the  imagin- 
ary roots  are  as  definite  as  those  of  the  real,  and  the  above 
mode  of  expression  can  easily  be  so  interpreted  as  if  to  each 
particular  gap  there  belonged  a  definite  pair  of  imaginary 
roots,  which  is  not  only  not  proved  by  Fourier,  but  must 
remain  doubtful  until  deeper  researches  place  this  interesting 
point  in  a  clear  light."  This  question  still  awaits  the  deej^er 
research. 

In.  the  second  book  of  the  Analyse  des  Equations  diter- 
minxes  Fourier  proceeds  to  explain  how  to  effect  approxima- 
tions to  the  roots.  The  nieth(xl  of  Horner,  published  in 
England  twelve  years  earlier,  was  unknown  to  him.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  the  perfection  of  Newton 's  method  and  he  be- 
lieved that  he  was  the  first  to  show  how  it  could  be  made  to  yield 
results  always  converging  to  the  required  root.  Let  the  roots 
be  distinct  and  separated.  Assume  that  one  root  lies  between 
a  and  b.     If  the  three  right  hand  indices  are  not  0,  0,  1,  find 

^Analyse,  p.  28. 

H}aiA88,  Oeg.  Werke,  Vol.  III.,  p.  120. 


228  Colorado  College  Publication. 

closer  limits  so  that  the  indices  do  be(;ome  0,  0,  1.^  When 
this  is  so,  the  two  equations  /"(x)=()  and  f'(x)=^0  have  no 
roots  between  the  limits.  Hence  the  graph  of  fix)  =0  has 
no  point  of  inflexion  and  no  tangent  parallel  to  the  X  axis 
between  the  last  found  limits.  Next,  care  must  be  exercised 
to  begin  the  approximation  with  that  limit  which  gives  f(x) 
and  /"(x)  the  same  signs;  that  is,  the  limit  from  which  the 
part  of  the  graph  between  the  limits  appears  convex.  The 
use  of  the  other  limit  may  result  in  failure  to  approximate  to 
the  required  root.    If  the  limit  to  be  chosen  is  <p,  then 

fU)  . 
<p'  ^9^jrr\  is  a  value  closer  to  the  root.    In  the  case  of  equal 

roots,  find  the  factor  common  to  f{x)  and  f{x).  Equating 
this  factor  to  zero  and  solving  reveals  the  equal  roots. 

Fourier  names  one  condition  for  insuring  success  in  the 
approximation  which  Mourraille  in  1768  had  not  given, 
namely  the  condition  that /'(x)  shall  have  no  root  lying  between 
the  limits  finally  chosen.  It  was  G.  Darboux'  who  proved 
that  this  condition  is  not  necessary,  that  the  approximation 
can  always  be  carried  on  safely,  when  /(x)  =0  has  only  one  real 
root  between  the  limits,  if /''(x)=0  does  not  change  its  sign 
between  these  limits,  and  the  computation  begins  with  the 
limit  which  gives  to  f{x)  and  /"(x)  the  same  signs. 

Fourier  w^as  not  merely  a  theorist;  he  was  interested  in 
practical  computation  as  well.  For  that  reason  he  did  not 
stop  after  having  shown  how  the  roots  can  always  be  safely 
obtained,  but  set  to  himself  three  further  tasks  ?  1.  To  form- 
ulate a  process  of  division  which  avoids  all  unnecessary  com- 
putation of  digits;  2.  To  carry  out  the  successive  substitu- 
tions in  computing  the  root,  so  that  no  part  of  the  operation 
is  repeated.  3.  To  determine  the  degree  of  approximation 
at  each  step.    The  details  worked  out   by  Fourier  are  too 

^Analyse,  p.  180. 

^"Sur  la  m^thode  d 'approximation  de  Newton,"  Nouv.  Anncdes  de  math., 
2me  s^rie,  T.  VIII.,  pp.  17-27,  1869. 
^Analyse,  p.  187. 


Numerical  Equations.  229 

specialized  for  ordinary  instruction  in  schools.  His  division 
ordon^  is  given  by  several  modem  writers.* 

Fourier  proceeds  from  the  Newton-Raphson  method — an 
approximation  of  the  first  order — to  the  elucidation  of  the 
principles  of  approximation  of  the  second  order.'  Mention 
will  l:)e  made  later  of  several  other  interesting  matters  touched 
upon  by  Fourier,  such  as  the  solution  of  transcendental 
equations'  developed  later  by  M.  A.  Stem  and  others,  and 
the  solution  of  equations  by  the  method  of  iteration*  and  by 
recurrent  series.*  This  last  method,  first  suggested  by 
Daniel  Bernoulli  and  Euler,  and  later  extended  somewhat  by 
Lagrange,  was  still  further  extended  by  Fourier,  so  as  to 
apply  to  imaginary  i-oots,  but  unfortunately  the  results  were 
never  made  public.  Fourier  died  before  the  results  were 
put  in  shape  for  publication. 

Even  before  the  publication  of  Fourier's  great  work  on 
numerical  equations  there  appeared  a  short  article  on  imag- 
inary roots  which  far  surpassed  in  beauty  that  which  Fourier 
had  offered  on  this  subject.  We  refer  to  the  classic  theorem 
of  Charles  Sturm  (1803-1855).  De  Morgan  has  tmly  said 
that  this  theorem  "is  the  complete  theoretical  solution  of  a 
difficulty  upon  which  energies  of  every  order  have  been  em- 
ployed since  the  time  of  Descartes/'  The  theorem  was  first 
published,  without  proof,  in  1829. •  Sturm  explains  in  that 
article  that  he  had  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  reading  Fourier's 
researches  while  they  were  still  in  manuscript  and  that  his 
own  discovery  was  the  result  of  the  close  study  of  the  prin- 
ciples set  forth  by  Fourier.  The  limits  imposed  upon  this 
monograph  do  not  permit  us  to  enter  upon  the  details  of  the 

*J.  Luroth's  Vorle9ungen  ueber  numerisches  Rechnen,  Leipzig,  1900,  p.  49, 
51,  takes  up  Fourier's  division  ordonie  and  makes  some  corrections  ou  it.  It  is 
also  explained  in  O.  Biermann  's  Vorlesungen  ueber  mcUhemcUische  Ndherunga- 
meihoden,  Braunschweig,  1905,  pp.  18-22. 

^Analyaef  p.  218. 

^Analyse,  p.  59. 

*Analy8ef  p.  40. 

^Analy8e,  p.  68-72. 

*BulUiin  des  Bciencen  par  Firuasac,  Sec.  1,  T.  II.,  1829. 


230  Colorado  College  Publication. 

history  of  Sturm  *s  theorem,  nor  to  attempt  to  discuas  the  pro- 
found researches  in  connection  with  it  that  have  been  earned 
on  by  Sylvester,  Hermit  and  others.*  Proofs  of  Sturm's 
theorem  were  given  in  1830  by  v.  Ettinghausen,'  in  1832  in 
Choquet  and  Mayer's  Algebra,  and  in  1835  by  Sturm  himself.* 

Means  for  determining  with  certainty  the  number  of  real 
and  imaginary  roots  of  numerical  equations  with  real  co- 
efficients were  invented  by  the  mathematicians  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  and  by  Fourier.  But  the  devices  used  by 
them  were  crude  rules  rather  than  theorems.  It  is  here  that 
Sturm  made  his  great  advance.  His  theorem  wais  a  great 
contribution  to  the  theory  of  equations;  however  it  brought 
about  no  revolution  in  the  methods  pursued  by  the  practical 
computer. 

In  the  second  article  on  his  own  theorem,  Sturm  points 
out  how  the  theorem  may  be  utilized  in  the  approximation 
to  roots.  By  the  theorem  of  Sturm  one  can  ascertain  the 
number  of  complex  roots  of  an  equation,  but  not  their  loca- 
tion. That  limitation  offered  an  opportunity  for  further 
investigation.    This  was  accomplished  in  a  brilliant  research 

*For  the  history  of  Sturm's  theorem  see  Nouveiles  AnnaUs  de  Mathhna- 
tiques,  (2)  Vol.  VI.,  1867,  pp.  238,  428;  Sylvester's  Presidential  Address  to  the 
Mathematical  and  Physical  Section  of  the  British  Association  at  Exeter,  1869, 
reprinted  in  Sylvester's  Laws  of  Verse,  1870,  p.  115;  Ndther's  Biography  of 
Sylvester  in  Mathematische  Annalen,  Vol.  50,  1898,  p.  139.  Duhamel  and  Syl- 
vester both  state  that  they  received  their  information  from  Sturm  directly,  by 
word  of  mouth.  Yet  the  two  statements  of  the  mode  of  discovery  do  not 
seem  to  agree.  According  to  Sylvester,  the  theorem  "stared  him  (Sturm)  in 
the  face  in  the  midst  of  some  mechanical  investigations  connected  with  the 
motion  of  compound  pendulums."  According  to  Duhamel,  the  discovery  was 
not  the  result  of  observation,  but  of  a  well-ordered  line  of  thought  as  to  the 
kind  of  function  that  would  meet  the  requirements.  Perhaps  both  statements 
are  correct,  but  represent  two  different  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  discovery 
in  Sturm's  mind.  How  Sturm  came  to  think  of  changing  the  signs  of  the  re- 
mainders in  the  Euclidean  division  has  never  been  satisfactorily  brought  to 
light. 

^Wiener  Zeitnchrift  fuer  Math.  u.  Phys.,  Vol.  7,  reprinted  in  Crelle's  Journal, 
Vol.  13,  1835,  p.  119. 

^Mtmoires  prisintes  par  divers  savans  d  I'Acad^mie  royale  des  sciences  de 
VInsiitut  de  France,  T.  6,  Paris,  1835,  pp.  271-318.  A  German  translation  of 
this  has  been  brought  out  bv  A.  Loewy  in  Ostuxdd  *«  Klassiker  No.  143,  Leipzig, 
1904. 


Numerical  Equations.  231 

by  another  great  Frenchman,  Augustin-Louis  Cauchy  (1789- 
1857).  He  discovered  a  general  theorem  which  reveals  the 
number  of  roots,  whether  real  or  complex,  which  lie  within 
a  given  contour.  This  theorem  makes  heavier  demands  on 
the  mathematical  attainments  of  the  reader,  and  for  that 
rea.son  did  not  attain  the  celebrity  of  Sturm's  theorem.  But 
it  enlisted  the  lively  interest  of  men  like  Sturm,  Liouville  and 
Moigno,  who  endeavored  to  throw  it  into  a  form  more  readily 
understood.  Cauchy 's  first  announcement  of  his  proposition 
was  made  in  1831,  in  a  memoir  presented  to  the  Academy  of 
Turin.  ^  At  that  time  Cauchy  expounded  the  theorem  with 
the  aid  of  the  Integral  Calculus,  but  in  1837  he  published  in 
the  Journal  de  V^ole  polytechniquey  Vol.  15,  p.  176,  a  memoir 
in  which  he  dispensed  with  the  Integral  Caltmlus  and  based 
the  theorem  on  the  theory  of  indices  of  functions. 

Cauchy 's  theorem  enables  one  to  decide  how  many  equal 
or  distinct  imaginary  roots  are  such  that  their  real  parts  lie 
between  a  and  6,  and  their  imaginary  parts  lie  between  ^ 
and  /i.  This  test  has  enjoyed  considerable  popularity.  For 
instance,  it  was  given  by  J.  Dienger  in  his  Tfieorie  und  Auf- 
losung  der  hdheren  Gleichiingen^  Stuttgart,  1866  (p.  66),  by 
De  Morgan  in  his  Trigonometry  and  Double  Algebra,  London, 
1849  (p-  141)  and  in  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia ,  article  "Theory 
of  Equations,''  by  Todhunter  in  his  Theory  of  Equations , 
London,  1880  (p.  231).  An  article  which  connects  with  the 
theorem  of  Cauchy  was  written  in  1882  by  Thomas  Bond 
Sprague,'  entitled,  "On  the  nature  of  the  curves  whose  inter- 
sections give  the  imaginary  roots  of  an  algebraic  equation." 

While  the  methods  of  separating  the  roots  worked  out  by 
Fourier  and  Sturm  apply  only  to  algebraic  equations,  theorems 
applicable  to  more  general  tyi^es  were  published  in  Berlin 
by  E.  H.  Dirksen  in  1835.' 

*C.  A.Valson,  Lavieet  les  travaux  du  Baron  Cauchy,  T.  II.,  Paris,  1868,  p.  84. 

*Trans.  of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Edinburgh,  Vol.  30,  part  II.,  pp.  467-480. 

•"  Ueber  die  Trennung  der  reellen  Wurzeln  reeller  numerischer  Gleichunffen 
etc."  in  Ahhandl.  d.  Akad.  z.  Berlin  fuer  1835;  bosondera  abgetlruckt  in  Berlin, 
1837. 


232  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Special  practical  rules  for  the  separation  of  the  real  roots 
of  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  degrees  were  suggested  in  1867 
b)^  J.  Rouget/ 

A  remarkable  article  was  published  in  1826  by  G.  Dande- 
lin,^  then  of  the  University  of  Lifege.  After  a  discussion  of 
the  limits  of  a  root,  the  author  proceeds  to  a  study  of  the 
Newton-Raphson  method  of  approximation,  and  is  led  to 
the  establishment  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  method 
can  be  used  with  security.  Dandelin  had  no  knowledge  of 
the  work  of  Mourraille  or  Fourier,  and  gave  a  geometric  dis- 
cussion that  is  less  exhaustive  but  more  concise  than  that  of 
Mourraille.  As  Fourier's  researches  on  this  point  were  first 
pubHshed  in  1818,  Dandelin  must  go  on  record  as  having 
been  anticipated  in  his  improvement  of  the  Newton-Raphson 
process  by  two  men,  Mourraille  and  Fourier.  Like  Mourraille 
Dandelin  succeeds  in  the  establishment  of  sufficient  condi- 
tions for  the  safe  use  of  the  Newton-Raphson  formula  which 
are  simpler  than  the  conditions  of  Fourier.  If  the  given 
equation  is  f{x)=0,  and  b  an  approximate  root-value,  then 
DandeHn  simply  insists  that  f{b)  .  f''{b)>0  and  that  /""{x) 
shall  not  vanish  in  the  intervar  between  which  the  root  lies. 
Fourier's  additional  limitation  that  f{x)  shall  not  vanish 
in  the  interval  is  not  given.  We  are  led  to  infer  by  a  remark 
of  Dandelin  that  he  was  induced  to  investigate  this  subject 
by  Lagrange's  belief  that  it  was  not  possible  to  set  up  a  priori 
conditions, 

Fourier's  book  of  1831  possessed  elements  of  popularity 
in  its  elegant  style  of  exposition  as  well  as  in  the  novelties  of 
its  contents.  Everywhere  it  met  with  almost  instantaneous 
appreciation.  In  England,  authors  of  text-books  like  R. 
Stevenson*  and  R.  Murphy*  gave  expositions  of  Fourier's 

^Rigles  prcUiqiiea  pour  op^er  la  separation  imnUdiaie  des  racines  rieUeSj 
Paris,  1867. 

^Nouveaux  mSmoires  de  I'acadUmie  roy.  d.  scien.  ct  bell,  de  Bruxelles,  T.  3, 
1826,  pp.  7-71 ;  See  also  Correspondance  math,  et  phya.  Gand,  T.  II.,  1826,  p.  48. 

^Algebraic  Equations,  Cambridge,  2nd  Edition,  1835. 

^Algebraiccd  Equations,  London,  1839. 


Numerical  Equations.  233 

results  at  a  time  when  they  had  not  yet  heard  of  .the  earlier 
researches  of  their  own  countryman,  W.  G.  Homer.  In 
Germany,  M.  W.  Drobisch*  as  early  as  1834  explained  the 
theories  of  the  iUustrious  Frenchman,  while  Crelle  in  Berlin 
inserted  in  his  Journal^  Vol.  13,  1835,  p.  119,  a  valuable 
review  not  only  of  Fourier,  but  also  of  Sturm,  and  Grunert 
published  ah  account  of  Fourier  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
Archiv  (1811).  In  1837  J.  A.  Eytelwein  brought  out  in  Berlin 
a  monograph  on  numerical  equations,  which  gives  an  expo- 
sition of  Fourier  and  Sturai.'  We  shall  see  that  immediately 
after  tho  publication  of  Fourier's  great  work  of  1831,  much 
ingenuity  was  exercised  by  Stem  of  Gottingen  in  restoring 
and  extending  some  of  Fourier's  deductions. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  weak  points  in  the  theories 
of  Fourier  would  be  exposed  to  a  clearer  light  and  that  at- 
tempts would  be  made  to  remedy  them.  In  England  this 
was  done  by  Murphy  and  particularly  by  J.  R.  Young. 

J.  R.  Young  prepared  two  books  on  numerical  equations: 
An  introductory  volume  on  the  Analysis  and  Solution  of 
Cubic  and  Biquadratic  Equations,  London,  1842,  and  Theory 
and  Solution  of  Algebraical  Equations,  London,  1835,  second 
edition  1843.  In  these  works  he  criticized  Fourier  and  Sturm 
on  the  following  points : 

(1)  Fourier  depends  upon  the  method  of  division  for  the 
determination  of  equal  roots — a  method  which  involves  much 
labor,  except  in  very  simple  examples. 

(2)  The  separation  of  roots  that  lie  so  close  together  as 
to  have  four  or  five  leading  figures  in  common,  is  delayed  in 
Fourier's  process  to  so  remote  a  step  that  the  patience  of  the 
computer  is  exhausted  before  reaching  it.  In  the  same  way 
the  recognition  of  imaginary  roots  by  Fourier's  process  is 
exceedingly  tedious  when  the  roots  are  in  the  peculiar  pre- 

^Grundtuege  der  Lehre  von  d.  hoeh.  num.  OleichungeUf  Leipzig,  1834. 
^Anweintng  z.  Aufl.  d.  hoeh.  num.  Gleichungen,  Berliiii  1837. 


234  Colorado  College  Publication. 

dicament  of  being  rendered  real  by  very  minute  change  in 
value  of  the  absolute  term. 

(3)  While  the  method  of  Sturm  has  the  merit  of  being 
the  only  one  which  treats  the  analysis  of  the  roots  of  an  equa- 
tion as  a  problem  perfectly  independent  of  the  actual  develop- 
ment of  roots,  it  becomes  very  laborious  for  equations  higher 
than  the  fourth  degree. 

J.  R.  Young  succeeded  in  reducing  the  labor  in  the  appli- 
cation of  Fourier's  processes  to  such  an  extent  that  he  pre- 
ferred them  to  that  of  Sturm,  in  practical  work.  In  many 
cases  he  succeeded  in  shorteming  the  work  of  testing  for  two 
equal  roots  of  Ax^+Bx^-^+  .  .  .  +Mx+N=0  by  the 
observation  that  for  two  equal  roots  (and  two  only),  M  and 
N  must  have  a  common  factor  a,  and  N  must  be  divisible  by 
the  square  of  this  factor;  likewise  A  and  B  must  have  a  com- 
mon factor  (6),  and  A  must  be  divisible  by  the  square  of  that 
factor.*  If  these  conditions  are  satisfied  and  if  a-r  5  is  a  root, 
it  is  a  double  root.  Young  shortened  Fourier's  process  in 
other  respects  by  making  it  and  the  one  of  Homer  mutually 
subservient.  He  showed  that  the  analysis  of  Fourier  may  be 
expedited  by  the  method  of  approximation  of  Homer,  while 
the  uncertainties  which  occasionally  accompany  the  method 
of  Homer  (as  the  author  originally  expounded  it)  may  always 
be  removed  by  the  mles  and  tests  of  Fourier.  No  doubt 
some  of  the  work  of  Young  grew  out  of  the  study  of  examples 
publicly  proposed  for  solution  by  James  Lockhart.  Those 
examples  were  equations  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  degree  with 
roots  coinciding  in  some  cases  to  six  decimal  places.  He  ex- 
plained a  method  of  constructing  equations  with  nearly 
equal  roots.* 

Connecting  with  the  ideas  of  Waring,  Lagrange  and 
Cauchy,  Phragm^n  shows  how  to  determine  the  presence  of 
equal  roots  without  resorting  to  the  tedious  operations  by 

^These  same  conditions  were  afterwards  worked  out  by  C.  H.  Schnuse  in 
his  Theorie  und  Aufloesung  der  .    .    .   Gleichungerit  1860,  p.  132. 
The  Mathematician,  Vol.  I.,  1845,  p.  165. 


Numerical  Equations.  235 

the  method  of  the  Euclidean  greatest  common  divisor/  The 
same  idea  is  pursued  by  G.  Janni.'  C.  Runge  remarks  that, 
in  the  practical  operation  of  finding  the  Sturmian  functions, 
the  method  of  the  greatest  common  divisor  may  usually  be 
simplified  by  computing  the  coeflScients  only  approximately, 
as  can  be  done  by  the  slide  rule.* 

Perhaps  the  ablest  worker  in  the  restoration  and  exten- 
sion of  the  researches  given  in  Fourier's  expos6  synoptique 
in  bare  outline,  was  Moritz  Abraham  Stem  (1807-1894),  of 
Gottingen.  His  investigations  connect  with  those  of  Fourier 
and  I^grange.  His  papers  on  solution  by  recurrent  series 
will  be  referred  to  later.  In  1837  the  Danish  Academy  of 
Sciences  demanded  a  method  of  resolving  transcendental 
equations,  and  in  1841  this  Academy  crowned  the  memoir  on 
this  subject  submitted  by  Stem.  He  accomplished  his  reso- 
lution by  extending  to  transcendental  equations  the  method 
given  by  Fourier  for  algebraic  equations.  A  plan  for  such  an 
extension  had  been  indicated  by  Fourier  himself.  As  the 
Newton-Raphson  process  of  approximation  had  been  applied 
to  the  finding  of  real  roots  of  transcendental  equations  long 
before  Fourier,  the  efforts  of  Stem  were  concentrated  mainly 
upon  the  extension  of  Fourier's  plan  for  separating  and 
locating  the  roots  of  algebraic  equations  and  upon  a  closer 
study  of  imaginary  roots.  When  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  modem  theory  of  functions,  the  statements  of 
Fourier  and  Stem  on  transcendental  equations  lack  accu- 
racy of  limitation. 

A  paper  which  connects  partly  with  Fourier's  researches 
and  partly  with  the  work  of  J.  R.  Young  and  Lockhart  in 
England,  was  prepared  by  R.  Lobatto,  professor  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Delft.*    Lobatto  wrote  on  a  special  class  of  cubic 

^Slockh.  Oe/v.  Vol.  49, 1892,  pp.  179-\8S;  J ahrbuchue.  d.  Fortachr,  der  Math., 
Vol.  24,  1892,  p.  92. 

*RendicorUi  deU'acceuiemia  d.  acienze  finche  e  math..  Vol.  17,  pp.  138-141. 

•Encydopaedie  d.  Math.  W%8».,  1.  Bd.,  Leipzig,  1898-1904,  p.  404. 

*Joum.  d.  mathhnatiquea  pures  et  appliquiea  (Liouville),  T.  IX.,  1844, 
pp.  177-190. 


236  Colorado  College  Publication. 

equations  and  also  gave  criteria  for  imaginary  roots  between 
given  limits,  in  amplification  of  those  of  Fourier.*  This 
paper  was  an  analytic  elaboration  of  a  geometric  article  pub- 
lished by  him  at  the  Hague  in  1843.* 

Great  interest  in  the  theory  of  equations  was  displayed 
at  different  times  by  the  great  French  mathematician,  Augustin 
Louis  Cauchy.  In  1826  he  showed  in  his  Analyse  Alg&rriqiie, 
Note  III,  that  a  limit  inferior  to  the  least  difference  between 
the  real  roots  of  an  equation  may  be  found  more  simply  than 
by  Waring 's  and  Lagrange's  equation  of  the  squared  dif- 
ferences of  the  roots,  by  considering  merely  the  product  of 
all  the  differences  of  the  roots.  But  even  this  improved 
process  failed  to  meet  the  practical  needs;  it  too  was  somewhat 
laborious  and  it  yielded  a  value  for  the  limit  usually  very 
much  smaller  than  necessary  and  convenient.  The  subject 
of  numerical  equations  again  received  attention  in  his  Ex- 
erdces  de  maih&maliques,  in  chapters  which  were  also  published 
separately  under  the  title  M6moire  sur  la  resolution  des  equa- 
tions numiriques  et  sur  la  th6orie  de  rHiminaiion,  Paris,  1829. 
Cauchy  simplifies  here  the  computation  of  a  limit  inferior 
to  the  least  difference  between  the  real  roots.  Thereby  he 
determines  the  number  of  real  and  of  imaginary  roots  and  also 
arrives  at  a  method  of  approximation  to  any  root,  whether 
real  or  imaginary.  Had  Cauchy  been  familiar  with  the  re- 
searches of  Ruffini  and  Homer  he  would  hardly  have  been 
able  to  claim  superiority  for  his  own  method.  More  nearly 
approaching  practical  needs  was  Cauchy 's  paper  of  1837,  a 
Mimdre  sur  une  mSthode  gin&rale  pour  la  determination  des 
racines  r6elles  des  equations  aigebriques  ou  meme  transcendantes.* 
In  1839  this  method  was  made  accessible  to  German  readers 
in  an  elementary  exposition  by  Franz  Seraphin  Mozhnik.* 

^Loc.  eii.  T.  IX.,  pp.,  295-309. 

^Lobatto,  Recherchea  sur  la  distinction  des  racines  rielles  et  imaginaires  dans 
les  Equations  nunUriqvcs,  etc. 

^CompUs  rendus,  T.  V.,  p.  357. 

*Theorie  der  numerischen  Gleichungen  mit  einer  Unbekannten,  Wien,  1839. 


Numerical  Equations.  237 

Cauchy  treats  the  problem  from  a  general  point  of  view  and 
shows  how  from  given  limits  of  a  root,  a  pair  of  closer  limits 
may  be  obtained.  He  distinguishes  between  linear  modes  of 
approach,  requiring  the  solution  of  a  linear  auxiliary  equation, 
and  a  quadratic  mode  of  approach,  depending  upon  a  quad- 
ratic auxiliary  equation.  The  Newton-Raphson  method  of 
approximation  appears  as  a  special  case  of  Cauchy 's  linear 
mode  of  approximation.  A  point  of  superiority  of  Cauchy 's 
method  over  the  Newton-Raphson  method  is  that  it  does 
not  require  so  accurate  a  starting  value.  In  fact  it  succeeds 
surely,  though  perhaps  very  slowly,  no  matter  how  far  apart 
the  limits  are.  Moreover,  Cauchy 's  method  reveals  with 
certainty  the  absence  of  real  roots  in  a  given  interval.  One 
sees  that  this  method  has  the  qualities  about  it  which  are  of 
the  chief  interest  to  a  theoretical  mathematician.  The 
failure  of  Cauchy 's  procedure  to  attain  popularity  is  probably 
its  lack  of  simplicity  as  compared  with  the  Newton-Raphson 
and  the  Homer  methods,  even  in  the  simpHfied  exposition 
of  it  given  by  Cauchy  in  1840.* 

In  the  endeavor  to  generalize  methods  it  was  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  Newton-Raphson  process  would  be  extended, 
if  possible,  to  the  finding  of  imaginary  roots.  Newton's 
method  proper  had  been  thus  extended  by  Waring  and  also 
by  Thomas  Simpson.  The  procedure  of  the  latter  is  set  forth 
by  Murphy  in  his  Algebraical  Equations,  1839,  p.  124.  The 
Newton-Raphson  method  was  examined  with  this  as  one  of 
its  goals  by  Cauchy  in  an  article'  which  surpasses  in  interest 
most  of  the  numberless  commentaries,  modifications  and 
extensions  of  this  method.  Cauchy  extends  it  to  the  case  of 
imaginary  coefficients  and  imaginary  roots  by  the  operation 
with  moduli  in  the  place  of  the  real  quantities. 

In  1879  A.  Cayley  makes  an  "Application  of  the  Newton- 
Fourier  method  to  an  imaginary  root  of  an  equation,'"  show- 

^CampU9  Rendus,  T.  XI.,  p.  829. 
*CompU9  Rendus,  T.  29,  1849,  pp.  260-267. 
*QiMrt.  Jour,  of  Math.,  Vol.  16,  1879,  pp.  179-186. 


238         "     Colorado  College  Publication. 

ing  that  if  a  is  an  approximate  root  of  x'=n^  where  n'  is  a 
given  imaginary  quantity,  then  ai=(a*+n')-5-2a  is  a  closer 
approximate  value  if  mod.  (a— w)<§  mod.  n.  He  also  in- 
vestigated the  conditions  under  which  the  Newton-Raphson 
formula  of  approximation  works  safely  when  the  root 
sought  is  imaginary,  but  he  encounters  difficulties  in  the 
actual  application  to  equations  of  degrees  higher  than  the 
second.* 

Remarkable  advances  in  the  theory  and  solution  of 
equations  have  been  made  by  Edmond  Nicolas  Laguerre 
(1834-1886).'  We  have  already  mentioned  his  new  proof  of 
Descartes'  rule  of  signs  and  his  extension  of  it  to  polynomials 
with  fractional  or  incommensurable  exponents,  and  also  to 
infinite  series.  If  the  variations  in  the  series  P,  P  +Q,  P  + 
Q+R,  P+Q+R+S  .  .  .  are  called  the  number  of 
dtemances  of  the  series  P+Q+R+S+  .  .  .  ,  then  the  con- 
sideration of  these  altemances  leads  to  important  general- 
izations. For  instance,  if  the  polynomial  Ax^+JSa:^+  .  .  . 
+Lx^,  is  arranged  according  to  the  ascending  powers  of  x,  the 
exponents  being  real  but  commensurable  or  incommensurable, 
then  the  number  of  positive  roots  less  than  a  is  equal  to  the 
number  of  altemances  of  Aa^  +Ba^  +  .  .  .  +La^f  or  less 
by  an  even  number.  Laguerre  is  led  to  a  method  entirely 
different  from  those  of  Waring,  Lagrange  and  Sturm  for  the 
determination  of  the  exact  number  of  positive  roots  of  an 
equation.  Unfortunately  it  is  hardly  less  complicated  than 
Sturm's.  Laguerre 's  expression  for  the  superior  limits  of 
the  roots  was  discussed  by  E.  Lucas,  L.  Levy,  Ch.  V^nard, 
Cand^ze  and  H.  Laurent.* 

H.  Poincar^  developed  a  theorem  with  reference  to  Des- 
cartes' rule  which  connects  with  Laguerre 's  theorems.* 


^American  Journal  of  Math.,  Vol.  2,  1879,  p.  97. 
»See  the  Oeuvrea  de  Laguerre,  T.  I.,  1898,  "  Algebre." 
*Nouvdles  Annates  (2)  T.  XIX.,  1880. 
*Comptes  Rendus,  XCVIL,  1880,  p.  1418. 


Numerical  Equations.  239 

Laguerre  suggested  methods  of  approximation  which, 
like  Cauchy's,  are  related  to  tJie  Newton-Raphson  procedure. 

In  1884  Laguerre  published  the  following:  If /(x)  =  0  is 
an  algebraic  equation*  with  real  coefficients,  X  an  arbitrary 

real  number,  and  f{x)  =  {x-X)  F{x)+f{X),  then  ^=^—^77^ 
when  X  is  a  root  of /(x)=0.    Taking  now 

as  a  recurring  formula  and,  starting  with  a  positive  value 
y?,,  form  a  series  of  values,  ^t,  ^„  ^„  .  .  .  Then  lim  <pn  is 
the  root  of  the  given  equation  next  above  ^„  provided  /(^t) 
<0;  if /(^•)>0,  then  lim  tp^  is  the  root  next  below  ^,.  If 
such  a  root  does  not  exist,  this  fact  is  revealed  by  the  appear- 
ance of  negative  values  in  the  series  of  ^'s. 

Laguerre  *s  researches  ought  to  find  their  way  into  text- 
books on  the  theory  of  equations.  Among  the  texts  which 
do  refer  to  his  researches  are  the  higher  algebra  (part  I)  pub- 
lished in  1882  in  St.  Petersburg  by  the  Russian  Sohotzky, 
and  the  book  issued  by  J.  Sochocki  in  1884  in  Warschau.' 

Investigations  connecting  with  those  of  the  French 
writers  of  the  first  part  of  the  century  were  carried  on  about 
this  time  in  Russia  by  A.  N.  Miassojedoff.*  He  multiplies 
the  members  of /(x),  one  after  the  other,  by  m— fc,  m— fc— 1, 
.  .  .,— (A— 1),  — t  and  from  this  new  polygon  leads  up 
to  theorems  analagous  to  the  theorems  of  Sudan,  Fourier 
and  Sturm,  which  may  be  applied  to  the  solution  of  numer- 
ical equations  as  are  the  latter. 

This  is  a  convenient  place  to  mention  a  paper  by  Jos. 
Kolbe*  who  proved  that,  if  in  (/x)=0  an  even  number  n  of 
coiLsecutive  terms  is  missing,  then  there  exist  at  least  n  com- 
plex roots,  that  if  an  odd  number  n  of  consecutive  terms  is 

m<mv€Uea  AnnaUs,  (3)  T.  3,  1884,  p.  113. 

^Jahrbueh  tuber  die  Forteehr.  der  Math.,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  66;  Vol.  16,  p.  68. 
*Moak.  Math.  Samml.  Vol.  12,  pp.  757-797;  Jahrbuch  u.  d.  Fartschr.  der 
Math,,  Vol.  18,  1886,  p.  71. 

*Wiener  Beriehte,  Vol.  67,  1873,  pp.  188-190. 


240  Colorado  College  Publication. 

missing  between  two  terms  of  like  or  unlike  signs,  then  tlie 
number  of  complex  roots  is  n^l  according  as  the  signs  are 
like  or  unlike.  The  article  contains  no  historical  references 
to  De  Gua  or  any  other  author. 

We  proceed  to  mention  the  numerous  commentaries 
that  have  been  made  during  the  past  half  century  upon  the 
Newton-Raphson  and  allied  processes.  Lack  of  space  pre- 
vents us  from  preparing  an  adequate  account  of  each  paper. 
As  a  rule  the  papers  are  of  theoretical,  rather  than  pmctical 
interest,  or  else  they  represent  individual  preferences  in 
computation  which  have  failed  to  attain  popularity.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  some  of  these  papers  contain  ideas 
which  future  elaborators  of  methods  may  develop  with  success. 

One  of  the  points  which  has  vexed  computers  since  the 
time  of  Newton  is  that  the  Newton-Raphson  process  does 
not  reveal,  without  the  application  of  special  tests,  how  many 
digits  in  the  approximation  are  correct.  Special  tests  have 
been  suggested  at  various  times,  but  none  has  met  with  gen- 
eral favor.  Such  a  test  was  advanced  in  1831  by  Fourier. 
A  modification  of  it  was  proposed  in  1860  by  W.  Wagner.* 
The  same  subject  has  been  considered  by  E.  Schroeder,' 
C.  Isenkrahe,*  E.  Netto,*  F.  Franklin.* 

Ch.  Michel*  points  out  that  a  certain  expression  some- 
times used  in  the  Newton-Raphson  process  to  indicate  the 
approximation  reached  is  incorrect.  His  article  incited  J. 
Richard^  to  point  out  how  the  error  after  n  successive  appli- 
cations of  the  foiTOula  may  be  calculated.  Another  formula 
was  suggested  by  E.  Cahen.*  The  practical  computer  does 
not  take  kindly  to  learning  new  formulas  of  this  t3rpe  and  to 

^Bestimmung  der  Oenauigkeitf  wdche  die  Nevoion'sche  Methode  twr  Berech- 
nung  der  Wurzeln  darhietet,  Leipzig,\1860. 
^Math.  Annalen,  Vol.  2,  1870,  p.  317. 
*McUh.  Annalen,  Vol.  31,  1888,  p.  309. 
*Math.  Annalen,  Vol.  29,  1887,  p.  141. 
Mm.  Jour,  of  Math.,  Vol.  4,  1881,  p.  276. 
^Revue  de  Math,  spiciales,  T.  8,  pp.  89-90,  113-116. 
^Revue  de  Math,  spiciales,  T.  8,  pp.  137-138. 
•Ibidem,  T.  8,  pp.  152,  339. 


Numerical  Equations.  241 

submitting  himself  to  extra  computation,  simply  to  ascer- 
tain the  degree  of  approximation  already  reached.  Hence, 
none  of  these  tests  has  met  with  wide  acceptance. 

A  somewhat  different  plan  was  suggested  in  1826  by 
Dandelin,  which  was  then  new,  but  has  been  repeatedly 
made  later  by  others,  namely  the  combination  of  the  Newton- 
Raphson  process,  with  that  of  double  position,  so  as  to  have 
both  an  upper  and  a  lower  limit  for  the  root,  at  every  stage 
of  the  process.  Dandelin  gives  a  very  pretty  geometric  ex- 
position of  this  combination  process. 

Developing  a  principle  set  forth  by  E.  Jablonski,*  Ch. 
Michel'  likewise  suggests  this  union  of  the  Newton-Raphson 
process  and  the  regvla  falsi.  Each  method  separately  does 
not,  he  says,  give  a  clue  as  to  the  degree  of  approximation 
reached,  but  the  two  together  supply  both  an  upper  and  a 
lower  limit  of  a  root,  and,  therefore,  yield  the  desired  infor- 
mation. This  union  of  methods  is  meeting  with  some  favor, 
it  being  adopted  also  by  H.  Weber.* 

A  different  alliance  of  the  Newton-Raphson  method  is 
suggested  by  Vincent*  who  develops  properties  of  continued 
fractions  and  then  deduces  a  mixed  method  of  computing 
the  real  roots  in  which  he  combines  the  rapidity  of  the  Newton- 
Raphson  method  with  the  surety  of  that  of  Lagrange.  This 
same  union  was  advocated  in  1848  by  0.  Bergcr*  in  Ijembo. 

An  interesting  paper  dealing  with  some  points  of  the 
Newton-Raphson  method,  not  often  discussed,  and  at  the 
same  time  offering  a  mechanical  process  of  approximation 
worthy  of  attention,  was  published  by  Joseph  Homer*  in 
1860.  He  speaks  of  W.  G.  Homer  as  "my  late  relative." 
On  Fourier's  statement  that  if  there  is  one  root  between  a 
and  6,  and  the  curve  is  convex  toward  the  axis  of  x  in  the 

^BvU.  d.  MathimaHques  apieiaUs,  juin,  1895. 

^Revue  de  Math.  8picialea,  T.  8,  pp.  89-90,  113-115. 

•Lekrb,  d.  Algebra,  2  Aufi.  Bd.,  I.,  p.  379. 

^Journal  d.  math,  pares  et  appliq.  (Liouville),  T.  3,  1836,  pp.  341-372. 

^Programm  des  Gymnasiuma  zu  Lembo,  1848-49. 

*Qtuirteriy  Journal  of  Pure  and  Applied  Math.,  Vol.  III.,  1860,  pp.  251-262. 


242  Colorado  College  Publication. 

interval  between  a  and  the  root-value,  the  approximation 
may  be  continued  from  a  with  certainty,  Joseph  Homer 
remarks:  *'In  reality,  however,  it  is  often  found  to  be  far 
shorter  and  more  convenient  to  commence  from  6,  and  it 
is  therefore  essential  to  the  completeness  of  his  theory  to 
determine  when  this  may  be  safely  done."  Then  Homer 
proceeds  to  elaborate  analytically  what  was  done  geometri- 
cally a  hundred  years  earlier  by  Mourraille.  Joseph  Homer 
develops  the  root  of  an  equation  in  a  series  of  aUquot  parts, 

a-\ 1 1 h  .  .  .     The  form  of  expression  in  *'ali- 

quot  parts"  had  been  used  by  Lambert  as  early  as  1758, 
then  by  Lagrange,*  and  by  Fourier  in  his  great  work  of  1831, 
p.  38.  It  is  referred  to  again  soon  after  J.  Homer  by  Bella- 
vitis'  in  his  memoir  of  1860. 

With  the  aim  of  facilitating  safety  of  procedure,  by  fixing 
two  limits  for  each  approximation,  the  Newton-Raphson 
method  was  studied  by  A.  Genocchi,*  and  later  by  G.  Janni.* 
Both  connect  with  the  work  of  Cauchy  on  this  subject. 
A  modification  involving  the  use  of  two  limits  at  each  step 
was  given  also  by  J.  Dienger.* 

An  extension  of  the  Newton-Raphson  method  is  given 
by  A.  Miller,*  who  solves  ^-p=0  by  writing  ^a.=/a.+ax+5, 
then  finding  the  intersection  w  of  the  curves  y=fx  and  y= 
—  (ox + 6)  whereupon  /c  =  (^/^^  — /^  —  6)  h-  (/*«,  +  a)  is  the  second 
approximation.  The  formula  reduces  to  the  one  of  Newton- 
Raphson  when  a =5  =  0. 

An  algorithm  aiming  to  secure  rapid  convergence  in  the 
case  of  multiple  roots  when  the  Newton-Raphson  method 
yields  an  acceleration  towards  the  roots  of  linear  order  only, 

^Journal  Eccie  PUyt.,  Vol.  2,  p.  93. 

*MemoTie  dell' I.  R.  Istituto  Veneto  di  acienze,  1860,  p.  200. 

HHornale  di  Matemaiiche,  VoL  2,  1864,  p.  27. 

*8ame  journal,  Vol.  8,  1870,  pp.  167-160. 

^Differential  und  Integral  Rechnung  X,  Aufi.,  §63;  Theorie  u.  Aufl.  d.  hoeh. 
Oleichungen,  Stuttgart,  1866,  p.  V. 

^BUUter  f.  d.  bayrieche  Gymnaeial  dt  ReaUchvlweeen  (Munchen)  VoL  XI, 
1875,  pp.  360-361. 


Numerical  Equations.  243 

was  worked  out  in  1876  by  H.  Eggers*  of  Milwaukee.  If  x, 
is  an  approximate  value,  then  a  corrected  value,  x„  by  a 
convergence  of  the  quadratic  order,  is  obtained  by  the  for- 
mula x,^x.^f(x.) .  /'(x,)-  |[/'(x,)]'-/(x,)  rix.)],  Eggers 
remarks  that  an  infinite  number  of  formulae  of  every  possible 
rate  of  convergence  are  possible,  but  in  case  of  a  high  order 
of  convergence  the  amount  of  work  demanded  by  the  for- 
mulae offsets  the  advantage  due  to  rapid  convergence.  Eggers 
was  educated  in  Germany,  and  E.  Schroder  expresses  his 
indebtedness  to  him  on  the  subject  of  numerical  equations.' 

L.  Maleyx  who  in  1860  had  published  in  Paris  a  method 
of  separating  the  roots,  in  1879  institutes  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  Newton-Raphson  method  and  the  one  by  propor- 
tional parts,  and  concludes  that  the  latter  is  preferable  when 
an  upper  and  a  lower  root  limit  are  initially  given.* 

K.  V.  Zenger*  gives  a  method  of  solving  numerical  equa- 
tions by  logarithms  which  E.  Malo*  has  shown  to  be  related 
to  the  Newton-Raphson  formula  from  which  it  differs  by  a 
term  of  the  second  order.  Malo  elaborates  in  his  own  way 
an  old  idea  that  if /(x)  be  transformed  into  F{x)  by  increasing 
the  roots  of  /(x)  by  a  constant,  then  the  approximate  root- 
values  of  F(x)  may  be  used  advantageoasly  in  the  solution 
of/(x). 

In  an  article,  Sur  la  resolution  nvm^rique  des  iquations,^ 
H.  Amstein,  professor  at  the  Academic  de  Lausanne,  declares 
that  there  are  three  methods  of  approximation  in  practical 
use:  the  regula  falsi,  "Newton's  method,"  and  Homers'. 
The  first  does  not  reveal  the  degree  of  approximation  reached ; 
the  second  does  reveal  this,  if  one  computes  the  neglected 

term/'^(a)-2  ;  the  third  applies,  he  says,  only  to  algebraic 

^The  AnaLyti,  (J.  E.  Hendricks),  Vol.  III.,  1876,  pp.  149-160. 

*Maih.  AnnaUn,  Vol.  II ,  1870,  p.  317. 

•NouveUes  Anmde*  de  Math,,  2.  8.,  Vol.  18,  1879,  pp.  218-232. 

*Ca9opu;  Zeitsch.  tur  P/Uge  d.  Math,  u.  Phynk,  Prag,  Vol.  XI.,  1882, 
pp.  288-291. 

•NouveOea  Annalea  3ieme  8.,  T.  11,  1892,  pp.  169-178. 

*BtUl.  de  la  SoeiiU  Vaudoiee  d.  aciencea  not.,  2e  8.,  Vol.  XX.,  Lauflanne, 
1885,  pp.  201-212. 


244  Colorado  College  Publication. 

equations.  The  first  replaces  the  given  curve  by  a  chord; 
the  second  by  a  tangent.  Amstein  himself  suggests  a  new 
method,  "la  m^thode  des  trois  points/'  which  replaces  the 
curve  by  a  conic  (say  a  hyperbola)  having  three  points  in 
common  with  it.  Two  points  are  chosen  on  the  given  curve 
near  a  root  and  a  third  is  obtained  by  the  regula  falsi.  Then 
a  further  approximation  is  reached  by  an  expression  in  the 
form  of  an  algebraic  fraction. 

Another  modification  of  the  Newton-Raphson  formula 
was  given  by  E.  Kobald*  who  secures  more  rapid  convergence 
by  writing 


'""      [m      /'(a)  J 


Again  another  modification  of  the  Newton-Raphson 
method  is  given  by  Th.  Lohnstein.' 

J.  W.  Nicholson*  proposed  a  general  formula  which  in- 
cludes the  Newton-Raphson  one  as  a  special  case. 

G.  Fouret*  in  1891  made  a  study  of  the  conditions  which 
are  both  necessary  and  sufficient  for  the  safe  application  of 
the  Newton-Raphson  process. 

F.  J.  Van  den  Berg*  points  out  that,  just  as  the  Newton- 
Raphson  formula  represents  the  value  of  the  subtangent  to 
the  curve  y  =/(x),  so  x = [6/ (a)  —  a/ (6)]^  [/(a)  — /(5)]  represents 
the  intercept  of  the  secant  passing  through  the  points  on  the 
curve  corresponding  to  x  =  a  and  x=b,  and  this  formula  can 
be  used  in  approximations. 

The  Newton-Raphson  process  has  been  discussed  also  by 
F.  Giudice,  who  in  1886*  and  1903^  made  a  new  study  of  the 
separation  of  the  roots,  and  ofTered  methods  of  approximation 

^ManatahefU /.  MathemaHk  u.  Physik,  Vol.  II.,  1891,  pp.  331-332. 

'ZeUschr.f.  Math.  u.  Phya.,  Vol.  36,  1891,  pp.  383-4. 

*  Direct  and  General  Method  of  Finding  the  Approximate  Values  of  the  Real 
Roots  of  Numerical  Equations,  New  Orleans,  La.,  1891. 

*Sur  la  mtthode  d' approximation  de  Newton,  Paris,  1891. 

^Amst.  Versl.  en  Meded  (3)  IX.,  53-67.  See  also  Jahrfruch  ueber  d.  Fortschr. 
der  Math.,  Vol.  24,  1892,  p.  103. 

^Rendiconti  del  Circolo  matematico,  T.  I.,  1884-1887,  pp.  69-72. 

^Oiomale  di  matematiche  (Battaglini)  Vol.  41,  pp.  190-191. 


Numerical  Equations.  245 

to  the  roots.*  In  France,  recent  studies  along  this  line  have 
been  made  by  A.  Pellet,'  and  by  R.  Perrin.'  Both  Pellet  and 
Perrin  employ  the  device  which  we  have  seen  followed  also 
by  Mehmke  in  Germany,. of  separating  the  terms  of  an  equa- 
tion into  two  polygons  each  of  which  contains  only  terms  of 
like  sign. 

2.  The  Ruffini-Hornek  Method. 

One  desideratum  which  eighteenth  century  mathemati- 
cians failed  to  supply  was  a  short  practical  method  of  trans- 
forming one  equation  into  another  whose  roots  are  all  dimin- 
ished by  a  certain  constant.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  several  inventions  were  made  in  the  effort  to 
meet  this  want.  Perhaps  the  first  to  suggest  an  algorithm 
was  Paolo  Ruffini  (1765-1822),  professor  of  mathematics  in 
Modena  and  well-known  for  his  wotk  on  the  impossibility  of 
solving  algebraically  the  quintic  equation.  The  Italian 
scientific  society  had  in  1802  offered  a  gold  medal  for  improve- 
ments in  the  solution  of  numerical  equations,  and  it  was 
awarded  in  1804  to  RuflSni  for  his  Memoria  on  this  subject.* 

Most  interesting  is  Ruffini 's  mode  of  effecting  the  trans- 
formation referred  to  above.  The  theory  of  this  transfor- 
mation is  worked  out  with  the  aid  of  the  calculus  somewhat 
as  was  done  by  several  eighteenth  century  mathematicians. 
Then  follows  the  mechanism  for  the  practical  computer,  and 
here  Rufiini  has  a  device  which  Is  simpler  than  Homer's 
scheme  of  1819  and  practically  identical  with  what  is  now 
known  as  Homer's  procedure.  The  actual  computations  are 
absolutely  identical.  jThe  only  difference  is  that  in  Ruffini 's 
arrangement  the  coefficients  of  the  transformed  equation 

^Rendiconti  del  eircolo  matenuUico,  T.  XVI.,  1902,  pp.  180-184;  Giomale 
di  matematiche  (Battaglini),  Vol.  41,  1903,  pp.  14-20. 

HJamptes  Rendus,  T.  133,  1901,  pp.  917,  1186;  SociiU  math,  de  France, 
T.  29,  1901,  pp.  139-142;  Assoc.  Fran^.,  31,  (Montauban),  pp.  166-171. 

*Compte8  Rendus,  T.  133,  p.  1189;  Assoc.  Fran^.,  31,  (Montauban)  pp. 
178-185. 

^P.  Ruffini,  Sopra  la  determinazione  ddLe  radici  neUe  equationi  numeriche, 
di  qualungue  grado,  Modena,  1804. 


246  Colorado  College  Publication. 

appear  at  the  end  of  the  operation  grouped  in  a  column,  while 
in  Homer's  process  these  coefficients  are  arranged  along  a 
diagonal.  One  arrangement  is  about  as  good  as  the  other. 
The  conclusion  forces  itself  upon  U9  that  Homer,  in  what  is 
known  as  "Homer's  method"  was  anticipated  fifteen  years 
by  our  gifted  Italian. 

As  is  now  frequently  done  in  Homer's  method,  Ruffini 
avoids  decimal  fractions  by  multiplying  the  roots  of  every 
transformed  equation  by  10.  In  the  case  of  negative  roots 
he  writes  —x  for  x,  Ruffini  explains  his  procedure  by  solving 
Newton's  cubic,  but  part  of  the  computation  is  suppressed. 
He  devotes  much  space  to  the  limits  between  which  all  the 
real  roots  of  an  equation  lie,  and  to  the  limits  of  each  separate 
root. 

Ruffini  published  a  second  article  nine  years  later^  in 
which  he  remarks  that  he  explained  his  method  of  solving 
numerical  equations  in  the  appendix  to  his  Algebra  Elemeiv- 
tare,  which  appeared  in  two  volumes  in  1807  and  1808.  In 
this  second  paper  Ruffini  applies  his  method  to  the  extraction 
of  roots  of  numbers  and  gives  in  full  several  illustrations  of 
the  process.  He  explains  also  how  the  process  may  be  con- 
tracted. Thereupon  he  proceeds  to  a  derivation  of  his  method 
of  solution  by  elementary  processes,  without  the  use  of  the 
differential  calculus. 

When  we  compare  Ruffini 's  and  Homer's  labors  on  nu- 
merical equations,  we  notice  an  interesting  parallelism;  (1) 
Independently  the  two  hit  upon  almost  identically  the  same 
method,  (2)  both  used  in  their  first  expositions  the  higher 
analysis,  (3)  both  explained  the  method  later  by  the  process 
of  elementary  algebra,  (4)  both  offered  the  method  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  old  process  of  root-extraction  of  numbers. 

A  mechanism  for  effecting  the  transformation  named 
above  was  invented  also  by  Budan  and  explained  in  his  pub- 

*"Di  un  nuovo  metodo  generale  di  estrarre  le  radici  numeriche"  in  Mem- 
orie  di  matemaHca  e  di  JUica  della  societd  itcdianna  deUe  scienze,  Verona,  1813, 
T.  XVI.,  parte  I,  pp.  373-436;  T.  XVII.,  Parte  I,  pp.  1-15. 


Numerical  Equations.  247 

lications  of  1807  and  1822/  He  claimed  for  it  the  advantage 
of  involving  only  additions  and  subtractions.  His  process  of 
transformation  by  which  the  roots  are  diminished  by  1  is 
practically  the  same  as  the  process  given  previously  by  Ruf- 
fini  and  identically  the  same  with  the  well-known  process 
named  after  Homer.  But  here  the  resemblance  ends.  A 
diminution  of  the  roots  by  2  or  3  is  brought  about  by  2  or  3 
repetitions  of  the  process  for  diminishing  by  1.  The  opera- 
tion becomes  unnecessarily  tedious  when  the  roots  are  dimin- 
ished by  7,  8,  or  9. 

Passing  to  England;  we  enter  now  upon  the  closer  study 
of  the  researches  of  Homer.  William  George  Homer  (1786- 
1837),  of  Bath,  was  the  son  of  a  Wesleyan  minister.  He 
was  educated  at  Kingswood  school,  near  Bristol,  and  at  the 
age  of  sixteen  began  his  career  as  a  teacher  in  the  capacity 
of  an  assistant  master.  His  method  of  sohdng  equations  was 
read  before  the  Royal  Society,  July  1,  1819,  and  published  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  the  same  year'  under  the 
title,  "A  new  method  of  solving  numerical  equations  of  all 
orders,  by  continuous  approximation."  The  paper  was  re- 
printed in  the  Ladies'  Diary  of  1838.  A  full  account  of 
Homer's  discovery  is  given  in  tne  first  volume  (1845)  of  the 
Mathematician  and  in  De  Morgan's  article  in  the  Companion 
tjo  the  British  Almanac  for  1839.  We  shall  make  extensive 
use  of  the  latter  article.  Homer  uses  Arbogast  's  derivatives. 
In  fact,  the  modem  reader  who  is  familiar  with  the  very 
simple  and  elementary  explanation  of  Homer's  method 
found  in  texts  of  the  present  day  is  surprised  to  find  Hor- 
ner's own  exposition  involved  in  reasonings  very  intricate 
and  making  a  large  demand  upon  the  more  recondite  branches 
of  analysis.  In  principle  his  method  had  been  known  for 
more  than  two  hundred  years,  ever  since  the  issue  of  Vieta's 
epoch-making  research :  in  careful  adaptability  of  the  process 

^Nouvdle  nUthode  pour  la  rUalution  des  iquationa  numiriques,  Paris,  1807. 
Chap.  II. 

*  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  (Leslie  Stephen). 


248  Colorado  College  Publication. 

to  the  practical  needs  of  the  computer,  Homer  and  Ruffini 
have  no  predecessor.  Homer  never  knew  of  Ruffini  *s  re- 
searches on  this  subject.  The  theory  of  the  method  was 
stated  distinctly  in  Homer's  own  time  in  ordinary  text-books, 
such  as  Garnier's  Elemens  d'AlgHbre,  1811,  p.  399  and  still 
more  so  in  Francoeur's  MathirtiatiqueSy  1819,  T.  II.,  p.  37.* 
Yet  the  practical  possibilities  of  it  in  the  solution  of  equations 
was  not  observed  in  England  till  the  publication  of  Homer's 
researches.  Homer  mentions  in  his  article  many  mathe- 
maticians, but  does  not  refer  to  Vieta's,  Harriot's,  Oughtred's, 
Wallis's,  Newton's  and  Ruffini 's  modes  of  approximation. 
Having  failed  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  history  of  his 
subject,  Homer  no  doubt  thought  that  he  was  the  inventor 
of  the  principle  of  his  method,  as  well  as  of  the  practical  ar- 
rangement of  the  computation.'  This  arrangement,  it  should 
be  noted,  is  not  quite  the  same  as  the  one  now  explained  in 
text-books  as  Homer's  process,  but  the  difference  is  slight. 

Homer  offers  his  method  as  a  substitute  for  the  old  processes 
of  extracting  pure  roots,  as  has  since  been  done  by  De  Morgan 
and  others. 

Homer  makes  in  his  paper  the  extraordinary  claim  that 
his  method  of  approximation  applies  also  to  irrational  and 
transcendental  equations.  He  says :  "  From  the  unrestricted 
nature  of  the  notation  employed,  it  is  evident  that  no  class  of 
equations,  whether  finite,  irrational  or  transcendental,  is 
excluded  from  our  design."  But  he  gives  no  illustrative 
solutions  of  such  equations.    His  scheme  of  solution  as  shown 

»See  J.  R.  Young,  Algebraical  Equations,  2nd  Ed.,  London,  1843,  p.  47. 
The  first  edition  of  this  book,  which  treats  more  fully  of  the  solution  of  numer- 
ical equations  than  any  other  English  work  of  that  time,  appeared  in  1835. 

'Having  probably  the  old  Newton-Leibnia  controversy  in  mind.  Homer 
writes  in  a  foot-note,  p.  308:  "The  only  object  proposed  by  the  author  in 
offering  this  essay  to  the  acceptance  of  the  Royal  Society,  for  admission  into 
the  Philosophical  Transactions,  is  to  secure  beyond  the  hazard  of  controversy 
an  Englishman's  property  in  a  useful  discovery.  Useful  he  may  certainly  be 
allowed  to  call  it,  though  the  product  of  a  purely  mathematical  speculation; 
for  of  all  the  investigations  of  pure  mathematics,  the  subject  of  approximation 
is  that  which  comes  most  directly  and  most  frequently  into  contact  with  the 
practical  wants  of  the  calculator.** 


Numerical  Equations.  249 

in  his  *^ tabular  form*'  raakes  no  provision  for  functions 
yielding  a  never  ending  series  of  derivatives.  The  scheme,  as 
it  stands,  is  inapplicable  to  in-ational  and  transcendental 
equations. 

Homer's  original  paper  did  not  sufficiently  consider  the 
case  of  nearly  equal  roots.  The  difficulty  of  separating  them 
Ls  great  if  the  trial  divisor  alone  is  depended  upon  for  the  dis- 
covery of  the  successive  figures  of  the  root.  Homer  removed 
this  imperfection  in  a  second  paper,  published  in  Leyboum^s 
Repository^  Vol.  5,  part  II.,  London,  1830,  p.  63.  Being 
unaware  of  the  existence  of  this  second  article,  J.  R.  Young, 
professor  of  mathematics  in  Belfast  College,  elaborated  this 
point  independently.*  Researches  along  this  same  line  were 
carried  on  later  by  Schulz  von  Strassnitzki.' 

Homer's  own  mechanical  an-angement  of  the  computa- 
tion did  not  meet  the  full  approval  of  the  great  champions 
of  his  method — ^J.  R.  Young  and  A.  De  Morgan.  These  men 
slightly  modified  Homer's  original  scheme,  so  as  to  provide 
against  the  entrance  of  unnecessary  decimals  into  the  several 
columns  of  the  work.  Young,  in  particular,  criticized  Hor- 
ner's scheme  of  contraction  as  retaining  useless  figures  in 
some  parts  and  dismissing  efi*ective  ones  in  other  parts. 
Young  presented  modified  schemes  in  his  Algebraical  Equa- 
tions, chapter  XII. 

The  great  practicability  of  Homer's  modified  method  is 
pointed  out  by  De  Morgan'  by  applying  it  to  an  example 
taken  from  Wallis,  in  which  De  Morgan  '*  omits  no  process 
except  such  as  are  usually  omitted  in  common  multiplication 
and  division,  and  the  number  of  figures  is  under  730.  The 
process  in  Wallis  has  more  than  1100  figures  written  down; 
a^pd,  if  all  those  additions  were  made  which  would  render  it 
as  complete  as  the  preceding,  we  imagine  that  the  1100  figures 
would  be  at  least  trebled  in  number." 

^Algebraical  EquaHons,  1843,  pp.  260-263. 

*8ee  S.  Spitzer,  AUgem.  Aufl,  d.  Zahlengleichungen,  Wien,  1851,  p.  8. 

*Comp.  to  the  BritUh  Almanac,  1839,  pp.  51,  52. 


25(1  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Looking  back  over  200  years  we  see  that  to  Vieta  belongs 
the  extension  of  the  process  of  evolution  so  as  to  apply  to 
affected  equations;  to  Newton,  the  addition  of  a  more  con- 
venient divisor,  and  to  RuflSni  and  Homer,  the  simplification 
of  the  process  of  finding  the  Newtonian  divisors.* 

As  regards  the  priority  of  invention.  Homer  did  not 
escape  rival  claimants,  even  among  his  own  countrymen. 
Their  claims  are  fully  discussed  by  De  Morgan,'  and,  as  the 
original  publications  are  not  accessible  to  us,  our  remarks 
are  based  entirely  upon  his  article. 

In  June,  1820,  a  tract  was  published  by  Theophilus 
Holdred,  entitled,  "A  new  method  of  solving  equations," 
with  a  supplement.  The  tract  itself  was,  according  to  De 
Morgan,  "the  old  method  in  a  modem  form,  and  with  no  more 
difference  than  the  application  of  the  usual  modem  forms 
and  the  use  of  Newton's  divisor  instead  of  Vieta 's,"  the 
supplement  was  "neither  more  nor  less  than  the  method 
which  Mr.  Homer  had  put  in  print  more  than  six  months 
before."  Holdred  claims  to  have  been  in  possession  of  the 
method  described  in  his  tract  for  forty  years  and  that  the 
process  described  in  the  supplement  occurred  to  him  while 
the  tract  was  going  through  the  press  (after  the  publication 
of  Homer's  paper). 

The  second  claimant  is  Peter  Nicholson,  who  had  seen 
Holdred 's  first  method  before  it  was  published  and  suggested 
some  improvements  which  Holdred  declined  to  publish. 
Thereupon  Nicholson  published  his  essay,  on  "Involution 
and  Evolution,"  in  1820.  In  the  preface  he  says  of  Homer's 
paper:  "I  perceived,  however,  that  the  paper  contained  the 
substance  of  what  I  had  previously  written  and  published." 
The  earlier  publications  of  Nicholson,  here  referred  to,  were 
examined  by  De  Morgan  and  found  inadequate  as  a  basis 
for  a  claim  of  priority. 

^Op.  cU.,  p.  48. 

'Companion  to  the  BriiUh  Almanac^  1839,  pp.  40-52. 


Numerical  Equations.  261 

The  third  and  last  claim  is  contained  in  a  posthumous 
tract  of  Henry  Atkinson  of  Newcastle,  entitled,  "A  new 
method  of  extracting  the  roots  of  equations ;  read  at  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  August 
1,  1809,''  Newcastle,  1831.  His  method  was  that  of  Vieta 
somewhat  like  the  form  in  which  WalUs  left  it,  but  with  the 
use  of  the  Newtonian  divisor,  and  the  use  of  Newton's  approx- 
imation at  the  conclusion.  Or,  as  De  Morgan  finally  puts 
it,  "Mr.  Atkinson's  method  is  Newton's  approximation, 
rather  than  Vieta 's,  digested  so  as  to  furnish  figure  by  figure 

.  .  He  consequently  made  a  real  step  on  the  road, 
which  had  not  time  to  become  known  before  it  was  rendered 
useless  by  the  'capital  improvement'  of  Mr.  Homer." 

A  method  much  resembling  that  of  Atkinson  was  made 
public  some  time  between  1690  and  1694  by  Richard  Sault 
in  a  work  called  "A  new  treatise  of  algebra,  with  a  converging 
series  for  all  manner  of  adfected  equations."  It  is  Raphson's 
method,  made  to  proceed  by  single  figures  of  the  root. 

The  nearest  approach  to  a  successful  rival  of  Homer  on 
British  soil  was  named  by  Homer  himself  in  his  second  paper,  ^ 
namely  Alexander  Ingram,  who  applied  the  method  in  ex- 
tracting cube  roots  and  published  an  account  of  it  in  his  edition 
of  Hutton's  Arithmetic  (Edinburgh,  1807),  and  in  his  edition 
of  Melrose's  Arithmetic,  1816. 

As  has  been  already  pointed  out.  Homer  was  fortunate 
in  finding  in  England  two  influential  champions  of  his  method 
— ^J.  R.  Young  and  A.  De  Morgan.  Encumbered  by  an 
abstruse  mode  of  exposition.  Homer's  paper  was  in  danger 
of  falling  into  unmerited  neglect.  The  simple  and  elementary 
form  which  the  method  now  has  was  given  to  it  principally 
by  Young  and  De  Morgan.  Young  explained  it  in  his  Al- 
gebra, London,  1826,  and  in  his  Algebraical  EquaiionSj  Lon- 
don, 1835,  2nd  ed.,  1843.  De  Morgan  described  it  in  the 
Penny  Cyclopedia^  article  "Involution  and  Evolution,"  and 

^Leyhoum'a  Repository,  Vol.  5,  part  II.,  p.  52;  See  also  The  Mathematician, 
Vol.  III.,  p.  289. 


252  Colorado  College  Publication. 

in  the  Companion  to  the  British  Almanac  for  1844.  De  Morgan 
advocated  the  use  of  this  method  for  ordinary  root-extraction. 
He  complained  that  in  the  universities  there  existed  no  dis- 
position to  encourage  computation  among  mathematicians. 
He  taught  Homer's  method  to  his  classes,  and  derided  the 
examiners  at  Cambridge  who  ignored  the  method.^  He  en- 
couraged students  to  carry  out  long  arithmetical  computa- 
tions for  the  sake  of  acquiring  skill  and  rapidity.  Thus,  one 
of  his  pupils  solved  x'— 2x=5  to  103  decimal  places,  "another 
tried  150  places,  but  broke  down  at  the  76th,  which  was 
wrong."*  Following  the  suggestion  of  De  Morgan,  Homer's 
method  has  been  recommended  for  square  and  cube  root  in 
elementary  instmction  by  E.  M.  Langley  and  R.  B.  Hayward,* 
but  with  all  its  simplicity  it  is  not  likely  to  carry  the  day  in 
competition  with  the  older  methods  which  require  only  a 
grasp  of  the  expansions  of  {a+by  and  (a +6)'. 

The  synthetic  division,  by  detached  coefficients,  used  in 
Homer's  process,  was  proved  to  be  tme  by  a  writer  signing 
himself  D.  V.  S.  in  the  Mathematician^  This  matter  is  taken 
up  in  detail  in  the  third  and  last  important  paper  written 
by  W.  G.  Homer  himself.  The  first  paper,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, appeared  in  1819,  the  second  in  1830,  the  third,  "On 
Algebraic  Transformations"  was  published  in  1845  as  a  post- 
humous article.*  It  had  been  read  before  the  Royal  Society, 
June  19,  1823,  but  as  T.  S.  Davies  explains,  in  an  introductory 
note  to  the  article,  was  refused  publication  in  the  Philosoph- 
ical Transactions,  even  after  it  had  been  considerably  cur- 
tailed. Homer  often  stated  to  Davies  that  much  demur 
was  made  to  the  insertion  of  his  first  paper  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions.     "The  elementary  character  of  the  subject," 

»See  De  Morgan,  Budget  of  Paradoxes,  1872,  pp.  292,  373-5. 

^Graves,  Life  of  Sir  Wm.  Rowan  Hamilton,  III.,  p.  275. 

*See  Report  of  the  Ass^nfor  the  Impr.  o/Geom.  Teaching  for  1889,  pp.  59-68; 
and  for  1892,  p.  40. 

*Tfie  Mathematician,  edited  by  T.  S.  Davies,  W.  Rutherford  and  S.  Fen- 
wick,  London,  Vol.  I.,  1845,  pp.  74-76. 

^The  Mathematician,  Vol.  I.,  1845,  pp.  108-112,  136-142,  311-316;  Vol.  II., 
pp.  32-37,  129-132. 


Numerical  Equations.  253 

says  Davies,  "was  the  professed  objection;  his  recondite  mode 
of  treating  it  was  the  professed  passport  for  its  admission." 
Homer's  third  article  was  a  simplification  of  the  principles  of 
his  process.  He  still  shows  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  the 
literature  of  the  subject.  Interesting  is  his  reference  to 
Budan,  of  whom  he  says:  "I  am  satisfied  with  finding  that 
he  had  not  anticipated  my  discovery."  Of  his  real  anti- 
cipator, Ruffini,  he  makes  no  mention. 

The  method  of  approximation  published  by  Homer  in 
1819  received  little  attention  in  England  for  fifteen  years. 
R.  Stevenson's  Algebraic  Equations^  2nd  Ed.,  Cambridge, 
1835,  and  R.  Murphy's  Algebraical  EquationSy  London,  1839, 
do  not  mention  him,  but  J.  R.  Young's  Algebraical  EqiuUionSy 
London,  1835  and  1843  lays  great  stress  upon  his  method. 
We  pointed  out  earlier  that  Fourier's  great  work  of  1831  was 
known  and  admired  in  England  at  a  time  when  Homer's 
research  of  1819  was  still  unknown  to  his  countrymen.  Nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  century  elapsed  before  any  attention  to  Homer 
was  paid  on  the  Continent.  Fourier  and  Sturm  do  not 
mention  him;  in  fact.  Homer's  method  has  to  this  day  failed 
to  acquire  a  foothold  in  France.*  There  the  Newton-Raphson 
process  has  maintained  its  ascendancy.  It  was  in  1842  that 
Homer's  method  was  first  made  accessible  to  German  readers 
by  Leopold  Carl  Schulz  v.  Strassnitzki  of  the  Poly- 
technic Listitute  in  Vienna,  in  a  publication,  Neue  Methods 
zur  Auflosung  hdherer  numerischer  Gleichungen,  Wien,  1842. 
Then  followed  expositions  by  Simon  Spitzer,*  in  1849  and 
1851,  C.  H.  Schnuse'  in  1850,  H.  Scheffler*  in  1859,  Joseph  J. 

^For  instance,  no  explanation  of  Homer  is  given  in  the  following^  text- 
books: J.  VieiUe,  TMorie  g&rUrale  det  approximations  numiriques,  Paris,  1854; 
L.  Saint-Loup,  Traitdi  e  la  riaoltUion  des  iqwiHons  nunUriques,  Paris,  1861; 
J.  A.  Serret,  Cour$  d'alg^bre  supirieure,  Paris;  A.  Xavier,  Approximations  numit' 
iqUiSBf  Paris,  1909. 

^Simon  Spitzer  in  Natunoissenschafaiehe  Abhandlungen,  Vol.  III.,  2  Abth., 
Wien,  1849,  pp.  109-170;  AUgemeine  Aufloesung  der  Zahlengleichungenf  Wien, 
1851. 

»C.  H.  Schnuse,  Theorie  i^Aufloes.  d.  hoeher.  algebr.  u.  d.  transc.  Oleichungen, 
Braunschweig,  1850. 

^H.  Scheffler  Aufloes.  d,  algebr.  u.  transe.  Oleichungen,  Braunschweig,  1859. 


254  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Nejedli*  in  1858  and  1865,  Josef  Dvorak'  in  1865,  P.  C.  Jelinek^ 
in  1865,  J.  Dienger*  in  1866,  Exner*  in  1859  and  1866. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  publications  the  RnflBni-Homer 
process  never  wholly  took  possession  of  the  German  and 
Austrian  territory.  As  late  as  1872  W.  Matzka  thought  it 
necessary  to  publish  a  full  account,  with  detailed  explanations, 
of  Homer's  method  in  the  transactions  of  a  learned  society.* 
The  well-known  Lehrbuch  der  Algebra  of  H.  Weber,  in  the 
edition  of  1898,  explains  the  antiquated  method  of  two  false 
positions,  but  gives  no  exposition  of  the  RuflBni-Homer 
process. 

In  the  United  States  of  North  America,  Homer's  method 
and  Sturm's  theorem  were  first  introduced  into  a  school  book 
in  1842,  when  the  Treatise  on  Algfirra  by  George  R.  Perkins 
was  published  in  New  York. 

We  have  called  attention  to  several  suggestions  of  com- 
binations of  the  Newton-Raphson  process  with  certain  other 
processes.  One  such  suggestion  now  comes  to  our  notice 
in  connection  with  the  Ruffini-Homer  method.  C.  Runge 
refers  to  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  combined  with  La- 
grange's method  of  continued  fractions.^    After  determining 

the  integer  a  just  below  a  root,  put  x^a^ —  and  consider  the 

if 

equation  in  y.  In  applying  Homer's  mechanical  arrange- 
ment, the  coefficients  must  be  written  in  reverse  order. 

A  writer  who  is  the  author  of  several  memoirs  on  numerical 
equations,  and  has  also  paid  particular  attention  to  the  study 
of  researches  of  earlier  investigators,  is  Giusto  Bellavitis* 

Uosef  Nejedll  in  the  Programm  d.  KcUh,  OymnaHums  tu  LeuUehau,  1858; 
J.  J.  Nejedll  in  Jakretb,  d.  k.k,  Obergymnasiums  tu  Laibaeh,  1865. 

*J.  Dvorak,  in  the  Programm  d.  k.  k,  Staata-Oymnanum  tu  Intubruck,  1865. 

*P.  C.  Jelinek,  S.  J.,  Aufloea.  d.  hoeher.  num.  Gleichungen,  Leipzig,  1865. 

*J.  Dienger,  Theorie  u.  Aufloes,  d.  hoeher.  Gleichungen,  Stuttgart,  1866. 

*Exner,  Programm,  Gymnaeium  tu  Hirechberg,  1859,  1866. 

"^Abhandl.  d.  K.  Boemisehen  Geedlecha/i  d.  Wiseeneeh.,  Prag,  (6)  Vol.  V. 

^Encydopaedie  d.  Math.  Wiaeenschaften,  Vol.  I.,  Leipzig,  1808-1904,  p.  438. 

•See  Memorie  ddl'I.  R.  letihUo  Veneto,  T.  III.,  1847,  pp.  109-219;  IV., 
1852,  pp.  243-344;  VI.,  1856,  pp.  357-413. 


Numerical  Equations.  255 

(1803-1880)  of  the  University  of  Padua.  No  writer  on  numer- 
ical equations,  excepting  only  Lagrange,  has  shown  such 
intimate  familiarity  with  the  publications  of  predecessors  as 
has  Bellavitis.  In  an  appendix  to  his  previous  papere,  pub- 
lished by  the  Venetian  Institute,*  he  gives  a  very  full  biblio- 
graphy of  the  subject  and  adds  interesting  remarks  on  the 
various  methods.  In  1847  he  speaks  in  high  appreciation 
of  Ruffini's  method.  He  himself  lays  stress  upon  the  deter- 
mination of  the  imaginary  roots  by  processes  resembling  the 
Ruffini-Honier  method  for  real  roots.  He  breaks  /(x)=0 
up  into  two  equations,  one  containing  the  odd  powers  with 
every  other  sign  changed,  the  other  containing  the  even 
powers  with  every  other  sign  changed.  In  these  two  auxil- 
iary equations  he  writes  x'=j/.  By  playing  backward  and 
forward,  between  the  auxiliary  equations  and  the  given  one, 
Bellavitis  determines  the  values  a  and  6  of  a  root  a+ih, 
one  digit  at  a  time,  by  the  RuflBni-Hon\er  process.  To  make 
certain  that  no  imaginary  roots  are  overlooked,  he  suggests 
a  rule  which  he  deduced  from  the  theory  of  "indices'*  of 
Cauchy.  In  the  memoir  of  1852  Bellavitis  succeeded  in 
simplifying  this  rule  somewhat.  In  1856  he  returned  to  the 
subject  again. 

The  papers  of  Bellavitis  made  no  impression  outside  of 
Italy.  In  fact  we  have  not  been  able  to  satisfy  ourselves 
that  they  received  much  attention  even  at  home.  It  was  to 
be  expected  that  other  attempts  would  be  made  to  extend 
the  Ruffini-Homer  method  to  the  determination  of  imaginary 
roots.  Especially  should  we  look  for  such  researches  in  lo- 
calities where  the  superiority  of  thivS  method  in  its  adaptability 
to  elementary  instruction  was  recognized.  And  so  we  find 
that  such  investigations  were  undertaken  in  England  and  in 
Austria.  William  Rutherford  (1789-1871)  of  the  Military 
Academy  at  Woolwich  in  England,  published  a  paper  in  1849 
entitled  Complete  Solution  of  Nuvierical  Equations y  which  was 

^Appendice  aUe  memarie  nUla  riaciutione  numeriea  deUe  equationi,  I,  R, 
rtHtiOo  Veneto,  1860,  pp.  177-236. 


256  Colorado  College  Publication. 

translated  into  German  the  same  year  by  August  Wiegand 
and  in  1850  explained  by  C.  H.  Schnuse  in  his  text  on  Alge- 
braische  und  Transcendente  Gleichungen,  Rutherford  finds 
the  complex  roots  of  equations  of  the  third,  fourth,  fifth  and 
sixth  degrees  by  the  aid  of  the  real  roots  and  the  relations 
existing  between  the  coefficients  of  the  given  equation  and 
the  one  obtained  by  diminishing  the  roots  by  the  real  part 
of  two  conjugate  complex  roots. 

In  the  same  year,  1849,  and  again  in  1851,  Simon  Spitzer, 
in  the  publications  named  above,  determined  the  complex 
roots  by  applying  to  them  the  Ruflfini-Homer  process  for 
real  roots;  the  equation  was  transformed  by  diminishing  the 
roots  by  a+ib.  This  process  demanded  that  the  complex 
roots  be  located  before  the  approximation  begins.  How  this 
location  may  be  accomplished  was  shown  by  Schultz  v.  Strass- 
nitzki,  by  whose  lectures  Spitzer  was  first  introduced  to  the 
subject  of  numerical  equations.  Spitzer 's  mode  of  procedure 
is  explained  by  H.  Scheffler  in  his  text  of  1859. 

An  ingenious  modification  of  Homer's  method  along  the 
lines  followed  previously  by  Bellavitis  (except  that  no  use 
is  made  now  of  Cauchy's  "indices'');  was  given  by  P.- C. 
Jelinek,*  S.  J.,  in  18G5.  Jelinek  was  apparently  unaware 
of  the  researches  of  Bellavitis.  He  aimed  to  develop  a  pro- 
cess which  would  reduce  the  great  labor  involved  in  Spitzer 's 
process  of  computing  imaginary  roots.  The  method  of  Jelinek 
yields  the  real  and  imag'mary  roots  by  the  aid  of  auxiliary 
equations,  whose  degrees  are  half  that  of  the  given  equation 
or  even  less.  Thus,  the  solution  of  an  equation  of  the  fourth 
or  fifth  degree  is  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  equations  of  the 
first  and  second  degrees,  respectively.  The  process  itself 
reveals  the  existence  of  imaginary  roots,  so  that  the  appli- 
cation of  theorems  like  Sturm's  is  not  needed.  Illustrative 
examples  show  that  this  method,  though  more  complicated 
in  theory,  is  less  laborious  than  that  of  Spitzer. 

»P.  C.  Jelinek,  Atifloes.  der  hoeh.  num.  Gleichungen,  etc.,  Leipzig,  1865. 


Numerical  Equations.  257 

Apparently  unaware  of  previous  applications  of  the  Ruf- 
fini-Homer  process  to  complex  roots,  Karl  v.  Mor*  in  1884 
suggests  the  same  method  as  that  of  Spitzer,  except  that  he 
finds,  by  the  intersections  of  curves,  the  hiitial  values  of  a 
and  6,  in  the  quantity  a +i6  by  which  the  roots  are  diminished. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  three  theses  were  issued 
in  Germany  on  the  history  of  the  theory  of  equations,  the 
last  two  of  which  include  accounts  of  the  Ruffini-Homer 
process,  without  reference,  however,  to  the  part  taken  by 
Ruffini.  These  authors  are  0.  Berger,'  M.  F.  Focke,*  and 
Theodor  Hoh.* 

3.  Weddlb's  Method. 

Thomas  Weddle  (1817-1853)  of  Newcastle  in  England, 
published  -4  new  .  .  .  method  of  solving  numerical 
equaiions  of  all  orders^  London,  1842,  which  is  a  method  kin- 
dred to  that  of  Homer.  After  finding  the  first  digit  of  the 
root  he  corrects  this  value  by  successive  multiplications, 
instead  of  additions.  If  R  is  the  first  significant  digit  in 
a  root  X  of /(a;)=0,  divide  the  roots  by  /2,  then  x=Rxi.  The 
transformed  equation  /(x^  =0  has  a  root  Xj  that  lies  between 
1  and  2.  Let  r,  be  the  value  of  the  first  significant  digit  of 
the  decimal  part  of  x„  and  put  Xj=  (l+r,)a*,.  Form  the 
equation /(a;,)=0  and  assume  x,=  (l+r,)x„  where  r,  is  the 
value  of  the  first  significant  digit  in  the  decimal  part  of  x„ 
and  so  on.  The  root  x  is  given  by  the  equation  x=R{l  +ri) 
(1+r,)   .    .    . 

Weddle  devised  a  mechanical  process  of  carryhig  out  the 
transformations  which  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  Ruffini- 
Homer  process.  Weddle  *s  method  has  considerable  ad- 
vantage when  the  degree  of  the  equation  is  high  and  some  of 

^Programm  d.  k.  k.  Ober-Reaachule^  Inntbruek  fuer  d.  Studienjahr  1883-4, 
Innsbruck,  1884. 

^Programm  des  Gymnanums  zu  Lembo  fuer  d.  Sckxdjakr  1848-49. 

'Z>e  aeqiuUionibus  numericis  tuperioris  ordinU,  Moipsterii,  •T>^is  Theis- 
singianis. 

*Profframm  gur  Schlxiss/eier  d.  Studienjahres  1858-59,  K.  Bayer,  Lyceum, 
Oymnaeium  tu  Bamberg. 


258  Colorado  College  Pubucation. 

the  terms  are  missing.  While  in  Homer's  method  missing 
terras  require  as  much  attention  in  the  process  of  approx- 
imation as  any  others,  in  Weddle's  process  they  are  ignored, 
as  coefficients  corresponding  to  them  do  not  appear  during 
computation. 

Weddle's  paper  was  read  before  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  but  the  Society  declined  to  print  it  in  its  Trans- 
actions. A.  De  Morgan,  who  admired  Weddle's  new  method, 
criticized  the  Royal  Society  for  it«  lack  of  appreciation. 

References  to  Weddle's  method  are  found  in  a  few  Italian 
and  German  publications,  but  we  have  seen  no  references 
to  it  in  French  books.  A  full  exposition  was  given  in  1850 
by  C.  H.  Schnuse  of  Heidelberg  in  his  book  Die  Theorie  und 
Aufidsung  der  .  ,  .  Gleichungen,  II.  Kapitel.  That  Schnuse's 
excellent  accoimt  of  Weddle's  method  failed  to  make  it  gen- 
erally known  in  Germany,  is  evident  from  a  paper  published 
in  1878  by  A.  Giesen.*  Giesen  expresses  a  root  known  at 
the  start  to  be  near  <p,  by  the  formula 


K^+^)(i+4) 


where  fi,  r,  may  be  single  digits,  and  also  by  the  formula 
h      c      d 

where  the  numerators  are  integers.  The  first  of  the  two 
formulae  is  a  re-establishment  of  the  process  of  Weddle,  only 
Giesen  missed  Weddle's  pretty  mechanism  in  conducting 
the  computation.  Giesen  was  unaware  that  his  method  of 
factors  had  been  given  before. 

And  yet  it  was  in  Germany  and  Austria  that  Weddle's 
method  received  important  extensions.  When  Simon  Spitzer 
saw  Schnuse 's  account  of  the  method,  he  extended  it  to  the 
computation  of  complex  roots  and  published  his  invention 
in  an  appendix  to  his  paper  entitled,  AUgemeine  Auflomng 

^Zeitachr,  /.  Math.  u.  Physik  (SchlOmilch),  Vol.  23,  1878,  pp.  35-46. 


Numerical  Equations.  259 

der  ZahUngleichungen,  Wien,  1851.  In  1862  an  extension 
to  complex  roots  was  described  by  Josef  Popper/  but  Spitzer 
complains'  that  Popper  reproduced,  without  acknowledgment 
of  indebtedness,  his  own  solution  of  1851,  concerning  which 
he  had  spoken  to  Popper  about  four  years  previous  to  the 
time  of  Popper's  publication. 

Weddle's  method  was  recommended  to  the  attention  of 
mathematicians  by  Bellavitis'  who  published  an  account  of 
it  drawn  from  Schnuse's  book. 

4.  The  Dandelin-GrXffe  Method. 

Dandelin's  article  of  1826,*  which  we  foimd  to  contain 
interesting  researches  on  the  Newton-Raphson  process,  con- 
tains in  its  second  supplement  a  new  and  masterly  device 
for  approximating  to  the  roots  of  an  equation,  which  consti- 
tutes an  anticipation  of  the  famous  method  of  Graffe.  If  the 
root-limits  are  a  and  6,  a— 6<1,  and  a  on  the  convex  side  of 
the  curve,  he  puts  x=a+y  and  transforms  the  equation  into 
one  whose  root  y  is  small.  He  then  multipUes /(j/)  by/(— y) 
and  obtains,  upon  writing  y^=z,  an  equation  of  the  same  de- 
gree as  the  original  one,  but  whose  roots  are  the  squares  of 
the  roots  of  the  equation  /(i/)=0.  He  remarks  that  this 
transformation  may  be  repeated,  so  as  to  get  the  fourth, 
eighth,  or  still  higher  powers. 

In  the  development  of  this  last  method,  Dandelin  repre- 
sents all  roots,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  by  the  symbolism 
P  (cos  d+i  sin  9)  and  establishes  the  theorem:  If  an  equa- 
tion /(x)==0  has  m+n  roots,  and  the  moduli  of  the  first  m 
roots  are  very  great  as  compared  with  the  moduli  of  the 
last  n,  then  the  first  m  are  roots  of  an  equation  composed 
of   the   first   m+\  terms  of  /(x)=0,  while  the  last  n  are 

>Z«itoeAr.  fuer  Math.  u.  Phytik,  Vol.  VII,  1862,  p.  384. 

Ibidem,  Vol.  VHI,  1863,  p.  240. 

*Appendice  alle  memorie  sulla  riBoIusione,  etc.,  in  Memorie  ddl'I.  R. 
latittUo  Veneto,  1860,  pp.  178,  192. 

*Nouveaux  mimoires  de  I  *aoadimie  roy.  d.  scien.  et  hell,  de  Bruxdles,  T.  3, 
1826,  pp.  7-71. 


260  Colorado  College  Publication. 

roots  of  one  composed  of  the  last  n+1  terms.  Instead  of 
simply  two,  one  may  consider  several  orders  of  modular 
magnitudes.  By  traasforming  the  given  equation  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  times,  the  moduli  of  the  powers  of  the  roots 
diverge  sufficiently  to  make  the  transformed  equation  separ- 
able  into  as  many  polygons  as  there  are  roots  of  distinct 
moduli.  He  explains  how  one  can  tell  when  an  equation  is 
separable,  and  how  the  real  and  imaginary  roots  can  be  ob- 
tained. Unfortunately  there  is  at  this  point  a  lack  of  detail 
and  of  illustrative  examples,  though  he  says  he  has  used  this 
method  often.  ^ 

Dandelin's  great  research  had  the  misfortune  of  being 
buried  out  of  sight  in  the  ponderous  tomes  of  a  royal  academy. 
Writers  on  numerical  equations  do  not  refer  to  it.  Only 
Bella vitis  was  aware  of  the  paper,  but  his  interest  was  not 
centered  upon  the  part  of  it  which  discusses  the  topic  now 
under  consideration.  The  evolution  of  this  subject  proceeds 
therefore  as  if  Dandelin's.genial  contribution  had  never  been 
made. 

The  approximation  to  the  real  roots  of  equations  had 
been  put  upon  a  fairly  satisfactory  basis  by  the  researches 
of  Fourier.  The  Ruffini-Homer  process  made  it  still  more 
satisfactory,  though  at  the  time  now  under  consideration 
(1831-1842)  it  was  still  unknown  on  the  Continent.  The 
problem  naturally  arose,  to  invent,  if  possible,  methods  of 
approximating  also  to  the  imaginary  roots.  The  problem 
was  not  new.  It  had  been  studied  in  the  eighteenth  century 
and  received  a  solution  by  Waring,  Euler  and  Lagrange. 
But  these  solutions  were  theoretical,  rather  than  practical. 
The  amount  of  computation  involved  was  so  enormous  that 
no  one  ever  thought  of  actually  using  the  methods  on  a 
problem.  In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  Legendre, 
Poletti,  Fourier,  Stem  and  Cauchy  failed  to  make  substantial 
headway  toward  a  practical  method. 

^For  biographical  details  about  Dandelin,  see  A.  Quetelet  Sciences  Math, 
el  Phy$.  Chez  lee  Bdgee,  1866,  "Index." 


Numerical  Equations.  261 

Dandelin  had  a  brilliant  idea,  but  did  not  sufficiently 
elaborate  it,  and  failed,  as  we  have  seen,  in  securing  the  ear 
of  the  scientific  public.  Hence  no  practical  method  of  com- 
puting all  the  imaginary  roots  of  a  numerical  equation  was 
generally  known  in  1835.  It  was  therefore  natural  for  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin  to  offer  a  prize  for  the  invention 
of  a  practical  method.  The  prize  was  awarded  to  Carl  Hein- 
rich  Graflfe  (1799-1873),  professor  of  mathematics  in  Zurich, 
for  his  paper,  published  in  1837  in  Zurich,  entitled.  Die  Auf- 
losung  der  holieren  numerischen  Gleichungen.  This  publi- 
cation contains  not  only  the  method  now  generally  known  as 
"Graffe's  method,"  but  also  the  older  methods  known  to 
him,  which  he  discusses  and  finally  rejects  as  impractical. 
His  discussion  of  the  method  of  recurrent  series  will  be 
referred  to  in  the  part  of  our  article  which  deals  with  that 
method. 

Graflfe  proceeds  from  the  same  principle  as  did  Stem  in 
the  method  of  recurrent  series.  He,  too,  causes  the  smaller 
roots  to  vanish  in  comparison  with  the  larger,  by  the  process 
of  involution  to  higher  and  higher  powers.  From  the  given 
equation  both  writers  derive  new  equations,  whose  roots 
are  high  powers  of  the  roots  of  the  given  equation.  From 
the  coefficients  of  the  latter  they  obtain  the  real  roots  and  the 
moduli  of  the  imaginary  roots.  But  the  mode  of  procedure 
by  which  these  powers  are  gotten  is  dififerpnt  with  the  two 
men.  GrUflfe  does  not  use  the  symmetric  formulae  for  the 
sums  of  powers  of  the  roots;  he  attains  his  end  by  successive 
steps  of  involution.  He  first  derives  an  equation  whose  roots 
are  the  squares  of  the  roots  of  the  equation  to  be  solved. 
Then  he  finds  the  equation  whose  roots  are  the  squares  of 
the  roots  of  the  derived  equation,  and  so  on.  The  roots  of 
the  successive  equations  gotten  by  this  process  are,  respect- 
ively, the  2nd,  4th,  8th,  16th,  32nd,  64tn,  etc.,  powers  of  the 
roots  of  the  initial  equation.  The  law  by  which  the  new 
equations  are  constructed  is  exceedingly  simple.    Thus,  if 


262  Colorado  College  Publication. 

the  coefficient  of  the  fourth  term  of  the  given  equation  is  a„ 
then  the  corresponding  coefficient  of  the  first  transformed 
equation  is  a,'— 2a/i4+2a,a|— 2a,.  In  the  computation  of 
the  new  coefficients,  Grftfife  uses  logarithms.  Suppose  the 
last  transformed  equation  contains  roots  that  are  the  rth 
powers  of  the  roots  of  the  given  equation.  K  then,  we  find 
the  rth  root  of  each  coefficient,  and  divide  each  result  by  the 
preceding  one,  we  obtain  the  absolute  values  of  the  real  roots. 
Their  algebraic  signs  can  be  easily  determined.  In  the  case 
of  imaginary  roots  the  process  yields  merely  the  modulus. 
Grftffe  determines  the  amplitude  by  a  special  method. 

The  method  of  Gr&ffe  possesses  some  very  unusual  ad- 
vantages. In  the  first  place  all  the  roots  of  the  equation, 
both  real  and  imaginary,  are  foimd  simultaneously.  In  the 
second  place  it  dispenses  with  the  necessity  of  determining 
beforehand  the  number  of  real  roots  and  imaginary  roots, 
and  the  location  of  each  root.  If  one  recalls  the  amoimt  of 
effort  put  forth  during  two  centuries  to  devise  expeditious 
and  reliable  means  to  do  this,  one  appreciates  a  mode  of  ap- 
proximation which  does  away  with  these  perplexing  and 
time  absorbing  preliminaries.  The  presence  of  imaginary 
roots  is  revealed  by  the  behavior  of  the  coefficients  of  the  suc- 
cessive transformed  equations.  If  the  rth  coefficient  in  the 
successive  terms  fluctuates,  it  reveals  the  presence  of  imagin- 
ary roots  in  the  initial  equation.  Gr&ffe  gives  his  attention 
also  to  the  case  of  equal  real  roots. 

The  astronomer  Encke  expressed  himself  on  Grftffe's 
method  as  follows:  "The  method  commends  itself  by  its 
generality,  rigor  and  brevity.  It  is  direct,  hiasmuch  as  it 
does  not  call  for  trials  of  any  sort.  It  is  applicable  to  all 
equations,  of  any  degree;  it  does  not  lead  to  equations  of 
higher  degree  than  that  of  the  first  and  in  its  uniform  and 
unvarying  mode  of  procedure  never  calls  for  an  insuperable 
amount  of  computation.  The  nature  of  the  roots  and  the 
number  of  imaginary  ones  present  no  obstacle  in  its  path." 


Numerical  Equations.  263 

The  only  objection  to  Gr&fle's  method  is  that  the  transform- 
ations demand  considerable  time,  even  when  logarithms  are 
used.  K  all  the  roots  of  an  equation  are  sought,  then  this 
method  possesses  very  marked  advantages;  if  only  some  par- 
ticular root  is  sought,  then  other  modes  of  approximation 
become  successful  rivals. 

The  determination  of  equal  roots  and  imaginary  roots 
requires  more  time  than  that  of  real  roots,  but  not  to  the 
extent  that  the  older  methods  do.  Grftffe  does  not  consider 
the  case  of  equal  imaginary  roots.  This  and  some  other 
matters  are  discussed  in  the  very  able  and  elaborate  article 
by  the  astronomer  J.  F.  Encke  (1791-1865),  from  which  the 
above  quotation  is  taken.* 

An  independent  and  greatly  simplified  exposition  of  the 
theory  of  the  Dandelin-Gr&ffe  method  was  given  *over  half 
a  century  later  by  E.  Carvallo.'  Carvallo's  exposition  re- 
sembles in  some  parts  that  of  Dandelin,  although  Carvallo 
had  not  seen  Dandelin 's  paper.  Carvallo  extends  the 
method  not  only  to  algebraic  equations  with  complex  coeflS- 
cients,  but  also  to  transcendental  equations.  His  funda- 
mental theorem  relates  to  the  "separation"  of  two  consecu- 
tive roots,  (the  roots  being  arranged  according  to  the  values  of 
their  moduli),  so  that,  compared  with  the  first  root,  the  value 
of  the  second  is  negligible.  He  establishes  a  necessary  and 
suflBcient  test  for  the  possibility  of  separation,  whereby  the 
polynomial  f{x)  divides  itself  into  two  parts.  The  first  part 
by  itself  gives  the  larger  root  and  the  roots  preceding  it;  the 
second  part  gives  the  smaller  of  the  two  roots  and  all  that 
follow  it. 

Carvallo  criticizes  Gr&ffe  and  Encke  for  lack  of  rigor  and 
for  failure  to  recognize  that  the  entire  theory  can  be  foimded 
upon  one  fundamental  principle.     In  criticism  of  Carvallo 's 

'J.  F.  Enoke,  "Allgemeine  AuflOsung  der  numerischen  Gleichungen"  in 
Beriiner  Attronomisches  Jahrhuch  fuer  1841,  also  in  CrelU'8  Journal,  Vol.  22, 
1841,  p.  193. 

'E.  Carvallo,  MHhode  pratique  pour  la  risolution  numirique  compUte  des 
iquaiiona  algibriques  ou  tranBcendantes,  Paris,  1806. 


264  Colorado  College  Publication. 

own  paper  it  must  be  said  that  he  cannot  lay  claim  to  any  high 
degree  of  rigor,  nor  to  precision  in  some  of  his  statements.* 

The  Dandelin-Graffe  method  has  failed  to  attain  popu- 
larity. In  1850  it  was  described  by  0.  Berger  in  a  historical 
paper.'  In  1856  it  is  again  described  in  a  historical  pam- 
phlet.' In  1862  Martin  Filler  of  the  gynmasium  in  Dillingen 
brought  out  an  exposition  of  the  method.*  He  remarks  in 
the  preface  that,  thus  far,  no  text-book  of  higher  mathematics 
has  included  Graffe's  method.  In  1865  P.  C.  Jelinek,  S.  J., 
in  a  publication  which  we  noticed  earlier,  passed  an  advei'se 
judgment  upon  it  as  involving  too  much  computation.  In 
1879  it  was  greatly  admired  by  Miguel  Merino,  of  the  observ- 
atory at  Madrid,  who  translated  Encke's  memoir  into  Spanish. 
The  most  recent  and  for  didactic  purposes  the  ablest  exposi- 
tion of  it  is  given  by  Gustav  Bauer  in  his  Vorlesungen  vber 
Algebra,  Leipzig,  1903,  XXIV.  Kapitel. 

We  have  never  seen  an  account  of  the  Dandelin-Graffe 
method  in  English.  Todhunter  said  in  his  Theory  of  Equon 
lions,  London,  1880,  p.  164:  "There  is  no  easy  practical 
method  of  calculating  the  imaginary  roots  of  equations  at 
present  known."  Cayley  says,  in  1878,  in  the  article  "  Equa- 
tion" of  the  EncydopcBdia  BrUannica:  "Very  little  has 
been  done  in  regard  to  the  calculation  of  the  imaginary  roots 
of  an  equation  by  approximation."  Either  these  writers 
did  not  have  the  Dandelin-Graffe  method  in  mind  when  they 
made  these  statements,  or  else  they  considered  the  method 
unsatisfactory. 

Finding  the  Dandelin-Graffe  method  too  laborious,  J.  E. 
B.  Valz^  suggested  in  its  place  a  method  which  consists  in 

*Thu8,  Carvallo  says  that,  if  the  rth  coefficients  in  the  successive  trans- 
formed equations  fluctuate  in  ngn^  this  fact  discloses  the  presence  of  a  pair  of 
complex  roots.  See  p.  16  of  his  paper.  This  condition  is  sufficient,  but  not 
necessary.  The  necessary  and  sufficient  condition  Carvallo  does  not  state  at 
all,  namely  that  the  coefficients  shall  fluctuate  in  value. 

*0.  Berger  in  Programm  desGymnanums  xu  Lemgofuer  das  Schulj'ahr  1840-50. 

•M.  F.  Focke,  De  aequationibua  numericis  superioris  ordiniSf  1856,  pp.  60-84* 

^M.  Filler,  Die  Aufloeaung  der  hoeheren  numerischen  Gleichungen  durch. 
successives  Quadriren  der  Wtirzeln,  Programm  1861-62,  Dillingen,  1862. 

^Comptee  Rendus,  Vol.  41,  1855,  p.  685. 


Numerical  Equations.  265 

changing  x  to  a:*®,  and  then  taking  x  =  l.  This  suggestion  has 
received  no  serious  attention. 

An  achievement  of  considerable  theoretical  significance, 
at  first  sight  far  remote  from  the  topic  now  under  discussion, 
is  that  of  Fiirstenau*  who  in  1860  expressed  any  definite  real 
root  of  an  algebraic  equation  with  numerical  or  literal  co- 
efficients, in  terms  of  its  coefficients.  This  is  done  through 
the  aid  of  infinite  determinants,  a  kind  of  determinants  then 
ased  for  the  first  time.  In  1867  he  extended  his  results  to 
imaginary  roots.  If,  instead  of  infinite  determinants,  finite 
ones  are  taken  whose  degrees  are  gradually  increasing,  one 
obtains  approximations  to  the  roots.  The  approximation 
is  made  to  depend  upon  the  fact  that  for  high  powei-s  of  the 
roots,  the  powers  of  all  other  roots  become  negligible  in  com- 
parison to  the  power  of  the  greatest  root.  It  is  here  that 
the  new  method  touches  the  older  developments  of  Daniel 
Bernoulli,  Euler,  Fourier,  Stem,  Dandelin  and  Graffe. 

By  a  different  path  E.  Schroder'  arrived  at  an  expression 
of  which  that  of  Fiirstenau  is  a  special  case.  Schroder 
showed  that  Fiirstenau 's  expressions  were  closely  related  to 
recurring  series,  while  Siegmund  Giinther*  pointed  out  their 
relations  to  continued  fractions.  Giinther's  expressions  apply 
to  equations  with  literal  coefficients  as  well,  and  yield  a  definite 
root,  while  Lagrange  *s  method  of  continued  fractions  applied 
only  to  numerical  equations  and  required  that  an  approximate 
root- value  be  initially  given.  Giinther  explained  Fiirstenau 's 
method  in  his  Lehrbuch  der  Determinanten,  A  further  dis- 
cussion of  Fiirstenau  is  given  by  Hans  Naegelbach  in  two 
articles.*  In  the  first,  Fiirstenau 's  approximate  values  for 
the  largest  and  smallest  root,  real  or  complex,    are  expressed 

'Furstenau,  DarsteUung  d.  reeU.  Wurt.  algebr.  Gleich.  d.  Determinanten  d. 
Coeffieienten,  Marburg,  1860. 

^A£ath.  Annalen,  Vol.  II.,  1870,  p.  347. 

•Math.  Annalen,  Vol.  7,  1874,  pp.  262-268. 

*Archiv.  d.  Math.  u.  Phys.,  (Gnmert),  Vol.  59,  1876,  pp.  147-192;  Vol. 
01,  pp.  19-86. 


266  Colorado  College  Publication. 

by  coefficients  resulting  from  the  division  l-^/(x).  These 
coefficients  also  can  be  made  to  reveal  the  amount  of  error 
in  the  approximation.  Finally  the  case  is  considered  when 
the  maximum  root  is  a  multiple  root.  In  the  second  paper 
the  limiting  value  of  the  error  is  expressed  by  a  series  of. 
successive  approximate  values  of  the  roots  themselves,  on 
the  supposition  that  the  approximation  is  continued  indefi- 
nitely. This  value,  known  in  practice  only  approximately, 
may  be  used  in  correcting  the  approximate  root-values  already 
found.  Naegelbach  illustrates  his  procedure  by  examples. 
Closely  allied  to  the  researches  of  Fiirstenau  and  his  followers 
is  a  paper  by  J.  Konig*  of  Budapest  on  a  general  expression 
for  the  numerically  least  root  of  an  equation. 

5.  The  Method  by  iNFmrrE  Series. 

The  extensions  of  the  method  of  recurrent  series  in  the 
solution  of  equations  that  were  suggested  by  Fourier,  stim- 
ulated a  number  of  investigators.  In  the  first  place,  Stern 
of  Gottingen. devoted  much  study  to  the  solution  of  equations 
by  continued  fractions,'  in  continuation  of  the  work  of  La- 
grange, and  to  the  solution  by  recurrent  series  which  had  been 
investigated  by  D.  Bernoulli,  Euler,  Lagrange  and  Legendre.* 
Legendre  had  poiiited  out  that  by  transformation  of  the 
equation,  any  root  may  become  the  largest,  and  consequently 
may  be  computed  by  recurrent  series.  But  no  short  method 
of  effecting  this  transformation  presented  itself.  Fourier 
had  suggested  in  his  "expos^  synoptique'*  a  different  scheme 
for  arriving  at  all  the  roots,  and  this  scheme,  not  actually 
worked  out  by  him  in  his  published  works,  Stem  endeavors 
to   reproduce.      Stem  shows   that   for  large  values  of  n, 

<P^<P^,=  [{Zf^''^'y-Zf^'''^']^[{Z<P^^y-Z<P^'^],    whcre 

<Pi  and  <pi  are  the  two  largest  roots,  and  <pt  (the  largest), 
can    be   found   by  the   Bemoullian   method.     By   dividing 

KMath.  Annalen,  Vol.  9,  1876,  pp.  530-540. 

^CreUe'a  Journal,  Vol.  10,  11,  1833-34. 

^Thlorie  des  n&mbres,  2e  Ed.,  1808,  Ire  partie,  §XIV.  p.  145. 


Numerical  Equations.  267 

<P\9i  by  <p^  he  obtains  ^,.  Thus  convergence  to  the  required 
root  is  secured  in  all  cases  in  which  both  roots  are  real  or 
both  imaginary.  K  ip^  is  real  and  ^,  imaginary,  then  the 
process  fails.  Stem  finds  next  (px<pip%  and  divides  this  by 
ipxf^  to  obtain  <p„  and  so  on.*  These  results  were  mainly  of 
theoretical  interest;  for  practical  computation  the  method  of 
recurrent  series  is  too  elaborate. 

Another  research  which  involved  attempts  to  retrace 
the  steps  of  Fourier  on  recurrent  series  was  that  of  C.  H. 
Graffe.*  Then  came  papers  on  recurrent  series  by  Mainardi,* 
C.  G.  J.  Jacobi,*  A.  Laisant,*  E.  Schroder/  C.  Rimge^  who 
made  an  extension  to  variable  coefficients,  and  F.  Cohn' 
who  begins  by  studying  the  properties  of  quantities  derived 
by  recurrent  processes  and  then  applies  his  results  to  root- 
computation.  Cohn  obtains  the  exact  conditions  under 
which  Bernoulli's  process  of  computing  the  numerically 
largest  and  smallest  root  is  valid. 

It  was  shown  by  J.  Konig*  that  Bernoulli's  procediu-e  is 
a  special  application  of  a  general  theorem  relating  to  the 
behavior  of  certain  functions  of  a  complex  variable  on  the 
circle  of  convergence. 

Other  recent  studies  on  recurrent  series  are  due  to  D'Ocagne** 
and  A.  Capelli." 

The  solution  of  equations  by  the  method  of  infinite  series, 
which  was  a  favorite  subject  of  research  during  the  eighteenth 

^CreOe's  Journal,  Vol.  11,  1834,  pp.  293-306.  Stem's  papers  in  Vols.  10 
and  11  of  Crelle's  Journal  were  reprinted  in  book  form  at  Berlin  in  1834  under 
the  title  Theorie  der  Kettenbrueche  und  ihre  Anwendung. 

^Auficetung  d.  hoeh.  numeriaehen  Oleiehungen,  Ziirich,  1837,  pp.  8-16.  See 
also  GrafTe  in  CrdU*9  Journal,  Vol.  10,  1832,  p.  288. 

•Ann.  R.  Lomb,  Veneto,  1839,  p.  273.  and  Vol.  10,  1840,  p.  113. 

HJrdU'8  Journal,  Vol.  13,  1835,  p.  349. 

•Butt,  des  acienees  math.  H  astr.,  2e  S.,  T.  V.,  1881,  pp.  218-249. 

•Math.  Annalen,  Vol.  II.,  1870,  pp.  333-349. 

^Aeta  Mathematica,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  305-318. 

•Math.  Annalen,  Vol.  44,  1894,  pp.  473-475. 

•MathematUche  Annalen,  Vol.  23,  1884,  p.  447. 

^^ Journal  de  I'EcoU  Polytechnique,  Vol.  64,  1894. 

'^A.  accctdemia  d.  tcienxe  Fiaich  e  Matem.  di  Napoli,  Fasciolo  7,  1895. 


268       Colorado  College  Publication. 

« 

century,  received  considerable  attention  during  the  nineteenth. 
At  the  threshold  of  the  new  century  some  researches  of  the 
old  type  made  their  appearance  which  paid  little  attention 
to  the  question  of  convergence.  In  1801  was  published  a 
paper  by  Pietro  Franchini  (1768-1837),  a  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Rome,  later  at  Lucques.  This  paper,  entitled,  Sur 
la  resolution  des  Equations  d'un  degri  quelconque,^  develops 
the  roots  into  series  which,  for  the  special  case  p—qx+rx^ 
— x'  =  0  yield  the  following  expressions  for  the  roots  a,  6,  c: 
a  =  p:q  +  rp^:q^—p^  :q*  +  2r^p^ :  g*— etc.,  b=q:  r—p:q+  q^: 
r'— pV:g'— 27):r+etc.,  c=r—q  :  r  +  p  :  r^—q^^:  r^  +  3pq  :r*— 
etc. 

In  1830  K.  G.  J.  Jacobi'  (1804-1851)  explains  a  method  of 
approximation  by  means  of  infinite  series,  depending  upon  a 
generating  function  and  forming  an  extension  of  Cauchy^s 
residual  calculus.  Cauchy'  took  up  the  solution  by  infinite 
series  in  1837  and  1854. 

The  reversion  of  series  was  utilized  in  the  solution  of 
equations  in  1846  by  Valtinowsky.*  In  1850  appeared  at 
Giessen  a  pamphlet,  entitled,  Die  allgemeine  Umkehrung  der 
Reihen  nebst  Anwendung  derselben  auf  die  vollstaendige  Losung 
numerischer  Gleichnngen  by  Ferdinand  Kerz,  "Rittmeister 
in  der  Gr.  Hess.  Gendarmerie."  The  author  goes  into  minute 
detail  on  the  reversion  of  series  and  claims  to  have  elaborated 
a  complete  practical  solution  by  series  of  equations  of  all 
degrees  up  to  and  including  those  of  the  sixth  degree,  and 
thereby  to  have  pointed  out  the  mode  of  procedure  for  equa- 
tions of  any  degree.  He  explains  the  reversion  in  great 
minutia.  "If  thereby  the  limit  of  practical  usefulness  is 
overstepped,"  he  says,  "then  may  this  find  its  excuse  in  the 
diflSculty  of  defining  that  limit."    His  contention  that  a  com- 

^MSmoires  deVacad.  d.  acien.  de  Turin,  aim6e  1792  a  1800,  Tom.  VI.,  Turin 
1801,  Pt.  II.,  p.  115-126. 

^Crdle'a  Journal,  Vol.  6,  1830,  p.  257. 

^Comptes  Rendus,  Vol.  IV.,  1837,  pp.  216,  362,  612,  773,  805;  Vol.  V.,  p.  301, 
357;  1854,  ler  sem.  p.  1104.     Jour.  Ecole  Pdytech.,  Vol.  15,  1837,  p.  176. 

*Crdle'8  Journal,  Vol.  33,  1846,  p.  164. 


Numerical  Equations.  269 

binatorial  presentation  of  the  reversion  has  no  value  probably 
has  reference  to  the  work  of  the  combinatorial  school  in  Ger- 
many at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  which  claimed  by 
the  reversion  of  series  to  have  reached  a  general  solution  of 
equations.^ 

We  meet  with  other  attempts  to  overcome  the  practical 
difficulties  surrounding  the  process  of  reversion  of  a  function. 
Thus,  in  an  article  On  General  Numerical  Solution,^  W.  S.  B. 
Woolhouse  determines  the  inversion  of  a  given  function  in 
a  series  less  diffuse  than  the  one  usually  given  under  reversion 
of  series,  and  involving  the  values  of  the  differential  coeffi- 
cients for  an  approximate  value  of  the  variable.  The  article 
is  followed  by  a  note  of  De  Morgan  who  reaches  the  results 
of  Woolhouse  by  a  different  route.  Woolhouse  gives  several 
examples,  one  on  the  computation  of  interest  in  annuities. 

In  a  treatise  Die  allgemeine  Umkehrung  gegebener  Funk- 
tionen,  1849,  Oscar  Schlomilch  (1823-1901)  maintains  that 
none  of  the  methods  of  reversion  of  series,  based  upon  the 
theory  of  combinations,  are  practically  applicable  and  that 
even  Lagrange's  formula  labors  under  this  defect.  Schlo- 
milch then  proceeds  to  develop  methods  of  reversing  a  given 
fimction  by  Fourier's  series  and  by  definite  integrals.  It 
was  maintained  in  1883  by  J.  G.  Hagen,*  then  of  Prairie  du 
Chien  in  Wisconsin,  that  though  theoretically  elegant,  Schlo- 
milch's  methods  are  not  preferable  when  it  comes  to  the  actual 
computation  of  the  numerical  values  of  the  coefficients  of  the 
reversed  series.  Hagen  gives  the,  recurring  formula  for  the 
computation  of  the  coefficients  of  the  reversed  series  a  more 
convenient  form  and  then  applies  the  same  to  numerical 
equations. 

The  solution  in  infinite  series  was  suggested  in  1855  by 

' Johann  Friedrioh  Pfaff,  TrackUus  de  reveraiane  aerierum  aive  de  reversione 
aequationum  per  aeries,  which  is  part  of  Pfaff  'a  DiaquiaUionea  analyticae,  Hebn> 
8t&dt,  1797. 

*Proeed.  London  Math.  Soc.,  Vol.  II.,  1868,  pp.  75-84. 

'J.  G.  Hagen,  "  On  the  Reversion  of  Series  and  its  Application  to  the  Solu- 
tion of  Numerical  Equations,"  Proceed.  American  PhU.  Soc.,  Vol.  21,  p.  883,  p.  93. 


270  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Thereim/  in  1857  by  Fergola/  in  1859  by  Valz,*  in  1875  by 
L.  W.  Meech*  in  two  articles  which  contain  also  a  proof  and 
an  extension  of  Descartes'  Rule  of  Signs.  Another  solution 
by  series  is  given  by  J.  B.  Mott/  and  by  Artemas  Martin.* 

It  cannot  be  said  that  the  publications  hitherto  set  forth 
found  a  mode  of  securing  the  roots  of  numerical  equations 
by  the  method  of  infinite  series  that  is  satisfactory  to  the 
practical  computer. 

Hardly  more  successful  was  A.  Heegmann^  who  issued 
memoirs  in  1861  and  1866;  or  Ch.  M6ray*  who,  in  an  able 
paper,  proves  the  existence  of  roots  by  showing  how  the  roots 
may  be  actually  computed  by  the  aid  of  series;  or  Axel  Soder- 
blom  who  in  1899  wrote  at  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  on  the 
Resolution  numirique  des  Rations  algSbriques, 

In  the  Dandelin-Graffe  method  we  saw  that  the  roots 
were  obtained  all  at  one  time.  This  simultaneous  calculation 
of  all  the  roots  came  to  be  achieved  also  by  the  method  of 
infinite  series.  For  a  three-term  equation  this  was  achieved 
in  1883  by  R.  Dietrich*  and  in  1887  by  P.  Nekrasoflf.'^  For 
the  general  equation  it  was  accomplished  by  Emory  Mc- 
Clintock  of  New  York  in  a  very  noteworthy  article  entitled, 
A  method  for  calcuUiting  simidtaneously  all  the  roots  of  an 
equation}^  By  his  Calculus  of  Enlargement  he  obtained 
series  better  adapted  for  computation  than  those  ^ven  by 
Lagrange,  whose  method  appears  as  a  special  case  of  that  of 

^CrelU'a  Journal,  Vol.  49,  1855,  p.  187,  242. 

*Ricerehe  auUa  rUciiixone  per  serie,  Napoli,  1857. 

*"Es8ai  de  la  resolution  des  Equations  par  les  series  et  les  logarithmes/' 
Comptes  Rendus,  Vol.  49,  1859,  p.  750. 

*The  Analyst,  (Des  Moines,  Iowa),  Vol.  2,  1875,  pp.  81-88,  97,  104. 

'^Analyst,  (Des  Moines,  Iowa),  Vol.  9,  1882,  pp.  104-106. 

•Our  Schoolday  Visitar,  Math'l  Annual,  1871. 

^A.  Heegmann  Essai  d'une  nouveUe  mithode  de  risoluHon  des  iquatione 
algibriquee  au  moyen  des  e&riee  infinies,  Paris,  1861;  Riaciution  gtntrale  dee 
liquations,  Paris,  1865. 

•Bulletin  des  Sciences  Math.,  2e  s^rie,  T.  15,  1891,  p.  236. 

•Archiv  der  Math.  u.  Phys.,  Vol.  69,  p.  337. 
^^Maihematische  Annalen,  Vol.  29,  1887,  p.  413. 
^^  American  Journal  of  Mathematics,  Vol.  17,  1895,  pp.  89-110. 


Numerical  Equations.  271 

McClintock.  The  series  used  by  McClintock  may  be  derived, 
as  he  himself  points  out,  by  applying  "Lagrange's  series," 
and  without  the  use  of  the  Calculus  of  Enlargement.  A 
prominent  part  in  McClintock 's  treatment  is  his  theory  of 
"dominant*'  coefficients,  which  theory  lacks  precision,  inas- 
much as  no  criterion  is  given  to  ascertain  whether  certain 
coefficients  are  dominants  or  not,  which  is  both  necessary  and 
sufficient.  It  was  shown  in  1903  by  Preston  A.  Lambert 
of  Lehigh  University*  that  the  expansions  obtained  by  La- 
grange's series  may  be  obtained  more  easily  by  a  direct 
application  of  Maclaurin's  series.  In  1908  Lambert  published 
two  additional  articles  on  the  solution  in  infinite  series,'  in 
which  careful  attention  is  paid  to  convergency  conditions.  He 
shows  that  the  convergency  conditions  for  a  t-term  equation 
can  be  set  up  when  those  of  a(<— l)-term  equation  are  known. 
The  process  employed  by  Lambert,  of  breaking  up  an  equation 
into  two  parts  and  then  introducing  as  a  factor  a  parameter 
into  one  of  the  two  parts,  is  one  which  seems  to  have  been 
used  first  by  Cauchy  in  one  of  the  articles  of  1837,  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  above. 

The  general  solution  of  algebraic  equations  by  Mac- 
laurin's formula,  yielding  power  series  of  the  coefficients, 
was  studied  by  C.  Rossi,*  who  reaches  results  of  which  those 
of  Lambert,  published  in  1903,  for  the  trinomial  equation, 
are  special  cases.  Rossi's  article  was  the  starting  point  of 
an  extended  note  on  this  subject,  published  in  1907  by  A. 
Capelli.* 

These  recent  researches  of  American  and  Italian  mathe- 
maticians have  placed  the  determination  of  real  and  imaginary 
roots  of  numerical  equations  by  the  methods  of  infinite 
series  within  reach  of  the  practical  computer.    The  methods 

^Proceed.  American  PhUoaophical  Society,  Vol.  42,  1903,  No.  172. 

^Proceed.  American  Phil,  Soc,,  Vol.  47,  1908,  p.  Ill;  BuU.  Am.  ^fath.  Soc., 
2nd  S.  Vol.  14,  1908,  pp.  467-477. 

*Oiamale  di  matematiche  di  BaUaglini,  T.  44,  (1906),  pp.  279-290. 

*Rend.  d.  R.  Accademia  d.  scienze  Fisiche  e  Matem.  di  Napoli,  Fascicolo 
5*  a  11*   1907. 


272  Colorado  College  Publication. 

themselves  indicate  the  number  of  real  and  of  imaginary 
roots,  so  that  one  can  dispense  with  the  application  of 
Sturm's  theorem  here  just  as  easi'y  as  one  can  in  the  Dan- 
delin-Graffe  method. 

6.  Solutions  of  the  Trinomial  Equation  and  their  Ex- 
tensions TO  Other  Equations. 

Trinomial  equations  are  of  particular  interest  and  im- 
portance. Many  researches  are  especially  devoted  to  them. 
For  that  reason  it  seems  best  to  group  these  investigations 
under  one  head,  even  though  many  of  them  really  belong 
under  some  previous  head,  if  the  classification  according  to 
the  method  employed  in  their  solution  were  rigidly  adhered  to. 

Trinomial  equations  were  the  subject  of  special  study 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  Among  the  first  to  give 
attention  to  this  subject  in  the  nineteenth  century  was  Dan- 
delin,  who,  in  the  third  supplement  to  his  paper  of  1826,* 
discusses  trinomial  equations  and  Kepler's  problem.  We 
have  seen  that  this  paper  was  completely  overlooked  by  the 
mathematicians  of  his  day. 

The  use  of  logarithms  of  sums  and  differences  in  the 
solution  of  equations  was  first  suggested  in  connection  with 
quadratic  equations  by  Gauss  in  the  Tables  of  Vega  and 
Hiilsse  in  1840,  and  again  in  1843  in  a  letter  to  Schumacher, 
wherein  Gauss  shows  their  use  in  solving  the  cubic  which  in 
parabolic  motion  serves  to  determine  the  true  anomaly,' 
and  remarks  that  all  trinomial  equations  can  be  similarly 
solved.  This  last  fact  was  not  developed  by  him  publicly 
until  1849,*  when  he  read  before  the  Konigl.  Gesellschaft  der 
Wissenschaften  a  paper,  Beitraege  zur  Theorie  der  Algebra^ 
ischen  Gleichungen^  the  first  part  of  which  discusses  his  famous 

^Nouveaux  nUmoires  de  I  'acadimie  roy.  d.  scien.  et  bell,  de  BruxdleSf  T.  3, 
1826,  pp.  7-71. 

2GftU9s'  Werkc,  Vol.  III.,  1876,  p.  255;  Vol.  VI.,  1874,  p.  191;  Astronom- 
iache  Naehrichten  Nr.  474;  R.  Mehmke  in  Zeitsch.  f.  Math.  u.  Phya.  (SchlOmiloh), 
Vol.  35,  p.  180 

'Gauss'  Werke,  Vol.  III.,  p.  85. 


Numerical  Equations.  273 

proof  of  1799  that  every  equation  has  a  root,  and  the  second 
part  of  which  takes  up  the  solution  of  numerical  equations. 
He  remarks  first  that  real  as  well  as  imaginary  roots  of  tri- 
nomials can  be  solved  by  infinite  series,  that  in  the  case  of 
nearly  equal  roots  the  convergence  is  very  slow,  and  in  the 
limiting  case  of  equal  roots  it  is  slower  than  in  any  converging 
geometric  progression,  that  indirect  methods  of  solution  are 
preferable  except  when  the  convergence  happens  to  be  very 
rapid.  Gauss  considers  x'"'*"'*dbex"*db/=0.  Instead  of  loga- 
rithms of  sums  and  differences  (which  were  first  suggested 
by  Lionelli  and  are  often  called  "  Gaussian  logarithms),''  ordin- 
ary logarithms  may  be  used,  he  says,  though  less  advantag- 
eously. Proceeding  to  imaginary  roots.  Gauss  remarks  that 
they  are  ordinarily  harder  to  find,  because  they  must  be 
gotten  from  an  infinite  realm  of  two  dimensions,  instead  of 
only  one,  but  shows  that  in  case  of  trinomials  even  with 
imaginary  coefficients,  a  procedure  can  be  followed  which 
sets  the  problem  into  the  realm  of  one  dimension.  Expressing 
the  imaginaries  in  the  form  r  (cos  p  +  i  sin  p)  he  gets,  by 
equaUng  the  reals  and  the  imaginaries,  two  equations  from 
which  he  eliminates  r  thereby  obtaining  a  convenient  ex- 
pression for  finding  p.    From  p  the  value  for  r  follows  easily. 

The  use  of  logarithms  of  the  sums  and  differences  in  con- 
nection with  trinomial  equations  was  explained  in  1846  in 
Italy  by  Bellavitis.* 

In  England  trinomial  equations  were  solved  for  imaginary 
roots  by  the  use  of  logarithms,  and  the  method  of  double 
false  position,  in  an  article  written  by  Thomas  Weddle.' 

In  America,  a  method  involving  the  use  of  logarithms,  of 
solving  c\ibic  equations  having  three  real  roots  of  which  two 
may  be  equal,  was  given  in  1878  by  L.  G.  Barbour*  of  Rich- 
mond, Kentucky.  Five  years  later  he  extended  his  method 
to  the  complete  solution  of  cubics  with  two  imaginary  roots.* 

^Memorie  deU'I.  R.  laHtiUo  Veneto  di  acienze,  etc..  Vol.  III.,  1846,  p.  110. 
^The  McUhematieian,  Vol.  III.,  1849,  pp.  285-289. 
^Analyst  (J.  E.  Hendricks),  Vol.  5,  1878,  pp.  73-79. 
*  Analyst,  Vol.  10,  1883,  pp.  115-120. 


274  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Using    "Gaussian    logarithms/'  Andr.    Kjeldgaard^  ap- 
proximates to  the  roots  of  trinomial  equations  of  the  type 


x'»+px+g=0,  by  the  formula  j/r+i=V^a J/ r+tt,  the  equation 
being  first  changed  to  the  form  x^—aj/— a=0.  A  somewhat 
more  general  treatment  of  trinomial  equations  by  "Gaussian 
logarithms''  was  given  in  1890  by  the  Hon.  Lord  McLaren.' 

Gauss'  method  of  solving  trinomial  equations  is  explained 
by  A.  M.  Nell,'  who  adjusts  the  mode  of  procedure  to  the 
new  tables  of  logarithms  for  sums  and  differences. 

The  extension  of  Gauss'  method  to  quadrinomials  was 
undertaken  in  1884  and  1885  by  S.  Gundelfinger,*  who 
establishes  criteria  for  the  number  of  real  roots  and  gives 
rules  for  the  quick  recognition  of  the  first  approximations 
to  the  roots.  Such  criteria  for  real  roots  were  also  given  in 
1889  by  Carl  Faerber.*  The  extension  of  Gauss'  results  to 
quadrinomial  equations  was  given  by  Alfred  Wiener  in  an 
article  which  captured  a  prize  offered  on  this  subject.*  The  ex- . 
tension  of  Gauss'  results  to  any  equation  was  taken  up  by 
R.  Mehmke,  professor  in  Darmstadt,  who  published  in  1889 
a  logarithmic-graphic  method  of  solving  numerical  equations,^ 
and  in  1891  a  more  nearly  arithmetical  method  of  solution 
by  logarithms.  •  Mehmke  shows  how  either  kind  of  logarithms 
may  be  used.  The  method  is  essentially  a  mixture  of  the 
Newton-Raphson  method  and  the  regula  falsi,  as  regards  its 
theoretical  basis.  Instead  of  using  the  differential  calculus  in 
the  computation  of  the  increment  h  of  the  approximate  root- 

^TidBskrift  for  MathemaHk,  Kopenhagen,  (4)  Vol.  IV.,  1880,  pp.  136-137. 

^Proc.  of  the  R.  Society  of  Edinburgh,  1891,  pp.  270-280. 

^Archiv  d.  Math.  u.  Phys.,  2  S.,  Vol.  I.,  1884,  pp.  311-333. 

*See  Mehmke,  Zeitechr.  fuer  Math,  u.  PhyB.,  Vol.  36,  1891,  p.  180. 

K^.  Farber,  Herleitung  fuer  die  Antahl  reeller  Wurxdn  von  Oleiehungen 
(speciell  der  aUgemeinen  viergliedrigen  und  der  Oleiehungen  fuenften  Grades,) 
Inaugural  Dissertation,  Berlin,  1889. 

•Zeitsehr.  /.  Math,  u.  Physik,  Vol.  31,  1886,  pp.  65-87,  192. 

^CivUingenieur,  Vol.  35,  1889,  p.  617. 

•R.  Mehmke,  "Praktische  Methode  2ur  Berechnung  der  reellen  Wurzeln 
reeller  algebraischcr  oder  transcendenter  numerischer  Oleiehungen  mit  einer 
Unbekannten,"  Zeitsch.  /.  Math.  v.  Phys.,  Vol.  36,  pp.  168-187. 


Numerical  Equations.  275 

value  x„  Mehmke  effects  this  computation  by  proportional 
parts  as  in  logarithmic  interpolation.  If  x,  be  assumed  to  in- 
crease by  an  amoimt  h,  then  he  computes  by  interpolation, 
step  by  step,  the  changes  in  every  term  of  /(x,)  and  thus  the 
change  in/(x,)  itself.  Suppose/(x,)  =R,  and/(x,+A)=/2+SA. 
li  x^+h  is  to  be  a  root,  we  must  have  R+Sh  =  Of  which  yields 
a  value  A  as  a  correction  of  x,.  Mehmke 's  method  is  a  re- 
petition of  this  process,  carefully  worked  out  in  its  mechanism 
to  satisfy  the  wants  of  practical  computers.  Unlike  the  great 
mass  of  writers  of  numerical  equations,  Mehmke  pays  careful 
attention  to  the  algorithm.  The  initial  value  of  x,  he  de- 
termines graphically.  Well-known  is  Mehmke 's  article  on 
methods  of  computation  in  the  Encycklopaedie  der  Mathe- 
mcUischen  Wissenschaften,  Vol.  I.  p.  938.  There,  and  in  all 
his  articles  he  shows  a  strong  leaning  toward  graphical  and 
mechanical  processes  of  computation. 

Returning  to  earlier  modes  of  dealing  with  trinomial 
equations  which  do  not  depend  upon  the  use  of  logarithms, 
we  refer  first  to  a  method  due  to  Rutherford*  for  finding  the 
three  roots  of  a  cubic  which  is  neater  than  the  methods  that 
he  had  explained  in  his  earlier  publication.  He  finds  the 
real  root  r  by  Homer's  method,  then  the  other  two  roots, 
<p  +  \/fi  and  ^— \/^,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  are  deduced 
very  simply  from  r  and  the  coefficients  of  the  given  and  trans- 
formed equations,  without  solving  any  quadratic  equation. 

Special  methods  of  computing  the  real  roots  of  quadratics 
and  cubics  have  been  published  also  by  J.  Odstrcil  of  Bohemia.* 

By  infinite  series  the  solution  of  trinomials  was  carried 
out  by  A.  Gebhardt,  using  a  table  depending  upon  gamma 
functions.* 

A.  S.  Guldberg  disposes  of  the  numerical  solution  of  cubic 
equations  in  this  wise:*    By  Hnear  substitution  he  brings  the 

^The  MathemtHcian,  Vol.  2,  1850,  pp.  267-259. 
*Jahrbuch  ue.  d.  FortsehrUU  der  Math.,  Vol.  10,  1878,  pp.  61-63. 
*()i«  Au/I6«.  dreigliedrig.  Gleieh.  durch  Reihen,  Leipzig,  1873. 
^Videnak.  SeUkabeU  FarharuU,  %  Christ iania,  1871. 


276  Colorado  College  Publication. 

cubic  to  the  form  x*— ex— c=0,  and  then  uses  a  seven 
place  table  which  he  constructed,  and  which  gives  at  once 
the  value  of  x  corresponding  to  a  given  value  of  c.  A  similar 
table  is  constructed  for  the  quintic  x*+aa:+6=0.  A  table  of 
the  same  character,  but  not  so  extensive,  was  published  a 
few  years  later  by  F.  Bumier.*  In  1877  J.  J.  Astrand  of 
Bergen,  outlined  a  solution  of  the  trinomial  equation,  x"— 
aa:db6=0^  and  in  1882  gave  a  method  of  approximation  to 
the  roots  of  x^dbax  ±6=0.'  Infinite  series  for  the  roots 
of  x^ +0x^=6  were  obtained  in  1879  also  by  Julius  Farkas 
of  Polgardi  in  Hungary.*  In  1880  S.  Giinther,  in  an  article 
rich  in  historical  notes,  extended  Astrand  ^s  expression  for 
x"— ax=h6  =  0,  to  the  more  general  form  x^+"+ax«=6,* 
which  was  discussed  by  v.  Schaewen*  in  connection  with  a 
life  insurance  problem  in  interest. 

With  the  aid  of  indeterminate  coefficients,  von  Mangoldt^ 
arrived  at  an  expression  of  the  roots  of  a  trinomial  equation 
by  infinite  series,  in  a  dissertation  of  1878.  In  1883  R. 
Dietrich  arrived  at  results  for  trinomials  similar  to  Astrand 's 
of  1877,  in  a  paper*  which  treats  the  general  problem  of  alge- 
braic equations  by  infinite  series.  The  series  are  deduced 
from  Taylor's  theorem  by  substitution  and  they  represent  a 
single  root  or  several  roots. 

In  1886  W.  Heymann  showed  how  to  express  the  roots 
of  trinomial  equations  in  terms  of  definite  integrals.* 

Tiinomial  equations  are  treated  in  a  novel  way  by  the 
Russian,  P.  Nekrassoff,*®  who  develops  some  interesting  geo- 

^Bvil.  de  la  SocUti  VaudoUe  d.  sciences  not.,  Lausanne,  Vol.  X. 

^Aetron.  Ncuihrichten,  No.  2134. 

*Archivf<yr  Math,  og  Naturv.,  Vol.  VI.,  1881-1882,  pp.  448-459. 

*Grunert'8  Archiv,  Vol.  64,  1879,  pp.  24-30. 

^ZeUechr.  f.  maih.  u.  naturw.  UrUerricht,  Vol.  XI,  1880,  pp.  68-72,  267. 

^Loc.  cU.  p.  264. 

^Von  Mangold  t,  Ueber  die  Darateilung  der  Wurzdn  einer  dreigliedrigen  edge' 
braiechen  Gleichung  durch  unendliche  Reihen,  Berlin,  1878. 

^Archiv  der  Math.  u.  Physik,  Vol.  69,  1883,  pp.  337-381. 

^McUh.  Anncden,Vo\.  28,  pp.  61,-80;  ZeiUch.  fuer  Math.  u.  Phyaik,  Vol.  31, 
pp.  223-240. 

^^Math.  Annalen,  Vol.  29,  1887,  pp.  413-440. 


Numerical  Equations.  277 

metric  relations  and  then  proceeds  to  study  the  convergence 
of  series  expressing  powers  of  the  roots,  wherein  he  connects 
with  the  work  of  Heymann  and  of  Westphal/ 

n  

E.  Netto'  considers  x**— x— a=0  and  a:jfc^.i=\/a:jfc  +  a,  and 
proved  what  used  to  be  assumed  outright,  namely,  that  with 
increasing  fc,  Xjc  approaches  a  real  root  of  the  equation.  This 
paper,  as  well  as  one  by  K.  E.  Hoffmann*  are  further  dis- 
cussed and  genemlized  by  C.  Isenkrahe.* 

A  noat  procedure  for  computing  the  roots  of  a  cubic, 
digit  by  digit,  by  simple  successive  transformations  of  the 
given  equation  according  to  the  scheme  x  =  r+r'^  10,  is 
explained  by  H.  Dorrie.* 

7.  Miscellaneous  Researches. 

Under  this  head  we  group  a  number  of  publications  which 
did  not  seem  to  fall  naturally  into  the  groups  of  topics  pre- 
viously considered.  We  begin  with  a  new  method  of  finding 
near  values  of  the  roots  of  algebraic  equations  having  terms 
alternately  plus  and  minus,  given  in  1812  by  Charles  Button.  • 
In  X*— px'+gx— r  =  0,  he  assumes  x=a  and  gets  x*— 3ax'+ 
3a'x— a'  =  0.  Letting  3a =p,  3a' =g,  and  3a'x— a'=gx— r, 
he  eliminates  a  and  solves  for  x  in  terms  of  p,  g,  and  r.  This, 
he  says,  gives  approximately  the  middle  root,  if  real.  Later 
in  the  article  Button  modifies  his  scheme  by  taking  3ax'  + 
a*=^px^+r  and  eliminating  a,  as  before.  Be  extends  the 
method  to  the  quartic  and  remarks  that  it  might  be  extended 
to  equations  of  higher  degrees. 

No  less  curious  a  process  is  developed  by  A.  Timmerans^ 

*WestphaU  EvdiUio  radieum  aequationum  algeibraicarum  etemis  terminU 
can^tanHum  in  series  infiniUu,  Gottingae,  1850. 

'Netto,  "Ueber  einen  Algorithmus  zur  AuflOsung  numerischer  algebraischer 
Qleichungen"  in  Math.  Annalen,  Vol.  29,  1887,  p.  141. 

•"  Ueber  die  AuflOsung  der  trinomischen  Gleichungen  durck  Kettenbruch- 
ahnliche  Algorithmen '*  in  Archiv  fuer  Mathematik,  Vol.  66,  1881,  pp.  33-46. 

*M€Uh.  Annalen,  Vol.  31,  18H8,  p.  309. 

^Archiv  der  Math.  u.  Phys.,  3  S.,  Vol.  11,  1907,  pp.  168-173. 

^Tracts  an  Malhem.  and  Phtloaoph.  Subjects,  Vol.  I.,  London,  1812,  p.  218. 

^Correspondance  math,  et  phys.  (Gaud),  T.  II.,  1826,  pp.  218-220. 


278  Colorado  College  Publication. 

of  Gand  who  uses  a  formula  for  approximating  more  closely 
to  a  root,  which  agrees  with  the  one  used  in  the  Calculus  in 
finding  the  x-coordinate  of  the  center  of  curvature  of  a  curve. 

We  have  seen  that  the  rule  of  two  false  positions  was  used 
in  the  solution  of  affected  equations  before  the  time  of  Vieta. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  since  the  time  of  Vieta,  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  this  method  was  seldom 
described,  but  that  it  appears  again  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  As  some  one  has  remarked,  the  history  of  some 
scientific  subjects  resembles  a  river  which  sinks  underground 
in  a  part  of  its  course  and  emerges  again  at  a  distant  spot, 
swelled  perhaps  by  certain  subterranean  tributaries.  In 
school  books  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  method  of  double 
false  position  is  frequently  given  for  the  solution  of  equations. 
At  this  time  we  have  also  seen  it  brought  into  alliance  with 
other  methods.  Occasionally  special  papers  are  given  to  its 
elucidation  and  further  development.  A  pamphlet  published 
in  1847  at  Carlstad  by  C.  A.  Agardh*  describes  a  mode  of 
solution  which  is  essentially  the  method  of  two  false  positions. 
A  generalization  of  the  regida  falsi,  as  this  method  is  some- 
times called,  was  given  by  M.  Lerch.' 

Finding  that  Budan's  procedure  was  not  well  adapted 
for  close  approximations,  Louis  Olivier*  suggested  in  1827 
an  approximation  by  the  aid  of  formulae  of  interpolation, 
particularly  Lagrange's.  In  the  same  journal  Olivier*  gave 
criteria  for  the  number  of  real  roots,  in  amplification  of  Des- 
cartes'  rule.  Interpolation  as  a  method  in  the  approximate 
solution  of  equations  was  discussed  also  by  Bellavitis,*  who 
refers  to  simplifications  suggested  by  the  astronomer  Encke. 
In  1852  A.  F.  Mobius  published  some  formulae  based  on 

^Sur  une  mUhode  ilimerUaire  de  risuodre  Us  iquationa  numHHques  d*un 
degri  qudconque  par  la  sammaHan  des  BirieSf  Carlstad,  1847. 

'Uenseignement  malhimatique,  T.  VII.,  1905,  p.  303. 

^CreUe'B  Journal,  Vol.  II.,  1827,  pp.  214-216. 

K!r€Ue*8  Journal,  Vol.  I.,  1826,  pp.  223-227. 

^Memorie  deU  'IstUuto  Veneto  di  Bcieme,  Vol.  III.,  1846,  Nota  IV.,  p.  106; 
Vol.  VI.,  1857,  p.  3;  1860,  p.  202. 


Numerical  Equations.  279 

Lagrange's  interpolation  formula  and  also  the  process  of  false 
position/ 

A  doctor  of  medicine^  J.  Brizard,  published  in  1834  at  Paris 
and  Besan^on  a  pamphlet  bearing  the  title  Nouvelle  mdhode 
pour  la  risolviion  des  Equations  numiriques  de  tons  les  degr6s, 
which  embodies  some  of  the  features  of  Budan  and  Stevin. 

A  method  somewhat  analagous  to  that  of  Newton,  except 
that  the  value  of  zin  x==r+zis  taken  as  the  arithmetic  mean 
of  two  differently  derived  estimates  of  z,  is  given  by  A.  F.  VogeP 
of  Leipzig  in  1845.  Vogel  brings  continued  fractions  into 
service.  The  method  is  vitiated  through  the  employment  of 
an  unsafe  criterion  for  ima^nary  roots. 

In  1890  R.  Mehmke  communicated,  without  proof,  a 
scheme  for  developing  roots  of  algebraic  equations  in  the 
form  of  periodic  continued  fractions.* 

The  Resolution  of  Equations  by  means  of  inferior  and  su- 
perior limits  was  published  by  James  Lockhart  in  London  in 
1842.  The  given  equation  is  transformed,  so  that  the  re- 
quired root  lies  between  1  and  0.  Let  r  be  the  absolute 
term  of  the  transformed  equation,  and  q  the  greatest  coefficient 
whose  sign  is  contrary  to  that  of  r.  Consider  q  and  r  as 
positive.  Then  the  least  root  of  the  equation  is  greater  than 
r-T-  (q+r),  A  similar  expression  is  obtained  as  a  superior 
limit  of  the  required  root.  The  approximation  is  secured  by 
the  application  of  these  limits  to  the  successive  transformed 
equations.  Lockhart  interested  himself  in  the  theory  of 
numerical  equations  during  many  years  and  published  several 
other  papers.* 

»A.  F.  Mabias,  OesammdU  Werke,  Vol.  4,  Leipzig,  1887,  "Beitrag  «ur 
Lehre  von  der  AuflOsung  numerisoher  Gleichungen." 

*Entdeckung  einer  numerischen  OenercU'Aufloeaung  aller  hoeheren  endlichen 
Oleichungen  von  jeder  Miebigen  algebraUchen  und  transcenderUen  Form,  Leipzig, 
1845.  According  to  L.  A.  Sohnolce's  Bibliotheca  Maihematica,  1854,  p.  133, 
Vogel 's  monograph  was  brought  out  in  1845  in  Leipzig,  in  three  languages: 
Qerman,  French  and  English. 

•BOklen's  MiUeUungen,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  9-14. 

*See  James  Lockhart,  A  Method  of  Approximating  toward  the  Roots  of  Cubic 
Equations,  London,  1813;  Exttttsion  of  the  Cddtrated  Theorem  of  C.  Sturm, 
Oxford,  1839;  The  Nature  and  roots  of  Numerical  Equations,  London,  1860. 


280  Colorado  College  Publication. 

About  the  same  time  appeared  in  Germany  a  pamphlet 
by  G.  A.  Jahn/  purporting  to  find  all  roots  from  their  limits. 

Philip  Beecroft's  General  Method  of  finding  all  the  roots^ 
both  real  and  imaginary,  of  Algebraical  Equations,  Hyde,  1854, 
contains  two  methods  of  solving  equations  by  approximation 
which  deserve  notice,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
author  claims  to  have  found  an  algebraic  solution  of  the 
general  quintic.  His  first  method  consists  of  approximations 
to  a  quadratic  factor  of  the  equation,  which  can  be  made 
without  a  previous  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  roots.  In 
Beecroft's  second  method,  let  r  be  an  approximate  root. 
Take  x=r+rXi,  then  in  the  equation  for  Xj  find  r,  as  a  value 
near  Xj.  Put  Xy^r^+r^x^.  Find  r,  close  to  x„  and  so  on. 
One  has  then  x  =  r+rr^+rr{r^+  .  .  .  No  inquiry  is  insti- 
tuted to  ascertain  whether  these  methods  will  always  succeed. 

The  method  of  differences,  which  we  first  encountered  in 
1669  in  a  paper  by  Collins  and  a  little  later  in  the  writings  of 
De  Lagny,  is  explained  occasionally  in  nineteenth  century 
publications.  It  is  given,  for  instance,  by  Bellavitis  in  his 
historical  memoir  and  by  J.  A.  Serret  in  his  Cours  d^algibre 
supirieure, 

A  method  of  transformation  of  an  equation  which  con- 
sists in  makmg  the  left  member  a  perfect  nth  power,  was 
explained  briefly  in  1859  by  Dascom  Greene  of  th^  Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic  Institute.'  In  x»+2x'+3x= 13089030,  he 
obtains  x  + 1  =  #"13089031 +  x',  and  neglecting  x',  x+1 
=236,  nearly.  Hence  a:=235.  Take  x=200  and  obtain  a 
closer  value,  and  so  on. 

A  paper  based  upon  geometric  considerations  was  pub- 
lished in  1861  by  A.  Vallas'  of  Alexandria  in  Louisiana. 
Vallas  shows  that  approximations  may  be  obtained  by  ab- 
scissas of  parabolic  arcs  tangent  to  the  curve  of  the  given 

'O.  A.  Jahn,  Leichte  u.  sichere  Methode  saemmtliche  Wurzdn  einer  hoeheren 
numerischen  Oleichung  aufzu8uchen  und  zu  herechnertf  Leipzig,  1844. 

^Mathematical  Monthly,  (J.  D.  Runkle),  Vol.  I.,  1859,  pp.  406-408. 
^Mathematical  Monthly,  (J.  D.  Runkle),  Vol.  III.,  1860-61,  p.  10. 


Numerical  Equations.  281 

equation  where  the  curve  intersects  the  axis  of  the  ordinates. 
We  take  this  author  to  be  the  Anton  Vallas  who  brought 
out  in  1843  in  Vienna  a  monograph,  Beitrag  zur  Auflosung 
der  hoheren  Gleichungen. 

A  cognate  idea  is  embodied  in  a  paper  by  I.  B.  Favero. 
Devoting  his  attention  mainly  to  transcendental  equations, 
Favero*  in  1875  points  out  that,  if  one  takes  the  greatest  and 
least  value,  within  a  given  interval  of  the  variable,  of  the 
simple  functions  x^,  sin  x,  tan  x,  etc.,  one  can  also  compute 
a  maximum  or  minimum  value,  for  that  interval,  of  com- 
posite functions  involving  these  simple  ones;  by  breaking  the 
interval  up  into  smaller  ones,  the  real  roots  may  be  separated, 
and  approximations  to  the  roots  may  be  reached  by  consider- 
ing certain  two  parabolas  touching  each  other  and  touching 
also  the  curve  of  the  function.  The  intersections  of  the 
parabolas  with  the  axis  of  x  supply  the  approximate  values. 
The  method  is  illustrated  by  several  interesting  examples. 

H.  F.  Talbot  in  1875  described,  in  a  curious  and  most 
interesting  Essay  toward  a  General  Solution  of  Numerical 
Equations  of  all  Degrees  haiyijig  Integer  Roots y^  a  method  of 
solution  founded  upon  the  "casting  out  of  the  nines.''  '*It 
consists  in  substituting  for  any  number  the  remainder  which 
that  number  leaves  when  divided  by  niney 

Of  little  value  is  A.  Otto's  Das  grosste  Problem  der  Rechen- 
kunst  gelost,  Berlin,  1894,  which  proceeds  by  the  method  of 
trial  and  error.  Along  the  same  line  is  a  booklet  published 
in  1900  in  London,  from  the  pen  of  M.  A.  McGinnis  of  Neosho 
in  Missouri,  under  the  title:  The  Universal  Solution  of  Nu- 
merical and  Literal  Equations.  The  author  gives  numerical 
approximations  by  the  method  of  trial  and  error  which  are 
often  ingenious,  but  the  book  as  a  whole  discloses  a  complete 
misunderstanding  of  the  question  at  issue  in  the  algebraic 
solution  of  equations. 

^OiornaU  di  Matematiche  (G.  Battaglini),  Vol.  XIII.,  1875,  pp.  249-282. 
^Transactions  Ray,  Soc.  Edinburgh,  Vol.  27,  pp.  303-312. 


282  Colorado  Colleqe  Publication. 

8.  Summary. 

1.  Limits  superior  to  all  the  roots  are  proposed  by  Bret, 
VSne,  Tliibault,  Laguerre;  inferior  limits  are  given  by  Fouret. 

2.  For  the  detection  of  complex  roots  provisional  theorems 
are  given  by  Fourier  and  Budan.  Then  follow  the  great 
theorems  of  Sturm,  Cauehy  and  Laguerre  on  the  exact  num- 
ber and  location  of  real  and  complex  roots. 

3.  Fourier  and  Dandehn  discover  conditions  for  using 
the  Newton-Raphson  method  with  safety. 

4.  Fourier's  book  of  1831  is  read  by  mathematicians  in 
all  European  countries.  The  more  important  commentaries 
upon  it  are  those  of  Stem  and  J.  R.  Young. 

5.  Numerous  commentaries  on  the  Newton-Raphson 
method  appear,  more  especially  in  France,  which  have  for 
their  object:  (a)  The  use  of  approximations  of  higher  de- 
grees than  the  first;  (6)  Means  for  the  easier  detection  of 
the  degree  of  approximation  reached  at  any  stage ;  (c)  Affili- 
ation with  the  regula  falsi  or  other  methods ;  (d)  The  discovery 
of  safe  conditions  of  using  the  method  that  are  less  restricting 
than  Fourier's  conditions. 

6.  Cauehy  extends  the  Newton-Raphson  method  to  the 
computation  of  complex  roots. 

7.  France  is  the  only  country  where  the  Newton-Raphson 
method  has  held  almost  undisputed  sway. 

8.  The  Ruffini-Homer  process  is  invented  by  Ruflini  in 
1804,  but  failing  to  become  known,  it  is  rediscovered  by 
W.  G.  Homer  in  1819.  This  is  the  best  didactic  method  for 
young  students.  It  has  been  used  widely  in  England  and  the 
United  States;  less  widely  in  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy; 
and  not  at  all  in  France. 

9.  A  second  paper  of  Horner  was  published  in  1830,  a 
third  in  1845. 

10.  The  Ruffini-Horner  process  was  extended  so  as  to 


Numerical  Equations.  283 

yield    approximations    to    complex    roots    by    Rutherford, 
Bella vitis,  Spitzer,  Jelinek  and  Mor. 

11.  Analogous  to  the  Ruffini-Homer  method  is  that  of 
Weddle.  It  was  re-invented  by  Giesen  and  extended  to 
complex  roots  by  Spitzer. 

12.  The  Dandelin-Gr&ffe  method,  dispensing  with  all 
preliminary  tests  on  the  nature  and  location  of  the  roots, 
and  yielding  all  the  roots  simultaneously,  is  invented  by 
Dandelin,  but  being  overlooked,  it  is  re-invented  by  Graffe. 
The  exposition  of  it  is  improved  by  Encke  and  Carvallo.  It 
is  not  widely  used. 

13.  Of  theoretic  interest  is  Fiirstenau's  solution  by  in- 
finite determinants. 

14.  The  method  of  recurrent  series,  studied  by  I^egendre, 
Fourier,  Stem,  and  others,  is  not  a  practical  method. 

15.  The  solution  in  infinite  series  is  studied  by  a  large 
number  of  mathematicians.  The  most  decisive  advances 
recently  made  in  America  and  Italy  render  the  method  of 
marked  practical  value.  It  is  able  to  proceed  without  pre- 
liminary tests  on  the  nature  and  location  of  roots  and  to 
supply  all  the  roots  simultaneously. 

16.  Gauss  solves  trinomial  equations  by  logarithms. 
The  method  is  extended  by  Mehmke  and  others  to  quadri- 
nomials  and  the  general  equation.  Many  papers  are  written 
on  trinomial  equations. 

17.  Methods  of  solving  affected  equations  by  two  false 
positions,  which  were  first  used  before  the  time  of  Vieta,  but 
were  seldom  mentioned  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
century,  are  revived  in  the  nineteenth  century  and  are  fre- 
quently found  in  school  books. 

9.  General  Remarks. 

In  a  patent  office  are  seen  wonderful  exhibits  of  drawings 
and  models.  The  most  diversified  ideas  are  called  into  play 
by  different  inventors  for  the  accomplishment  of  one  and  the 


284  Colorado  College  Publication. 

same  end.  In  fact,  it  looks  at  times  as  if  the  number  of 
possible  inventions  for  the  achievement  of  one  and  the  same 
object  was  without  limit.  But  upon  closer  study  of  the 
drawings  and  models,  one  finds  that  in  this  richness  of  design 
there  are  after  all  only  a  very  few  which  combine  all  the 
qualities  which  constitute  a  great  invention  or  that  find  wide 
acceptance  among  the  people  as  labor-saving  devices.  Some 
inventions,  though  very  ingenious,  do  not  cover  a  suffici- 
ently wide  range  of  operations,  others  lack  that  extreme 
simplicity  which  is  a  prerequisite  for  popularity.  Still 
others,  though  based  on  novel  ideas,  are  not  worked  out  with 
suflScient  attention  to  detail  or,  perhaps,  fail  to  operate  with 
safety  and  certainty.  Others  again  appear  to  have  served 
merely  the  purpose  of  affording  the  inventor  some  intellectual 
gymnastics  and  mental  amusement,  and  are  exhibited  merely 
to  gratify  the  curious. 

The  history  of  the  solution  of  numerical  equations  is  such 
a  curiosity  shop.  In  it  we  find  all  the  types  of  inventions 
named  above,  and  more.  We  find  the  methods  of  didactic 
value  in  the  instruction  of  the  young  and  inexperienced 
operator.  We  find  othei"s  of  complicated  mechanism  ser- 
viceable only  to  the  highly  trained  mathematician.  We  find 
some  excellent  devices  that  are,  however,  appUcable  only  to 
equations  of  a  certain  number  of  terms  or  of  a  certain  degree. 
Others  sometimes  labor  under  the  defect  of  leading  the 
operator  to  wrong  inferences  or  of  leading  him  backwards  or 
forwards  without  converging  to  results.  Some  do  not  give 
the  computor  all  the  information  he  may  need,  while  others 
are  hardly  practical  unless  the  operator  desires  to  ascertain 
all  the  roots,  both  real  and  imaginary.  Different  devices  are 
fitted  to  the  various  temperaments  of  computers.  Some  pre- 
fer to  ascertain  a  root  by  easy  steps,  digit  by  digit;  others 
have  a  fondness  of  combining  several  steps  into  one  single, 
though  much  more  laborious  step. 

Notwithstanding  the  multifarious  efforts  put  forth  during 


Numerical  Equations.  285 

the  last  few  centuries,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  end 
of  research  in  this  field  of  inquiry  is  not  yet.  At  present 
there  exists  no  general  theory  of  approximation  to  the  roots. 
The  various  theorems  that  have  been  formulated  have  not 
been  brought  into  organic  relation  to  each  other  so  as  to 
impart  to  the  subject  as  a  whole  the  character  of  a  mathe- 
matical theory.  Nor  have  general  points  of  view  been 
reached,  from  which  all  the  special  methods  now  known 
appear  in  their  natural  relation  as  special  cases.  It  is  not  to 
be  inferred,  however,  that  nothing  has  been  done  along  this 
line.  In  the  researches  which  cluster  around  the  Newton- 
Raphson  method  it  has  been  the  custom  since  the  time  of 
Fourier  to  speak  of  approximations  of  the  first  degree,  the 
second  degree,  and  of  even  higher  degrees.  This  classifi- 
cation indicates  a  broader  point  of  view.  One  research  which 
marks  a  long  step  in  the  direction  of  a  general  theory  was 
published  in  1870  by  E.  Schroder,  under  the  title:  Ueber 
unendlich  vid  Algarithmen  zur  Auflosung  der  Gleichungen} 
This  writer  endeavors  to  consider  different  methods  of  ap- 
proximation to  the  roots  of  numerical  equations  from  a  com- 
mon point  of  view,  embodied  in  the  following  theorem: 
Let/(2)=0  be  the  given  equation,  z  one  of  its  roots,  let  also 
F{z)  be  a  single- valued  function  within  a  region  surrounding 
z  which  has  the  property  that  makes  F{z)=Zj  then  one  may 
put  z'  =  F{z),  z^^Fizf),  7!"^F{f),  and  so  on,  and  thereby 
obtain  an  approximation  to  z,  provided  mod.  F' {z)  is  less 
than  unity.  The  approximation  is  of  the  nth  order,  if  the 
first  n— 1  derivatives  of  F{z)  are  zero.  The  initial  approxi- 
mation /  must  lie  within  a  certain  range  of  2,  but  the  limits 
of  this  range  have  not  yet  been  fixed. 

That  a  final  development  of  methods  has  not  yet  been 
reached  is  evident  also  from  the  fact  that  wide  disagreement 
exists  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  different  methods. 
The  territory,  being  as  yet  only  partially  reconnoitered,  affords 

^McUhematische  Annalen,  Vol.  II.,  1870,  pp.  317-363. 


286  Colorado  College  Publication. 

no  common  viewpoint.  One  man  starts  from  the  valley  and, 
ascending  the  mountain  side,  gets  an  expanding  view;  another 
descending  from  the  mountain  top,  gets  a  contracting  view. 
After  the  territory  shall  have  been  more  thoroughly  studied, 
greater  unanimity  will  prevail,  but  differences  in  individual 
temperament  will  probably  never  permit  complete  unanimity. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Introduction 171 

PART  I.  Before  Vieta.  Approximation  to  the  princi- 
pal real  roots  of  pure  equations  not  usually  ex- 
ceeding the  fourth  degree.    Sporadic  attempts  to 

approximate  to  the  roots  of  affected  equations 172 

Summary 181 

General  Remarks 182 

PART  IL  Vieta,  NewUniy  Lagrange,  Beginning  of  an 
interdependent  progressive  development  of  me- 
thods of  solving  affected  equations.  The  methods 
in  general  use  are  either  laborious  or  insecure ....   182 

Summ^ary 214 

General  Remarks 215 

PART  III,  Modem  Times.  Refinement  of  old  methods. 
New  methods  and  fuller  conquest  of  the  imaginary 

1.  The  NewUm^Raphson  Method  and  Allied  Processes 217 

2.  The  Rufini-Homer  Method 245 

3.  Weddle's  Method 257 

4.  The  Danddin-Graffe  Method 259 

5.  The  Method  by  Infinite  Series 266 

6.  Solutions  of  the  Trinomial  Equation  and  their  Extensions 

to  other  Equations 272 

7.  Miscellaneous  Researclies 277 

8.  Summxiry 282 

9.  General  Remarks 283 


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THE  SUCCESSION  OF  PLANT  LIFE  ON  THE  GRAVEL 
SLIDES  IN  THE  VICINITY  OF  PIKE'S  PEAK. 


By  Edward  C.  Schneider. 


The  granite  core  of  the  Rocky  Mountams  has  been  un- 
covered over  the  greater  part  of  the  mountains  of  the  Pike's 
Peak  neighborhood  and  is  now  exposed  to  the  consequences 
of  weathering.  This  granite  is  readily  disintegrated  and 
decomposed  into  pieces,  large  and  small,  which  fall  away 
from  boulder  and  cliff  faces.  This  debris  may  acciunulate 
near  the  parent  rock  or  roll  and  slide  for  considerable  dis- 
tances down  the  mountain's  side,  and  is  continually  being 
reduced  by  the  forces  of  disintegration  and  decomposition  to 
the  smaller  particles  of  the  irregular  talus  or  of  the  more 
homogeneous  gravel  slide.  Into  such  new  soils  plants  soon 
migrate,  helping  along  the  process  of  decomposition,  at  the 
same  time  binding  the  particles  of  gravel  more  or  less  firmly 
together,  and  thus  they  produce  conditions  more  favorable 
for  their  offspring  and  other  forms  of  plant  life.  A  study  of 
the  changes  in  the  physical  conditions  on  these  gravel  slides 
and  of  the  more  important  phases  of  the  succession  of  plant 
life  on  them  constitute  the  subject  matter  of  this  paper. 

The  gravel  slides  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Pike's 
Peak  have  been  considered  up  to  an  altitude  of  9000  or  9500 
feet.  Much  of  the  work  recorded  was  carried  on  near  Crystola 
in  Teller  County,  Colorado,  situated  on  the  Colorado  Midland 
Railroad,  and  along  the  Colorado  Springs  and  Cripple  Creek 
Railroad.  The  most  extensive  naked  gravel  slides  occur 
along  the  last  named  railroad.  The  later  stages  of  the  plant 
succession  are  equally  good  along  both  roads. 

The  Perfect  Succession. 
Professor   F.    E.   Clements   in   "Research   Methods   in 
Ecology"  indicates  seven  stages  in  the  talus  (gravel)  sue- 


290  Colorado  College  Publication. 

cession  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  normal  sequence  of 
these  is  (1)  the  crustose  lichen  formation;  (2)  the  foliose 
lichen  formation ;  (3)  the  gravel  slide  formation  in  which  the 
pioneer  xerophytic  spermatophytes  enter  and  prepare  the 
soil  for  the  next;  (4)  the  half  gravel  slide  formation  which  is 
a  grassland  stage.  This  is  followed  by  (5)  the  thicket  forma- 
tion which  is  succeeded  by  (6)  the  pine  forest  formation  (dry 
pine  stage — Pinus  xerohylium),  and  this  gives  way  to  the 
ultimate  and  stable  condition  (7)  the  spruce  forest  formation. 
This  series  accounts  for  each  stage  that  may  occur  in  the 
perfect  primary  succession  in  the  Pike's  Peak  region.  How- 
ever, the  succession  does  not  always  follow  the  perfect  course, 
frequently  one  or  more  of  the  normal  stages  may  be  sup- 
pressed or  entirely  omitted.  The  succession  may  terminate 
on  some  mountain  slopes  at  the  thicket  or  dry  pine  stages 
as  well  as  with  the  spruce  forest. 

Imperfections  of  the  Succession. 

The  boulders  of  the  irregular  talus  are  frequently  lichen 
covered,  but  the  typical  gravel  slide  with  its  more  uniform 
particles  does  not  often  present  well  developed  lichen  stages. 
On  slopes  where  movement  is  still  in  progress  little  or  no 
lichen  is  to  be  found.  Only  where  the  angle  of  the  slope  is 
moderate  and  the  gravel  has  been  undisturbed  for  a  long 
period  does  the  foliose  lichen  occur  abundantly.  The  crustose 
lichen  is  more  rarely  present. 

Frequently  the  grassland  or  the  half  gravel  formation 
and  the  thicket  stage  are  very  much  suppressed  and  even 
may  occasionally  be  entirely  omitted  (see  figure  1.)  On  such 
slopes  excellent  examples  of  the  typical  gravel  slide  forma- 
tion occur  and  in  this  the  yellow  pine,  Pinus  scopidorum 
(Engelm.)  Lemmon,  and  more  rarely  the  white  pine,  Pinus 
flexilis,  James,  are  found  establishing  themselves.  The  trees 
at  first  are  very  widely  separated.  Invasion  is  intermittent 
and  occurs  only  at  long  intervals,  the  difficulty  experienced 


Plant  Life  in  Pike'r  Peak  Region. 


291 


in  establishing  the  seedling  is  evidenced  by  the  very  few  indi- 
viduals that  succeed.  Almost  never  does  a  clump  of  these 
pines  occur,  the  trees  of  all  ages  being  far  separated.  When 
grasses  appear  in  this  abbre\aated  succession  they  are  only 
such  as  normally  enter  in  the  older  gravel  slide  formation. 
The  kinnikinic,  Arctostaphylos  uvorursi  (L.)  Spreng,  enters 
sometimes.    The  thicket  omission  is  suggested  by  straggling, 


Fig.  1.  Gravel  slide  formation  invaded  by  scattered  jpra»«a,  Arcto- 
staphylos uva-ursi,  Qvercus,  Pinus  acopuloruniy  P.  flexilis  and 
PseudotMuga  mucronata. 

scattered  shrubs  of  the  mountain  mahogany,  Cercocarpus 
parvifolius  Nutt.,  the  meadow  sweet,  Holodiscus  dumosa 
(Nutt.)  Heller,  and  oaks. 

The  well  developed  thicket  stage  is  as  frequently  omitted 
or  reduced  as  any  one  of  the  later  stages.  The  thicket  for- 
mation is  at  its  best  on  the  foothills  and  lower  mountains 
where  the  forest  stages  are  not  common  and  in  which  there 
is  often  no  clear  evidence  that  it  is  being  invaded  by  trees. 


292 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


In  these  there  may  be  equilibrium,  hence  they  represent  the 
final  stage  of  a  succession.  However,  near  the  mountains  in 
a  number  of  localities  and  on  arid  slopes  the  yellow  pine  finds 
protection  for  its  seedlings  and  young  trees  in  the  oak  thickets, 
and  if  undisturbed  will  readily  establish  the  dry  pine  stage. 
At  higher  altitudes  on  the  south  and  other  arid  slopes  the 
oaks  often  form  extensive,  open  thickets  that  are  somewhat 
stable  and  these,  when  invaded  by  the  pines,  give  way  very 
slowly. 

The  dominant  species  of  the  south  slope  thicket  enter 
the  more  arid  grasslands  slowly  so  that  these  slopes  usually 
show  an  occasional  small  clump  of  oaks  and  widely  separated 
individuals  of  the  Cercocarpus  parvifolius  Nutt.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  grassland  strongly  resist  further  invasion  by  shrubs. 
Very  often  the  grassland  with  its  widely  scattered  shrubs  is 
clearly  and  certainly  being  actively  invaded  by  trees. 


*      ^  - 


^ 


c<S/,., 


Fig.  2.     A  typical  north  slope  spruce  forest  and  the  open  yellow  pine 
woodland  on  south  slope. 


Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region.  293 

Shrubs  characteristic  of  the  more  arid  situations  are 
commonly  absent  from  north  slopes.  Here  is  found  a  greater 
variety  of  species  and  these  are  less  xerophytic  in  habit. 
The  north  slope  thicket  is  more  frequently  suppressed  than 
other  thicket  stages. 

On  south  and  other  arid  slopes  the  succession  should 
terminate  with  the  pine  forest  stage.  Here  a  close  formation 
is  exceptional  although  small  rather  dense  groves  of  yellow 
pines  are  not  difficult  to  find.  Often  in  these  situations  there 
is  sharp  alternation  of  grassland  and  woodland,  which  may 
be  composed  either  of  the  open  thicket  or  pine  forest. 

The  ultimate  stage  on  north  slopes  and  other  exposures 
where  evaporation  is  not  excessive,  is  the  spruce  forest.  (See 
figure  2.)  These  forests  vary  much  in  closeness.  As  a  rule 
they  are  open  enough  to  permit  the  growth  of  one  or  two 
layers  of  woody  plants  below  the  canopy  and  an  open,  herba- 
ceous floor  cover.  The  shade  is  rarely  dense  enough  to  ex- 
clude shade  loving  plants. 

The  Herbaceous  Ground  Cover. 

The  clothing  of  gravel  with  vegetation  is  a  very  slow 
process.  Observations,  on  certain  slopes,  extending  over  a 
period  of  from  five  to  seven  years  have  revealed  little  or  no 
change.  As  previously  stated  lichens  are  not  as  a  rule  abund- 
ant. The  first  spermatophta  to  enter  are  herbaceous  peren- 
nials of  xerophytic  habit  and  only  the  very  hardiest  species 
can  gain  a  foothold  on  the  young  gravel  slide.  These  plants 
have  exceeding  long  tap-roots  or  en  enormous  £rea  of  fibrous 
roots  which  penetrate  deeply,  binding  the  gravel  together. 
Attempts  to  dig  holes  of  small  diameter,  one  to  two  feet  deep, 
in  perfectly  naked  gravel  are  usually  unsuccessful  because  of 
the  falling  in  of  the  loose  gravel;  but  they  may  be  rather 
easily  dug  if  several  of  the  pioneer  plants  are  near  by.  Many 
species  of  these  first  invaders  form  rosettes  and  only  a  few  are 
freely  branched.    (See  figure  3.)    The  following  are  some  of  the 


294 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


species*  that  live  in  the  gravel  slide  formation :  tufted  loco, 
Aragallus  multiceps  (Nutt.)  Heller,  small  flowered  gilia,  Gilia 
pinnatifida  Nutt.,  Oreocarya  virgata  (Porter)  Greene,  the  evening 
primroses,  Pachylophus  macroglottis  Rydb.,  and  P.  montanus 
(Nutt.)  A.  Nels.,  Colorado  candy-tuft,  Thlaspi  coloradense 
Rydb.,  double  bladder  pod,  Physaria  didymocarpa  Gray, 
whitlow-wort.  Paronychia  pulmrmta  Gray,  Pseudocymopterus 
anisatus  (Gray)  C.  &  R.,  PotentiUa  glandulosa  Lindl,  Potent 


Fig.  3.  Gravel  slide  formation  showing  rosettes  of  Qilia  pinna- 
tifida, Oreocarya  virgata,  Physaria  didymocarpa  and  Thlaspi  colo- 
radense, 

tilla  effusa  Dougl.,  Pentstemon  glaber  Pursh,  Eriogonum  flavum 
Nutt.,  Erigeron  trifidus  Hook,  Mentzelia  multiflora  (Nutt.) 
Gray,  Phacelia  glandulosa  Nutt.,  Scutellaria  Brittonii  Porter 
and  Rubus  strigosus  Michx.  Sometimes  the  Indian  hemp, 
Apocynum  androsaemifolium  L.,  and  the  fireweed,  Chamae- 
nerion  angustifolium  (L.,)  Scop.,  are  found. 

*  Professor  Avon  Nelson,  of  Wyomioflr  University,  has  very  kindly  ezBmined  and 
identified  a  large  number  of  my  specimens. 


Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region. 


295 


Among  the  first  grasses  to  invade  the  gravel  are  the  oat 
grass,  Trisetum  montanum  Vasey,  and  the  wild  rye,  Elymus 
condensatus  Presl.  When  grasses  first  appear  they  form 
widely  separated  bunches  (see  figure  4.)  It  is  an  easy  task 
to  find  areas  illustrating  the  gradual  steps  in  the  process  of 
perfecting  the  grassland.  The  first  condition  is  a  very  open 
one,  the  ground  is  slowly  more  completely  covered.    On  the 


Fig.  4.     Invasion  of  the  gravel  slide  formation  by  Trisetum  montanum, 

more  arid  slopes  it  is  never  entirely  clothed  (see  figure  5.) 
These  resemble,  in  a  marked  degree,  the  grass  formation  of 
the  mesas  and  plains.  They  are  invariably  open,  never 
supporting  a  sod,  bunch  grasses  and  other  typical  xerophytes 
dominating.  The  following  list  contains  many  of  the  species 
regularly  found  on  the  south  slope  grassland. 

Principal  Species:  Blepharincuron  tricholepis  (Torr) 
Nash.,  Phleum  pratense  L.,  Hordeum  jubatum  L.,  Elymus 
condensatus  Presl.,  E.  ambiguus  Vasey  and  Scribn.,  Trisetum 


296 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


montanum  Vasey,  Agropyron  tenerum  Vasey,  Poa  com- 
pressa  L.,  Bouteloua  oligostachya  (Nutt.,)  Torr.,  Stipa  viri- 
dula  Trin.,  Koeteria  cristata  (L.)  Pers.,  Festuca  arizonica 
Vasey,  Oreocarya  virgata  (Porter)  Greene,  0.  glomerata 
(Nutt.)  Greene,  Lappula  occidentalis  (Wats.)  Greene,  Yucca 
glauca  Nutt.,  Gilia  aggregata  (Pursh)  Spreng.,  Pentstemon 
Torreyi  Benth.,  Astragalus  sparsiflorus  Gray,  Phacelia  leu- 
cophylla  Torr.,  Bahia  dissecta  (Gray)  Brit.,  Aster  Porteri 
Gray,  Brickellia  grandiflora  minor  Gray,  Geranium  Fre- 
montii  Torr.,  Aragallus  Lambertii  (Pursh)  Greene,  Heli- 
anthella  Paryii  Gray,  Machaeranthera  varians  Greene,  Ar- 
temisia frigida  Willd. 

Secondary  Species:  Arenaria  Fendleri  Gray,  Anogra 
coronopifolia  (T.  &  G.)  Brit.,  Euphorbia  robusta  (Engelm.) 
Small,  Allium  cernuum  Roth.,  Campanula  rotundifolia  L., 
Eriogonum  alatum  Torr.,  Asclepias  speciosa  Torr.,  A.  pumila 
(Gray)  Vail,  Castilleja  Integra  Gray,  Pentstemon  humilis 
Nutt.,    P.  unilateralis   Rydb.,    Scutellaria   Brittonii  Porter, 


Fi(i.  5.     The  open  ground  cover  of  south  slopes. 


Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region.  297 

Erysimum  asperum  D.  C,  Echinocactus  glaucus  K.  Sch., 
Physalis  lanceolata  Michx.,  Allionia  diffusa  Heller,  Potentilla 
gracilis  Dougl.,  P.  glandulosa  Lindl.,  P.  pemisylvanica  ara- 
chnoidea  Lehm.,  Apoc)mum  androsaemifolium  L.,  Androsace 
diffusa  Small.,  Phycelia  neo-mexicana  Thurber,  Astragalus 
Shortianus  Nutt.,  Erigeron  flagellaris  Gray,  Chrysopsis  foliosa 
Greene,  Carduus  Nelsonii  Pammel.,  Anteimaria  aprica  Greene, 
Liatris  punctata  Hook,  Artemisia  canadensis  Michx.,  A. 
gnaphalodes  Nutt.,  Senecio  Nelsonii  Rydb.,  S.  spartioides 
T.  &  G.  (Tall.),  Solidago  concinna  A.  Nels.,  Chrysothamnus 
frigidus  Greene,  Achillea  millefolium  L.,  Helianthus  scaberri- 
mus  Ell.,  Erigeron  glandulosus  Porter. 

On  north  slopes  the  conditions  of  Ufe  are  more  congenial. 
If  trees  and  shrubs  do  not  enter,  these  slopes  often  support 
so  close  a  cover  of  grasses  that  at  first  glance  it  would  be 
taken  for  a  sod  cover  (see  figure  6) .  Some  of  these  north 
slope  grasslands  appear  to  have  reached  an  equilibrium  and 
are  seemingly  a  final  stage  of  a  succession.  In  them  no  evi- 
dence of  invasion  by  woody  plants  can  be  found,  although 
seeds  of  both  trees  and  shrubs  may  enter.  It  is  possible  that 
the  grazing  of  hvestock  may  account  for  the  permanent 
north  slope  grassland. 

Principal  Species  of  the  North  Grassland  :  Muhlen- 
bergia  gracilis  Trin.,  M.  gracilis  breviaristata  Vasey,  Agrostis 
hiemalis  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P.,  Poa  interior  Rydb.,  Danthonia 
intermedia  Vasey,  Stipa  viridula  Trin.,  Trisetum  montanum 
Vasey,  Festuca  arizonica  Vasey,  Koeleria  cristata  (L.)  Pers., 
Bouteloua  oligostachya  (Nutt.)  Torr.,  Pulsatilla  hirsutis- 
sima  (Pursh)  Brit.,  Anemone  cylindrica  Gray,  Erigeron 
flagellaris  Gray,  E.  subtrinervis  Rydb.,  Gentiana  afiinis 
Greisb.,  Sedum  stenopetalum  Pursh,  Saxifraga  rhomboidea 
Greene,  Pseudocymopterus  sylvaticus  A.  Nels.,  Orthocarpus 
luteus  Nutt.,  Thermopsis  divaricarpa  A.  Nels.,  Arenaria 
Fendleri  Gray,  Synthris  plantaginea  Benth.,  Castilleja  integra 
Gray,   Potentilla  gracilis   Dougl.,   P.   pennsylvanica  arach- 


298 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


noidea  Lehm.,  Fragaria  americana  (Porter)  Brit.,  F.  pauci- 
flora  Rydb.,  Geranium  Fremont ii  Torr.,  Achillea  millefolium 
L.,  Senecio  Nelsonii  Rydb.,  Solidago  missouriensis  Nutt. 

Secondahy  Species:  Calochortus  Gunnisonii  Wats., 
Thlaspi  coloradense  Rydb.,  Paronychia  pulvinata  Gray, 
Lychnis  Drummondii  Wats.,  Antennaria  pulcherrima  (Hook) 
Greene,  Chrysothamnus  pumilus  Nutt.,  Senecio  eremophilus 
Rich.,  Kuhnia  Gooddingii  A.  Nels.,  Zygadenus  elegans  Pursh, 


Fig.  6.     A  close  grassland  on  a  north  exposure. 

Blitum  capitatum  L.    A  large  number  of  species  of  the  south 
slope  are  also  found  in  the  north  slope  grassland. 

The  growth  of  herbaceous  plants  on  the  floor  of  the  well 
developed  thicket  is  scanty.  In  the  dense  oak  thicket*  the 
floor  may  be  bare  or  covered  with  leaves,  the  accumulation 
of  one  or  two  years  of  the  annual  leaf  fall.     Even  when  light 

*  For  lists  of  woody  plants  of  the  thickets  and  forests,  see  **The  Distribntion  Of 
Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region,"  Colorado  College  Pablication,  Science 
Series,  Vol.  XII.  No. «. 


Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region.  299 

penetrates  very  few  species  are  able  to  find  sufficient  water 
for  normal  development.  Where  the  shrubs  are  somewhat 
separated  the  dominant  herbaceous  plants  are  the  same  as 
on  the  grassland. 

The  yellow  pine  woodlands  are  never  so  close  that  the 
floor  is  deprived  of  light,  and  yet  the  undergrowth  of  the 
well  developed  close  pine  grove  is  unusually  scanty.  A  litter 
of  needles  and  branches  of  considerable  thickness  often  ac- 
cumulates because  of  slow  decay,  and  this  no  doubt  destroys 
some  herbaceous  forms.  As  a  rule  the  pine  woodland  is  very 
open,  the  members  of  the  grass  and  wood  formations  each 
holding  their  own  in  debatable  territory,  with  the  grasses 
occupymg  the  greater  area.  Here  and  there  may  occur  a 
shrub  of  Cercocarpus  parvifolius  Nutt.,  or  more  rarely  Ribes 
cereum  Dougl.,  or  a  small  clump  of  oaks.  In  many  of  these 
mixed  formations  the  open  spaces  are  occupied  almost 
equally  by  kinnikinic,  Arctostaphylos  uvor-ursi  (L.)  Spreng., 
and  the  grasses. 

When  shrubs  and  trees  enter  the  north  slope  grass  forma- 
tion they  quickly  alter  the  appearance  of  the  living  floor 
cover.  Herbaceous  plants  and  shrubs  are  thinned  out  as 
the  shade  of  the  canopy  increases  in  denseness.  Very  few 
of  these  woodlands  are  close  enough  to  destroy  the  entire 
living  floor  cover.  However,  even  in  the  more  open  Douglas 
spruce  forests  the  grasses  are  never  so  abundant  as  in  the 
pine  woodland.  Occasionally  in  draws  and  toward  the 
bottom  of  the  slope  of  dense  woods  enough  moisture  is 
present  to  support  a  soft  carpet  of  mosses  and  lichens.  More 
frequently  the  floor  has  the  appearance  of  the  early  grass 
stages,  tufts  of  grasses  and  other  herbaceous  forms  alternating 
with  patches  of  naked  gravel.  As  the  forest  increases  in 
denseness  the  number  of  species,  and  of  individuals  of  herba- 
ceous plants,  which  are  typical  shade  loving  forms  character- 
istic of  these  forests,  decreases.  In  the  open  spaces  occur 
many  of  the  species  characteristic  of  the  north  slope  grassland. 


300  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Some  of  the  principal  species  of  herbaceous  plants  in 
the  Douglas  spruce  forest:  Aquilegia  coerulea  James,  Tha- 
lictrum  occidental  Gray,  Delphinum  romosum  Rydb., 
Cyrtorh)mcha  ranunculina  Nutt.,  Gentiana  plebeja  Cham., 
Heuchera  parvifolia  Nutt.,  Saxifraga  austromontana  Wiegand, 
Galium  boreale  L.,  Synthyris  plantaginea  Benth.,  Castilleja 
linariaefolia  Benth.,  Smilacina  stellata  (L.)  Desf.,  Corydalis 
aurea  Willd.,  Draba  streptocarpa  Gray,  Pyrola  uliginosa  Torr., 
Linnaea  americana  Forbes  (woody  trailing  vine),  Senecio 
cemuus  Gray,  Gymnolomia  multiflora  (Nutt.,)  H.  B.  K., 
Solidago  decumbens  Greene,  Oreochrysum  Parryi  (Gray) 
Rydb.,  Senecio  eremophilis  Rich.,  Potentilla  glandulosa 
Lindl.,  Fragaria  americana  (Porter)  Brit.,  F.  pauciflora  Rydb., 
Frasera  speciosa  Griseb.,  Androsacea  diffusa  Small,  Litho- 
spermum  pilosum  Nutt.,  Agrostis  hiemalis  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P., 
Bromus  Richardsonii  Link.,  Koeleria  cristata  (L.)  Pers., 
Bouteloua  oligostachya  (Nutt.)  Torr.,  Trisetum  montanum 
Vasey. 

The  number  of  species,  and  of  individuals,  is  small  in 
the  gravel  slide  stage.  They  gradually  increase  in  numbers 
and  reach  a  maximum  in  the  grassland  formation  and  de- 
crease materially  in  the  woodland  stages. 

A  striking  feature  of  many  long  slopes  is  the  progressive 
increase  in  the  density  of  the  plant  cover  from  the  crest  of 
the  ridge  to  the  bottom  of  the  slope.  Barren  gravel  and 
typical  first  stages  may  occur  near  the  ridge  while  below  these 
is  a  very  open  grass  stage,  which  lower  down  becomes  de- 
cidedly close.  On  some  of  these  slopes  the  typical  forest 
formation  may  be  found  on  the  lower  part. 

A  Study  of  Environment. 

Sail:  The  soil  of  the  slopes  considered  is  a  coarse  granite 
gravel,  which  extends  often  to  great  depths.  It  is  a  poor  soil 
for  holding  moisture.  Weathering  has  reduced  the  surface 
gravel  to  much  finer  grains,  making  it  possible  for  some 
moisture  to  be  conserved  near  the  surface,  but  the  ground 


Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region.  301 

still  remains  very  porous.  Marked  differences  occur  on  the 
slopes  examined.  The  naked  gravel  is  constantly  the  coarsest, 
while  the  soil  of  the  more  stable  and  close  grassland  is  com- 
posed of  a  high  percentage  of  fine  grains.  A  ground  cover  of 
dead  leaves  and  other  organic  remains,  or  of  grasses  and 
other  herbaceous  plants,  favors  the  accumulation  of  a  fine 
grained  black  loamy  soil  overlying  the  gravel  and  mixing 
with  it  at  the  surface;  these  conditions  obtain  in  the  closed 
grasslands  and  in  the  woodlands  where  grasses,  needles, 
mosses  and  lichens  form  a  complete  ground  cover.  The 
black  loam  extends  down  to  varying  depths  diflScult  to  measure 
because  of  its  mingling  with  the  gravel  with  no  clear  line  of 
demarcation.  In  a  few  places  the  mixture  was  found  to  be 
eighteen  or  more  inches  deep ;  in  others  wholly  absent.  When- 
ever a  break  in  the  floor  cover  occurs  the  loam  is  washed 
away  by  the  melting  snow  and  the  rain.  The  percentage  of 
loam  and  fine  grained  gravel  very  frequently  is  greater  toward 
the  base  of  the  slope.  The  usual  variations  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  soil  are  shown  in  tables  I  and  II. 

These  tables  show  the  soil  to  be  coarser  at  a  depth  of 
fifteen  inches  than  at  six  inches.  Also  humus  is  largely  con- 
fined to  the  uppermost  layers  of  the  soil  and  it,  together  with 
the  finer  grained  soil,  accumulates  to  a  slight  extent  toward 
the  bottom  of  the  slope.  The  percentage  of  silt  and  humus 
is  least  in  the  open  gravel  and  highest  in  the  soil  of  the  well 
developed  north  slope  grass  and  woodland  formations.  Even 
when  there  is  not  a  marked  increase  of  humus  the  upper  soil 
is  finer  because  of  the  decomp>osition  of  the  gravel  by  the 
roots  of  herbaceous  plants. 


302 


C!oLOBADo  College  PrBLiCAxioN. 


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Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region. 


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304  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Sail  Temperature:  Soils  with  north  exposures  average 
cooler  than  those  of  south  slopes.  This  difference  is  clearly 
seen  on  comparing  the  soils  of  the  yellow  pine  woodland  and 
the  spruce  forest.  These  woodlands  are  always  cooler  during 
the  summer  than  the  naked  gravel  and  grass  formations  of 
similar  exposure.  Repeated  observations,  throughout  a 
summer  season,  at  a  series  of  stations  show  that  the  soil 
temperature  fluctuates  less  than  the  air,  but  that  its  variations 
correspond  with  and  follow  those  of  the  air.  During  the 
month  of  August,  1909,  Helen  G.  Strieby  made  daily  readings 
morning,  noon  and  evening  on  north  and  south  slopes,  at 
depths  of  six  and  eighteen  inches,  which  show  that  there  is 
less  variation  in  soil  at  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  than  at 
six  inches;  at  the  Utter  depth  the  effect  of  the  day's  sunlight 
and  warmth  is  marked,  especially  on  the  south  slope. 

Soil  Moisture:  All  determinations  of  water  content  were 
carefully  made  with  soil,  taken  with  a  geotome  at  depths  of 
six  and  fifteen  inches,  by  drying  it  at  100°  C.  for  about  twenty- 
four  hours.  While  often  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  very  dry, 
yet  it  is  in  the  uppermost  layers,  in  every  formation  studied, 
that  the  highest  content  of  water  occurs.  Tables  IV,  V,  VI, 
VII  almost  invariably  show  a  higher  percentage  at  six  inches 
than  at  fifteen  inches.  As  was  expected  the  smallest  amount 
was  found  to  occur  in  the  naked  gravel  and  here,  as  in  all 
other  soils  studied,  the  amount  of  water  varies  somewhat 
with  the  coarseness  of  the  soil ;  the  content  falls  as  the  amount 
of  finer  soil  particles  decreases.  The  irregularities  in  moisture 
content  of  all  stages  studied  are,  as  a  rule,  to  be  explained  by 
this  variation  in  soil  structure.  With  the  entrance  of  grasses 
the  soil  becomes  finer  and  more  moisture  is  conserved.  The 
determinations,  on  the  whole,  show  an  increase  in  moisture 
content  in  the  successive  stages  of  the  succession,  the  highest 
percentage  occurring  in  the  woodland.  On  comparing  similar 
formations  on  north  and  south  slopes  we  find  the  higher 
percentage   on   the   north   slopes.    Normally  the   moisture 


Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region.  305 

content  is  greater  near  the  base  than  near  the  top  of  the  slope. 
All  detennmations  made  in  this  study  have  shown  the  soil 
of  the  oak  thicket  to  be  drier  than  that  of  similarly  exposed 
grass  and  pine  formations.  Several  series  of  observations, 
not  recorded  in  the  tables,  show  greater  differences  in  the 
several  formations.  The  table  showing  available  and  non- 
available  water  (table  III)  gives  some  striking  differences. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  during  the  winter  and 
spring  more  moisture  is  conserved  on  north  exposures  than 
on  south  slopes.  Here  the  snow  of  the  winter  is  protected 
from  the  sun's  rays,  hence  it  accumulates  to  some  extent 
throughout  the  winter  and  remains  often  late  into  the  spring. 

Humidity:  Clements*  recommends  simultaneous  read- 
ings for  habitat  studies  when  different  formations  are  to  be 
compared.  However,  for  the  observations  here  recorded 
this  was  impossible,  so  they  were  made  at  each  station  at  the 
time  the  soil  samples  were  taken.  In  making  the  humidity 
readings  the  cog  psychrometer  was  used.  Even  this  un- 
satisfactory time  arrangement  revealed  rather  constant  dif- 
ferences within  the  formations  examined.  They  show  only 
moderate  differences,  the  gravel  with  the  lowest,  the  grass- 
land next,  and  the  conifers  woodlands  the  highest  humidity. 
There  is  not  a  marked  difference  between  north  and  south 
slopes.  Readings  made  in  as  rapid  succession  as  was  possible 
for  the  observer  to  pass  from  station  to  station  gave  similar 
differences. 

Available  Moisture:  The  amount  of  available  and  non- 
available  soil  water  content  was  determined  for  a  number  of 
tjrpical  plants  of  the  several  formations  here  considered.  For 
these  determinations  soil  containing  the  desired  plant  or 
plants  was  carefully  cut  out  without  disturbing  the  roots  and 
transfericd  to  the  observers'  camp  where  they  were  exposed 
to  sunshine  and  wind  but  protected  from  rain.  A  soil  sample 
was  taken,  at  the  time  the  larger  block  was  cut,  for  the  deter- 

*  Plant  Physiology  and  Ecology. 


306  Colorado  College  Publication. 

mination  of  the  total  water  content  (holard).  In  each  ex- 
periment the  plants  used  for  study  were  allowed  to  wilt  and 
then  another  sample  of  soil  was  taken  from  the  block  and  its 
moisture  content  determined.  This  residue  or  non-available 
water,  Clements  has  called  the  echard.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  holard  and  the  echard  is  the  chresard  or  the  amount 
available  to  the  plants  under  observation.  Table  III  gives  a 
statement  of  the  more  reliable  data  secured  in  this  study. 
The  percentages  given  are  based  upon  the  dry  weight  of  the 
soil.  Where  careful  inspection  showed  the  roots  to  have  been 
disturbed  or  injured  the  data  has  been  rejected.  It  will  be 
observed  that  plants  of  the  gravel  slide  are  the  most  xero- 
philous,  the  south  slope  grass  formation  forms  are  almost 
equally  so,  and  grasses  from  among  the  yellow  pines  are  not 
far  different.  The  north  slope  grass  formation  forms  are  not 
as  typically  xerophytes,  while  the  shade  loving  spruce  forest 
species  are  distinctly  mesophytic.  It  is  evident  from  the 
table  that  though  less  moisture  is  usually  available  on  the 
south  slope,  a  greater  part  of  it  is  there  used  by  the  plants 
than  on  the  north  slopes. 


Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region. 


307 


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Plant  Life  in  Pike's  Peak  Region. 


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THE  HISTORY  OF  COLORADO  MAMMALOGY. 


By  Edward  R.  Warren. 


While  the  History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy  is  neither  a 
very  long  nor  extensive  one,  it  is  a  subject  of  sufficient  in- 
terest to  render  it  worth  while  to  collect  the  data  concerning 
it  and  bring  it  into  form  for  convenient  reference.  It  is  only 
recently,  within  the  last  twenty  years  or  so,  that  much  has 
been  done  in  the  way  of  collecting  and  studying  our  smaller 
mammals;  this  statement  applies  not  only  to  Colorado  but  to 
much  of  the  rest  of  the  country,  for  improved  methods  of 
trapping,  collecting  and  preparing  specimens  have  resulted 
in  great  strides  within  that  period.  It  is  to  the  activities  of 
various  departments  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
that  we  owe  a  very  large  part  of  our  knowledge  concerning 
the  mammals;  in  the  case  of  Colorado  this  begins  with  the 
Pike  Expedition,  which  was  followed  by  Long's,  Fremont's, 
the  Pacific  Railway  Surveys,  all  under  the  War  Department, 
and  these  were  followed  by  the  Wheeler  and  Hayden  Surveys. 
Such  work  has  been  carried  on  in  a  much  more  modem  fashion 
by  the  Bureau  of  the  Biological  Survey  of  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  under  the  efficient  direction  of  Dr. 
C.  Hart  Merriam,  who  has  recently  retired  as  Chief  of  the  Bio- 
logical Survey,  and  no  doubt  the  work  will  be  well  carried  on 
under  the  charge  of  his  successor,  Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw.  Other 
institutions  and  private  collectors  have  also  done  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  work. 

In  the  following  pages  I  have  mostly  used  the  names  in 
current  usage  except  where  it  has  been  necessary  to  give 
those  used  by  the  author  under  consideration,  and  follow  by 
an  explanatory  note  as  to  the  species  probably  meant.  In 
some  cases  two  or  more  forms  may  be  covered  by  a  single 
name  and  even  when  the  locality  is  given  it  is  not  always 


History  op  Colorado  Mammalogy.  313 

possible  to  determine  the  proper  name  with  exactness.  In 
the  case  of  sundry  references  to  Eutamias  quadrivittatus 
which  I  found,  the  specimens  might  have  been  either  that 
species  or  E.  operariuSj  but  as  the  former  is  first  mentioned  in 
this  paper  with  its  description  by  Say,  it  was  not  necessary  to 
refer  to  it  again,  and  operarius  comes  in  as  such  with  its 
description  by  Merriam. 

I  have  also  found  it  desirable  at  times  to  mention  certain 
species  more  than  once  because  of  the  fact  that  after  their 
mention  by  the  first  author  they  have  been  described  by  a 
succeeding  one  as  a  new  species  or  subspecies,  thus  making 
the  second  reference  necessary.  And  similarly  I  have  also 
foimd  it  necessary  to  make  more  than  one  reference  to  some 
species  in 'order  to  definitely  fix  when  they  were  first  noted 
under  the  names  by  which  they  are  known.  The  many 
changes  in  nomenclature  and  the  vagueness  of  some  of  the 
names  used  by  some  of  the  earlier  writers  rendered  such  a 
course  advisable. 

1807: — Pike.  Pike's  Journal  is  of  course  the  first  work 
in  which  we  find  the  first  references  of  any  sort  to  Colorado 
mammals.  He  mentions  Buffalo,  Antelope,  (under  the  name 
**Cabrie'0  Deer,  presumably  the  Western  White-tailed  {Odo- 
coUeus  americanus  macrourus),  as  he  mentions  a  deer  of 
another  species  being  killed  when  he  attempted  to  ascend 
Pike's  Peak,  and  this  was  the  Mule  Deer,  0.  hemionus.  Pike 
also  speaks  of  "Hare,''  and  as  'he  was  along  the  Arkansas 
River,  these  would  probably  be  Black-tailed  Jack  Rabbits, 
Lepu8  califomicus  mdanotis,  but  he  may  also  have  seen  the 
White-tailed  Jack  Rabbit,  L.  campestriSj  there,  and  one  would 
think  he  must  surely  have  run  across  that  species  in  that  part 
of  the  South  Park  reached  by  him,  where  it  is  the  only  species 
of  Jack  Rabbit. 

1823:— Say.  The  Long  Expedition  of  1819-20,  the  ac- 
count of  which  was  published  in  1823,  was  accompanied  by 
Thomas  Say,  the  first  trained  naturalist  to  visit  Colorado, 


314  Colorado  College  Publication. 

and  more  mammals  were  mentioned  than  by  Pike,  and  not 
only  that,  but  a  number  are  described  scientifically  for  the 
first  time  in  the  report.  The  mammals  of  the  Long  Expedition 
are  as  follows :  Buffalo,  Bison  bison,  Antelope,  Antilocapra 
americanay  White-tailed  Deer,  0.  a.  macrouruSj  Mule  Deer, 
0.  hemionus,  Elk,  Cervus  canadensiSy  Beaver,  Castor  caud- 
densis  frondaior,  Prairie  Dog,  Cynomys  ludovidanus,  Rock 
Squirrel,  CiteUus  variegatus  grammuruSy  Say's  Ground  Squirrel, 
Callospermophilus  lateralis,  Colorado  Chipmunk,  Eutamias 
quadrivittatus,  Grizzly  Bear,  Ursus  horribiliSy  Swift  Fox, 
Vidpes  vdoXy  the  original  description  of  which  is  in  the  book, 
but  no  definite  type  locality  is  designated,  so  that  it  cannot 
be  said  with  any  positiveness  if  the  type  locality  is  in  Colorado 
or  Nebraska,  Wolves,  Canis  nubiluSy  Say's  Bat,  Myotis 
subulatuSy  and  the  Red  Bat,  Nycteris  borealis. 

1852: — Baird.  From  Say's  report  there  is  quite  a  space 
of  time  without  any  addition  to  the  list  of  Colorado's  mammals, 
until  1852  in  fact,  when  Baird  published  in  the  Report  of 
Stansbury's  Expedition  to  Great  Salt  Lake  the  description  of 
Cratogeomys  castanops,  taken  at  Bent's  Fort,  near  the  present 
site  of  Las  Animas. 

1853: — Audubon  and  Bachman.  The  following  year, 
Audubon  and  Bachman,  in  the  Quadrupeds  of  North  America, 
described  Sdurus  fremontiy  the  type  having  been  taken  by 
Fremont. 

During  the  fifties  the  various  Pacific  Railroad  exploring 
expeditions  were  at  work  through  the  west,  though  they  did 
but  little  in  Colorado.  I  copy  from  Cooke's  Birds  of  Colorado 
the  following  list  of  all  the  Government  expeditions  which 
entered  Colorado  previous  to  1860.  The  interpolations  in 
parentheses  are  mine. 

1806-7.  Lieut.  Pike.  Up  the  Arkansas  River  to  Canon 
City,  across  into  South  Park;  then  by  a  roundabout  way  into 
the  San  Luis  Valley  and  New  Mexico. 


History  op  Colorado  Mammalogy.  315 

1820.  Maj.  Long.  Up  the  South  Platte  to  Denver; 
across  the  "Divide"  to  Colorado  Springs,  and  south  into  New 
Mexico. 

1844  and  1845.  Capt.  Fremont.  Across  the  State  via 
Grand  River,  Pueblo,  Denver,  and  Fort  Morgan. 

1851.  Capt.  Pope.  Came  from  New  Mexico  north  and 
east  to  La  Junta  and  east  to  Kansas. 

1853.  Capt.  Gunnison.  Crossed  the  plains  to  the 
Arkansas  River,  up  that  stream  and  its  branches  to  Trinidad, 
Colorado,  across  southern  Colorado  to  Fort  Massachusetts 
(Fort  Garland),  over  the  Continental  Divide  (via  Cochetopa 
Pass)  to  the  Gunnison  River,  down  this  stream  and  the  Grand 
River  to  Utah. 

1855.  Lieut.  Warren.  Just  touched  Colorado  at  Jules- 
burg. 

1856.  Lieut.  Bryan.  Up  the  South  Platte  to  Fort 
Morgan  and  north  into  Wyoming. 

1859.  Col.  Loring  and  Capt.  Macomb.  Acrass  the  south- 
west comer  of  Colorado  in  passing  from  Utah  into  New  Mexico. 

The  material  gathered  by  these  various  expeditions  was 
studied  by  Professor  Baird  and  his  assistants  and  the  account 
of  the  mammals  was  published  in  Volume  VIII  of  the  Pacific 
Railroad  Reports.  Baird  also  published  descriptions  of  cer- 
tain forms  prior  to  the  above-named  publication.  The  Ust 
of  additions  to  the  Colorado  list  proceeds  as  follows : 

1855:— Baird.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  VII,  pp. 
334-5.  In  this  paper  are  described  from  types  taken  within 
the  limits  of  Colorado  Cynomys  gunnisonij  Reithrodontomys 
monianus  and  Perodipus  montanus. 

1857: — Baird.  In  volume  VIII  of  the  Pacific  Railroad 
Reports,  this  being  the  work  usually  referred  to  as  The 
Mammals  of  North  America,  Baird  gives  four  more  species  in 
addition  to  those  just  named,  as  follows:  Lepus  cam'pestris, 
a  specimen  of  which  is  listed  as  being  taken  by  Lieut.  Bryan's 


316  Colorado  College  Publication. 

party  on  Cache  la  Poudre  Creek,  Nebraska ;  this  is  no  doubt 
the  Colorado  stream  of  that  name]  PerognathusJlavuSy  Microtus 
modestuSy  and  a  subspecies  of  Citellus  tridecendineaius  are 
likewise  named  in  this  work  from  Colorado  localities.  In  the 
case  of  the  last-named  species  there  is  a  little  doubt  as  to 
whether  one  or  two  forms  are  included.  He  lists  one  specimen 
from  Bent's  Fort,  this  would  be  paUidus;  there  are  two  others 
collected  by  Kreutzfeldt,  who  was  with  the  Gunnison  party, 
and  the  locality  of  which  is  given  as  "Head  of  Arkansas/*  if 
this  were  correct,  they  would  also  be  paUidus.  But  the  party 
did  not,  as  I  understand  it,  reach  that  region,  and  if  the 
specimens  came  from  the  San  Luis  Valley,  which  the  party 
crossed  on  the  way  to  Cochetopa  Pass,  they  would  be  parvus, 
and  Baird  would  thus  have  added  both  forms  of  this  spermo- 
phile  to  our  fauna.  Baird  does  not  give  the  original  numbers 
or  dates  of  these  specimens,  so  that  the  approximate  locality 
cannot  be  ascertained. 

1874: — ^Allen.  In  the  Bulletin  of  the  Essex  Institute, 
Vol.  6,  Nos.  3  and  4,  March-April,  1874,  appeared  "Notes  on 
the  Mammals  of  Portions  of  Kansas,  Colorado,  Wyoming  and 
Utah,''  by  J.  A.  Allen.  Part  II  of  this  paper.  On  the  Mammals 
of  Park  County,  Colorado,  gives  a  list  based  on  notes  made  in 
the  summer  of  1871,  when  Dr.  Allen  was  in  that  region  with 
the  party  from  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cam- 
bridge. This  is  the  first  list  of  Colorado  mammals  I  have 
found.  I  have  stated  elsewhere  (in  The  Mammals  of  Colorado) 
that  Coues*  list  of  the  mammals  in  the  Maxwell  Collection  was 
the  earliest,  but  Allen's,  of  which  I  did  not  know  at  the  time 
antedates  the  other  by  several  years.  Much  of  Dr.  Allen's 
information  was  obtained  by  conversation  with  hunters  and 
others.  37  species  are  named  in  the  paper,  one  of  which, 
however,  the  Fisher,  Mustda  pennanti,  has  not  been  recorded 
by  any  other  author,  nor  have  I  been  able  to  find  any  evidence 
myself  of  its  occurrence  in  Colorado.  Of  the  37  species, 
25,  if  we  include  the  Fisher,  had  not  been  previously  reported 


History  op  Colorado  Mammalogy.  317 

from  the  State.  They  are,  aside  from  the  species  just  named, 
Ovis  canadensis,  (previous  to  Allen  I  have  come  across  two 
notices  of  the  Mountain  Sheep  in  Colorado,  one  of  which  is  in 
Ruxton's  "Adventures  in  Mexico  and  the  Rocky  Mountams,^* 
the  first  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1848,  though  I  have 
only  seen  the  New  York  edition  of  1855.  Ruxton  speaks  of 
seeing  them  near  the  present  site  of  Manitou.  Mountain 
Sheep  are  also  mentioned  in  Beckwith  's  Report  of  the  Gun- 
nison party  as  having  been  seen  in  the  San  Luis  Valley,  at 
the  head  or  toward  Saguache),  Lepus  bairdif  Lepus  caUotis 
=  melanoHs  (this  is  not  in  the  Colorado  list,  but  in  the  Kansas 
list  in  the  same  paper  Allen  says  he  has  "good  authority  for  its 
occurrence  in  eastern  Colorado  and  western  Kansas'^),  Lepus 
sylvaticus  var.  artemisiay  which  would  be  the  form  now  known 
as  pinetis,  Ochotona  princeps,  or  saxatilis,  as  the  specimens 
collected  by  the  expedition  were  afterward  named  by  Bangs, 
Erethizan  epixanlhus,  Thomomys  rufescens^  (probably  T. 
fossor),  Fiber  zibethicuSy  Neotoma  cinerea  (orolestes),  Hespero- 
mys  leucopus  var.  sonoriensiSy  which  is  the  form  we  now  call 
Peromyscus  maniculalus  rufinuSy  Marmota  flaviventeVy  PiUorius 
^rmin6w«  =  probably  P.  arizonensiSy  LiUreola  vison  energu- 
menos,  Mustela  martes  =  M.  caurina  origeneSy  Gido  luscuSy 
Taxidea  taxus.  Mephitis  mephitica  =  either  hudsonica  or  varians 
or  very  possibly  both,  Ursus  americanuSy  named  here  as  the 
Black  Bear,  Vidpes  macrouruSy  Canis  nvbUuSy  Canis  latrans 
(just  what  form  of  Coyote  it  is  is  not  yet  settled,  but  not 
latrans)y  Lynx  canadensis y  Lynx  rufus  (no  doubt  uinta)y  and 
Fdis  hippolestes. 

1874: — ^Trippe.  In  Coues'  Birds  of  the  Northwest  are 
given  several  pages  of  notes  by  T.  Martin  Trippe.  On  pp. 
224-5  are  mentioned  several  mammals  as  occurring  in  Colorado. 
Among  these  is  the  first  record  for  the  State  of  LiUra  canadensis. 
Trippe  also  names  Aploceros  mantanuSy  which  is  the  name  then 
in  use  for  the  Mountain  Goat,  but  this  is  no  doubt  an  error  for 
Ovis  7nontanus= canadensis y  the  Mountain  Sheep. 


318  Ck)LORADo  College  Publication. 

1875: — CouES  and  Yarrow.  In  1875  was  published  the 
Report  on  the  Zoology  of  the  Surveys  West  of  the  100th 
Meridian,  commonly  known  as  the  Wheeler  Surveys.  The 
report  on  the  mammals  was  by  Drs.  Coues  and  Yarrow.  A 
few  of  the  species  mentioned  from  Colorado  were  additions  to 
our  fauna,  though  in  one  or  two  cases  it  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  tell  with  certainty  just  what  species  was  meant.  Thus 
their  Lepus  sylvaticus  from  Fort  Garland  is  probably  what  is 
now  called  SylvUagus  auduboni  warreni,  that  being  the  Cotton- 
tail of  that  region.  Their  Dipodomys  phiUipsi  ordi  is  no  doubt 
Perodipus  morUanus  richardsoni  as  the  locality  given  is  Twin 
Lakes.  As  in  Baird's  case  they  give  records  of  Citellus  tri- 
decemlineatus  from  localities  which  would  indicate  both 
paUidus  and  parvus,  these  localities  being  South  Park,  Twin 
Lakes  and  Fort  Garland.  Their  Putorius  longicauda  from 
Fort  Garland  may  be  P.  arizonensiSj  which  is  certainly  found 
in  the  San  Luis  Valley,  but  I  have  no  records  from  that  region 
for  longicauda.  They  do,  however,  give  two  records  which 
are  positively  new,  Proq^on  lotor  and  Antrozous  pallidus. 
They  also  mention  Aploceros  montanus,  Rocky  Mountain  Goat, 
stating  "one  individual  seen  in  Colorado  by  Lieutenant 
Marshall's  party.'*  A  record  never  verified  and  no  doubt 
erroneous.*  At  the  end  of  their  remarks  on  Cervus  canadensis 
they  say,  ''Remains  of  a  Moose  {Alces  americana),  said  to  have 
been  killed  in  South  Park,  Colorado,  in  1871,  were  observed 
by  the  expedition.  The  statement  is  open  to  doubt ;  if  correct, 
it  fixes  the  southernmost  limit  of  the  species."  I  have  never 
been  able  to  find  anyone  who  knew  anything  about  the  matter. 
One  would  suppose  that  Allen,  who  was  in  that  region  in  1871, 
might  have  heard  something  of  it,  but  he  makes  no  mention 
of  it  in  his  paper,  which  is  referred  to  above. 

There  is  another  possible  record  of  the  Moose  in  Colorado, 
and  it  may  as  well  be  mentioned  here.  Ernest  Thompson 
Seton,  in  his  recently  published  ''Life  Histories  of  Northern 

♦Possibly  Marshall's  party  may  have  seen  a  domestic  goat  which  had  nm 
wild,  as  it  occasionally  does. 


History  of  Colorado  Mammalooy.  319 

Animals/'  quotes  from  a  letter  of  H.  W.  Skinner  of  Chicago, 
dated  March  4,  1901,  as  follows:  ^^n  the  summer  of  1887  I 
saw  a  small  pair  of  well-bleached  Moose  antlers  on  the  dirt 
roof  of  a  log  cabin  near  the  foot  of  Sweetwater  Lake,  about 
15  miles  north  of  Dotsero,  which  is  a  station  on  the  Denver 
&  Rio  Grande  Railway,  about  12  miles  east  of  Glenwood  Springs, 
Colo.  The  cabin  was  at  least  five  or  six  years  old,  perhaps 
twice  as  old.  It  was  at  that  time  owned  by  a  man  named 
Peal,  who  told  me  that  the  Moose  was  the  only  one  known  to 
be  in  that  country,  and  was  killed  while  with  a  band  of  Elk 
or  a  bunch  of  stock,  I  have  forgotten  which."  Mr.  Seton 
places  a  ?  before  this  quotation.  I  have  no  comments  to 
make  myself. 

1877 : — CouES.  In  his  Fur  Bearing  Animals,  Coues  adds 
one  or  two  species  to  our  list,  one  being  Putorius  nigripes. 
He  likewise  gives  SpUogale  pvtorius,  and  made  his  description 
of  the  species  from  a  specimen  taken  by  C.  E.  Aiken  near 
Fountain,  El  Paso  County.  This  is  the  only  species  of 
Spilogale  mentioned  in  the  book.  Putorius  is  an  eastern 
species  whose  range  is  nowhere  near  Colorado,  and  the  species 
to  which  Coues'  specimen  probably  belonged  is  most  likely 
tenuis.  However,  this  is  the  first  mention  of  a  Spotted  Skunk 
from  Colorado. 

1877: — CouEs  and  Allen.  In  their  Monographs  of 
North  American  Rodentia,  these  authors  give  many  Colorado 
localities  in  their  lists  of  specimens  of  various  species,  but  the 
present  paper  has  to  do  only  with  those  species  which  were 
new  to  the  fauna  of  the  State  at  the  date  of  that  publication, 
and  there  are  but  few  of  them,  and  with  but  one  exception  they 
are  nearly  unidentifiable.  Thus  Thomomys  talpoides  um^ 
brinus  is  listed  from  southern  Colorado,  and  the  description 
of  its  color  includes  such  a  wide  range  of  shades  that  it  would 
cover  practically  every  species  of  the  genus  now  known  to 
occur  in  the  State.  Neotoma  floridana  is  given  .without 
definite  locality,  and  might  be  baileyi  or  one  of  our  other 


320  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Round-tailed  Wood  Rats.  Hesperomys  leucopus  sonoriensis 
from  Fort  Lyons  might  be  tomiUo  or  nebrdscensis.  Sciurus 
aberti  ferreus  is  the  only  species  we  can  be  sure  of,  specimens 
of  which  are  recorded  from  near  Colorado  City  and  from  the 
Divide. 

1879: — CouEs.  In  an  appendix  to  ''On  the  Plains  and 
Among  the  Peaks,  or  How  Mrs.  Maxwell  made  her  Natm^l 
History  Collection/'  by  Mary  Dartt,  published  in  1879,  is  a 
list  of  the  mammals  in  the  collection  with  notes  on  other 
species,  by  Dr.  Elliott  Coues.  There  are  47  species  named  in 
this  list,  but  few  of  which,  however,  are  additions  to  the  State 
list.  Coues  mentions  Lepics  caUotis  texanu8= calif omictis 
mdanotiSy  and,  curiously  enough,  like  Allen,  he  gives  it  only 
from  report  and  not  from  his  own  knowledge.  He  mentions 
Geomys  bursarius,  no  doubt  G.  lutescens,  unless  Coues  was  in 
error  as  to  the  genus,  and  that  is  hardly  likely,  and  this  is  the 
first  record  of  a  Geomys  from  the  State.  He  lists  Zajms  hud- 
nonius,  which  may  be  either  Z.  h,  campestris  or  Z.  princeps; 
in  either  case  it  is  the  first  Colorado  record  of  Zapus.  Pu- 
iorius  vulgaris  is  mentioned,  and  if  it  is  the  small  weasel,  is 
what  we  now  call  P.  streaiori  leptus.  Urocyon  cinereo- 
argerUeus  scotti  is  also  new  to  the  Colorado  list. 

1890: — Merriam.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  4, 
Dr.  Merriam  described  Evotomys  galei  from  a  type  specimen 
taken  at  Ward,  Boulder  County. 

1891:— Allen.  Dr.  J.  A.  Allen  described  m  Vol.  Ill 
of  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Peromyscus  ruisuius  from  a  type  taken  at  Estes  Park,  Larimer 
County. 

1893 : — Allen.  In  Vol.  V  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  Dr.  Allen  described  Thomomys 
fossor  and  Zapus  princeps  from  type  specimens  taken  at 
Florida,  La  Plata  County.  Mus  musculus  is  mentioned  for 
the  first  time  from  Colorado,  and  Sciurus  aberti,  the  specimens 


History  op  Colorado  Mammalogy.  321 

proving  to  be  subspecies  mimus.  Eptesicus  fuscus  and 
Lasionycteris  noctivagans  are  also  additions  to  Colorado's 
fauna. 

1893 : — ^Thomas.  In  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural 
History,  6th  Ser.,  Vol.  XI,  Oldfield  Thomas  described  Perog- 
naihus  fasciatus  infraluteus  from  a  Loveland,  Larimer  County, 
type. 

1893 : — Bailey.  In  the  Prairie  Ground  Squirrels  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  Vernon  Bailey  makes  the  first  mention 
of  Citellus  obsoletus  and  C.  elegans  as  inhabitants  of  Colorado. 

1894: — Merriam.  In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Biological 
Society  of  Washington,  Vol.  IX,  Dr.  Merriam  described 
Neotoma  faUax  from  a  type  taken  at  Gold  Hill,  Boulder 
County,  and  N.  orolestes  from  a  Saguache  County  specimen. 
In  the  case  of  the  latter  species  it  is  the  first  mention  under 
this  new  name,  but  it  had  been  mentioned  by  Allen  20  years 
previously  as  N.  cinerea^  of  which  it  is  a  subspecies. 

1894 : — Allen.  In  the  Bulletin  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  History, 
Vol.  VI,  Allen  described  (from  a  Kansas  type)  Neotoma 
campestriSy  now  known  as  Neotoma  floridana  baileyi  by  reason 
of  the  priority  of  the  latter  name,  and  mentions  a  specimen 
from  Fort  Lyons. 

1895: — Merriam.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  8, 
Merriam  cites  specimens  of  Geomys  lutescens  from  Colorado, 
the  first  mention  of  this  species,  under  this  name  at  least. 

1895: — True.  Sciurus  aberti  concolor  was  described  by 
F.  W.  True  in  Vol.  17  Proceedings  U.  S.  National  Museum, 
from  a  type  taken  at  Loveland.  Concolor  was  changed  in 
1900  to  ferreus  because  of  being  preoccupied,  having  been 
previously  used  for  another  species  of  Sciurus. 

1895:— Allen.  In  Vol.  VII,  Bulletin  Amer.  Mus.  Nat. 
History,  Dr.  All^n  lists  specimens  of  Reithrodontomys  dychei 
nebrascensis  from  Canon  City  and  Loveland. 


322  Colorado  College  Publication. 

1895  (Dec.  31) : — Merriam.  In  North  American  Fauna 
No.  10,  Dr.  Merriam  described  Sorex  tenellus  nanus  from  an 
Estes  Park  type,  and  also  cites  specimens  of  Sorez  obscurus  and 
Neosorex  navigator  from  Colorado  localities. 

1896: — Merriam.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  11, 
Dr.  Merriam  mentions  PiUorius  cicognanii  from  Silverton, 
(later  he  described  the  specimens  as  P.  s,  leptus),  and  figures 
a  skull  of  P.  arizonensis  from  Boulder  County,  this  being  the 
first  Colorado  record  of  that  species  under  that  name. 

1897: — Merriam.  In  Proc.  Biological  Society  of  Wash- 
ington, Vol.  XI,  Merriam  described  Phenacomys  preblei  from 
a  Long's  Peak  specimen. 

1897: — Miller.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  13, 
G.  S.  Miller,  Jr.  adds  several  bats  to  the  Colorado  list,  as 
follows:  Myotis  liicifugus  longicrus,  Myotis  calif omicus  (by 
implication),  Myotis  evotis,  Pipistrellus  hesperuSy  Nycteris 
cinereus,  and  Corynorhinus  macrotis  pallescens, 

1897:— Palmer.  In  "The  Jack  Rabbits  of  the  United 
States,"  Lepus  melanotis  is  for  the  first  time  mentioned  under 
that  name  as  an  inhabitant  of  Colorado. 

1899: — Bangs.  Ochotona  saxatilis  was  described  by 
Outram  Bangs  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  New  England 
Zoological  Club,  Vol.  I,  from  the  specimens  taken  in  Park 
County  in  1871  by  Dr.  Allen,  and  by  him  called  princeps. 

1899: — Preble.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  15, 
E.  A.  Preble  described  Zapus  hudsonius  campestris,  and  list 
specimens  from  Loveland. 

1900: — Bailey.  Vernon  Bailey  in  North  American 
Fauna  No.  17  adds  Microtus  nanuSy  M,  mordax  and  M. 
ochrogaster  haydeni  to  the  Colorado  list. 

1900: — Osgood.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  18, 
Osgood  notes  specimens  of  Perognathus  flavescens  and  P. 
hispidus  paradoxus  from  various  Colorado  localities. 


History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy.  323 

1901 :— Howell.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  20, 
A.  H.  Howell  mentions  specimens  from  various  Colorado 
localities  of  Mephitis  hudsonica  and  Af .  rmsomdas  varianSy 
being  the  first  records  under  those  names  of  the  Skimks  for 
the  State. 

1901: — Merriam.  In  his  "Preliminary  Revision  of  the 
Pumas,"  in  Vol.  3  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Washington 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Dr.  Merriam  makes  the  first  Colorado 
references  under  that  name  of  Felis  hippolestes,  previous 
authors  always  calling  our  cougar  concolor.  Hippolestes  was 
described  by  Merriam  in  1897  from  a  Wyoming  type. 

1902 : — Merriam.  Lynx  uinta  was  described  by  Merriam 
in  Vol.  XV  Proc.  of  the  Biological  Society  of  Washington  from 
an  Utah  specimen,  and  Colorado  included  in  its  range.  Most 
of  the  previous  records  for  the  State  of  L.  rufus  should  un- 
doubtedly have  referred  to  uinta. 

1902:— Rhoads.  In  the  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila., 
for  1902,  S.  N.  Rhoads  described  Mustda  caurina  origenes 
from  a  specimen  taken  on  Marvine  Mountain,  Rio  Blanco 
County,  this  being  the  first  mention  of  the  Colorado  Marten 
under  this  name,  previous  authors  calling  the  animal  M. 
martes  or  M.  americana. 

1902: — Howell.  Spilogale  tenuis  described  by  Howell 
in  Proc.  Biological  Society  of  Washington,  Vol.  XV,  from  a 
specimen  taken  at  Arkins,  Larimer  County,  and  others 
mentioned  from  Estes  Park. 

1903: — Merriam.  Puiorius  streatori  leptus  described  in 
Proc.  Biolo^cal  Society  of  Washington,  Vol.  XVI,  from  a 
Silverton  specimen,  and  prior  records  of  the  small  weasel 
should  be  referred  to  this. 

1905 : — Merriam.  Eutamias  amcBnus  operarius  described 
in  Proc.  Biological  Society  of  Washington  Vol.  XVIII,  from  a 
type  taken  at  Gold  Hill,  Boulder  County. 


324  Colorado  College  Publication. 

1905: — Arnold.  In  Outdoor  Life,  November,  1905, 
Dr.  W.  W.  Arnold  makes  the  first  mention  of  Bassariscus 
astutus  in  Colorado. 

1906:— Warren.  In  January,  1906,  in  Vol.  XI  of  Colo- 
rado College  Publications,  the  present  writer  published  for 
first  attempt  at  a  complete  list  of  Colorado  mammals.  In 
this  a  considerable  number  of  species  are  recorded  for  the 
first  time,  and  a  number  of  others  are  first  mentioned  under 
current  names.  These  species  are  as  follows:  Eutamias 
hopiensiSj  Ammospermophilus  leucurus  cinnanuymeus,  Citellus 
variegatus  utahy  C.  spUosoma  majors  Cynomys  leucuruSf  Castor 
canadensis  frondalor  (first  use  of  the  subspecific  name  for  the 
Colorado  animal),  Mus  norvegicus,  Onychorhys  leucogaster 
paUescenSf  Peromyscus  leiicopus  tomiUoy  P.  nebrascensiSy  P. 
subarcticus=rufinuSy  P.  luteuSy  P,  auripectuSy  P.  tmeiy  Neo- 
toma  micropuSy  N.  albigula  {warreni)y  Thomomys  dusiuSy  T. 
aureus,  Sylvilagus  arizon(B  =  warranty  S.  baileyiy  S.  pinetis 
(prior  authors  had  referred  to  all  of  these  last  three  under 
various  names).  Lynx  baileyiy  Canis  nubUus  (first  use  of  that 
name  for  the  Colorado  wolf),  Canis  nebrascensiSy  C.  lesteSy  C. 
meamsiy  C.  estor  (the  Colorado  coyotes  having  heretofore  been 
called  lairans)y  Putorius  longicauda  (this  being  the  first  re- 
liable record,  the  previous  ones  not  being  positively  referable 
this  species),  Sorex  persoruUus  {S.  p.  haydeni  was  also 
recorded,  but  I  think  the  specimens  should  be  referred  to 
personalus)y  S.  vagrans  dobsoniy  and  Nyctinomus  depressus. 
Energumenos  was  also  used  for  the  first  time  for  the  Colorado 
mink. 

1906: — Howell.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  26, 
this  author  records  the  capture  of  Spilogale  gracilis  saxaiUis 
in  southwestern  Colorado. 

1907 : — Cary.  In  ''  Some  Unrecorded  Colorado  Mammals," 
published  in  the  Proc.  Biological  Society  of  Washington, 
Vol.  XX,  Merritt  Cary  adds  16  species  to  the  Colorado  list 
and  confirms  the  occurrence  of  another.    This  paper  was 


History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy.  325 

especially  timely  because  it  straightened  out  much  of  the  con- 
fusion as  to  the  chipmunks  of  the  State.  The  species  added 
in  this  paper  are:  Sciurus  aberti  mimus,  for  the  first  time 
under  the  subspecific  name,  Eutamias  dorsalis  lUahensis,  E. 
minimus,  E.  m.  consobrinuSy  CiteUus  tridecemiineatus  parvus, 
Onychomys  brevicaudus,  Neotoma  desertorum,  Reithrodontomys 
megalotis,  Microtus  pauperrimus,  Thomxmtys  clusius  ocius,  T, 
aureus  pervagus,  T,  fulvu^,  Perodipus  longipes,  Perognathus 
apache  (P.  caUistus  is  also  named  tentatively  for  certain 
reasons,  but  no  specimens  have  as  yet  been  taken  in  the  State), 
Myotis  calif ornicus  confirmed  by  record  of  specimens  taken, 
Myotis  c.  cUiolabrum  and  M.  yumanensis, 

1907: — Nelson.  In  the  Proc.  Biological  Society  of 
Washington,  Vol.  XX,  E.  W.  Nelson  described  SylvHagus 
floridanus  simUis  from  a  Nebraska  type,  and  records  the 
capture  of  specimens  in  Colorado,  and  also  described  5.  audu- 
boni  warreni  from  a  type  specimen  taken  at  Coventry,  Mont- 
rose County. 

1907: — Cary.  In  a  paper  published  in  December,  Proc. 
Biological  Society  of  Washington,  Vol.  XX,  Cary  reports  the 
taking  of  Callospermophilus  wortmani  in  Routt  County. 

1908: — Warren.  Early  in  that  year  ''Further  Notes 
on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado''  was  published,  and  9  new  names 
added  to  the  list.  These  were:  Peromyscus  rufinus  (this  is 
really  not  an  addition,  but  the  name  replaces  subarcticus, 
which  does  not  apply  to  our  species,  and  has  no  standing  at 
all  now  for  any  species),  Peromyscus  boylei  rowleyi,  Neotoma 
arizonae,  N.  cinnam^mea,*  Phenacomys  orophUus,  Lepus 
campestris  Unvnsendi,  L.  californicus  texianus,  Spilogale  inter- 
rupta,  Scalops  aquaticus  machrinus  and  Nyctinomus  mexicanus, 

1908: — Merriam.  In  the  Proc.  Biological  Society  of 
Washington,  Vol.  XXI,  Dr.  Merriam  described  three  sub- 

*Qoldman  in  his  recent  revision  of  Neotoma  considers  cinnamomea  a 
s>'nonym  of  oroUste9,  but  I  am  inclined  at  present  to  disagree  with  him  on  this 
point. 


326  Colorado  College  Publication. 

species  of  mammals  from  Colorado  types,  one  of  which,  Neo- 
toma  aUbigvla  warreni  from  Baca  County,  had  been  listed 
before  as  N,  aUbigvla)  the  others,  Eutamias  minimus  caryi 
and  Thcmwmys  talpoides  agrestis,  were  hitherto  unmentioned 
and  undescribed  forms. 

1908: — Young.  In  the  Proc.  Academy  of  Natural 
Science,  Philadelphia,  Robert  T.  Young  described  Eptesicus 
paUidus  from  a  specimen  taken  at  Boulder. 

1909: — Warren.  In  the  Proc.  Biological  Society  of 
Washington,  Vol.  XXII,  E.  R.  Warren  described  Eutamias 
quadrivittatus  animosus  from  a  Las  Animas  County  specimen. 

1909:— Nelson.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  29, 
Nelson  records  Sylvilagus  nuttaUi  grangeri  from  northwestern 
Colorado. 

1910:— Warren.  In  "The  Mammals  of  Colorado," 
published  by  Putnam,  SpUogaie  arizonoe  is  added  to  the 
Colorado  fauna,  and  Canis  frustror  included  among  our 
possible  coyotes. 

1910: — HoLLisTER.  In  the  Proc.  Biological  Society  of 
Washington,  Vol.  XXIII,  N.  Hollister  describes  Fiber  zibe- 
thicus  cinnamominus  from  a  Kansas  type,  and  includes  eastern 
Colorado  in  its  range.  In  a  personal  letter  Mr.  Hollister 
writes  that  he  had  typical  examples  from  Wray,  Yuma 
County,  and  intermediate  from  Ward,  Boulder  County,  these 
latter  being  nearest  dnnamxyminus. 

1910: — Goldman.  In  North  American  Fauna  No.  31, 
''Revision  of  the  Wood  Rats  of  the  Genus  Neotom^a,^'  E.  A. 
Goldman  adds  Neotoma  micropus  canescens  and  N,  cinerea 
rupicola  to  the  Colorado  fauna,  the  former  from  18  miles 
south  of  La  Junta,  and  the  latter  from  Avalo  and  Pawnee 
Buttes,  Weld  County. 


History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy.  327 

Species  of  Mammals  Described  from  Colorado  Type 
Localities. 

An  interesting  side  of  this  subject  is  the  number  of 
species  and  subspecies  of  our  mammals  whose  type  localities 
are  in  Colorado.  These  number  no  less  than  thirty,  about  a 
fifth  of  the  total  number  of  mammals  now  credited  to  our 
State.  Of  these,  ten  were  described  before  1860,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  not  a  single  new  species  of  mammal  was  de- 
scribed from  a  Colorado  type  from  1857  until  1890,  and 
curiously  enough,  since  then  the  additions  average  one  a 
year.  Certainly  this  large  proportion  of  new  species  is  a 
good  testimonial  as  to  the  variety  and  richness  of  our  fauna. 

The  list  of  these  species  with  their  type  localities,  is  as 
follows : 

1823: — Say.  Eutamids  quadrivitiatuSy  from  along  the 
Arkansas  River,  about  26  miles  below  Cafion  City;  CdUo- 
spermophilus  lateralis j  from  the  same  place;  CiteUus  varie- 
gatus  grammuruSy  from  the  Purgatoire  River,  Lat.  37°  32'  N., 
Lon.  103°  31'  W.;  and  MyoHs  subvlatus  from  about  the 
present  site  of  La  Junta. 

1852: — Baird.  Cratogeomys  castanops,  from  Bent's  Fort, 
about  where  Las  Animas  is  now. 

1853: — Audubon  and  Bachman.  Sciurus  fremontiy  the 
exact  type  locality  of  which  is  in  doubt,  but  which  is  apparently 
somewhere  in  the  South  Park. 

1855 : — Baird.  Cynomys  gunisoniy  from  Cochetopa  Pass ; 
Reithrodontomys  montanus  from  somewhere  on  the  east  side 
of  the  San  Luis  Valley  between  Fort  Garland  and  Crestone ; 
Perodipus  montanuSy  from  Fort  Massachusetts,  where  Fort 
Garland  is  now.  These  were  all  taken  by  the  party  under 
Captains  Gunnison  and  Beckwith. 

1857 :— Baird.  Microtus  modestus,  from  Cochetopa  Pass, 
also  taken  by  the  above-mentioned  party. 


328  Colorado  College  Publication. 

1890: — Merriam.  Evotomys  gapperi  galeiy  from  Ward, 
Boulder  County. 

1891: — ^Allen.  Peromyscus  nasiUus,  from  Estes  Park, 
Larimer  County. 

1893: — ^Allen.  Zapus  princeps  and  Thomomys  fossor, 
from  Florida,  La  Plata  County. 

1893 : — ^Thomas.  Perognathus  fasdatus  infralvieuSj  from 
Loveland,  Larimer  County. 

1894: — Merriam.  Neotoma  faUax,  from  Gk)ld  Hill, 
Boulder  County,  and  Neotoma  cinerea  orolestes,  from  20  miles 
west  of  Saguache,  in  the  county  of  that  name. 

1895 : — ^True.  Sciurus  aberti  concolor,  from  Loveland;  in 
1900  True  changed  the  name  to  ferreus  because  of  concohr 
being  preoccupied. 

1895 : — Merriam.    Sorex  teneUus  nanus,  from  Estes  Park. 

1897 : — Merriam.  Phenacomys  prebleiy  from  Long's  Peak, 
Larimer  County. 

1899: — ^Bangs.  Ochotona  saxatUis,  from  Montgomery, 
Park  County. 

1902 : — Rhoads.  Mustela  caurina  origenes,  from  Marvine 
Mountain,  Rio  Blanco  County. 

1902 : — Howell.  SpUogale  tenuis,  from  Arkins,  Larimer 
County. 

1903 : — Merriam.  Putorius  streatori  leptus,  from  Silverton. 

1905: — Merriam.  Eutamias  amcenus  operarius,  from 
Gold  Hill,  Boulder  County. 

1907: — Nelson.  SylvUagus  auduboni  warreni,  from  Cov- 
entry, Montrose  County. 

1908 : — Merriam.  Neotoma  albigula  warreni,  from  Gaume's 
Ranch,  Baca  County;  Eutamias  minimus  caryi  and  Thomomys 
talpoides  agrestis  from  Medano  Ranch,  Costilla  County. 

1908: — Young.    Eptesicus  pdlidus,  from  Boulder. 

1909 : — Warren.  Eutamias  quadrivittatus  animosus,  from 
Irwin's  Ranch,  northeastern  Las  Animas  County. 


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The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado 

By  MAURICE  C  HALL 

AssifUnt  Zoologist,  U.  8.  Barema  of  Animml  Industry 


CONTENTS. 

I.  INTRODUCTORY. 

II.  PARASITE  RECORDS. 

(I).  PROTOZOA. 

1.  MASTIGOPHOKA. 

2.  SPOROZOA. 

3.  RHIZOPODA. 

4.  INFUSORIA. 

(II).  PLATYHELMINTHA. 

1.  TREMATODA. 

2.  CBSTODA. 

(III).  NEMATHELMINTHA. 

1.  N  EM  A  TOD  A. 

2.  ACANTHACEPHALA. 

3.  GORDIACEA. 

(IV).  ANNULATA. 
I.  HIRUDINEA. 

(V).  ARTHROPODA. 

1.  CRUSTACEA. 

2.  INSECTA. 

(I).  PLATYPTBRA. 
(2).  HEMIPTERA. 
(3).  DIPT  ERA. 
(4).  SIPHON APTERA. 

3.  ARACHNIDA. 

(1).  ACARINA. 

(VI).  SPURIOUS  PARASITES. 


III.  COMPENDIUM  OF  THE  PARASITES  USTED 

IN  TfflS  PAPER,  ARRANGED  ACCORDING 
TO  THEIR  HOSTS. 

(I).  CHORDATA. 

1.  MAMMALIA. 

(I).  PRIMATES. 
(2).  CARNIVORA. 
(3).  RODBNTIA. 
(4).  UNGULATA. 
(5).  CHIROPTBRA. 

2.  AVBS. 

3.  REPTIUA. 

(i).  OPHIDIA. 

4.  AMPHIBIA. 

(i).  URODBLA. 
(2).  ANBURA. 

5.  PISCBS. 
(II).  ARTHROPODA. 

1.  INSBCTA. 
(III).  ANNULATA. 
(IV).  HOSTS  NOT  GIVEN. 

IV.  SUMMARY. 

V.  BIBUOGRAPHY. 


THE  PARASITE  FAUNA  OF  COLORADO. 


By  Maurice  C.  Hall, 
Assistant  Zoologist,  U,  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 


I.    INTRODUCTORY. 

The  publication  of  a  partial  list  of  the  fauna  of  Colorado, 
as  part  of  an  organized  biological  survey  of  the  state,  by 
Ramaley,  Cockerell  and  Henderson,  has  led  the  writer  to  com- 
pile the  list  of  parasites  given  in  this  paper.  This  compilation 
was  the  more  feasible  in  that  the  writer  was  engaged  in  govern- 
ment parasitic  investigations  in  this  state,  and  was  the  more 
willingly  undertaken  in  that  it  is  the  writer's  belief  that  a  survey 
of  the  parasite  fauna  has  as  much  value,  although  its  data  are 
modified  by  the  dominant  condition  of  parasitism,  as  a  survey 
of  free-living  groups.  The  ways  in  which  such  a  survey  of 
parasite  fauna  may  be  of  value  have  been  discussed  in  a  previ- 
ous article  by  the  writer.  (See  Hall,  1912).  No  list  of  the 
parasites  of  this  state  or  any  other  state  has  ever  been  published, 
so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware.  This  list  is  to  be  looked  upon  as 
a  preliminary  record  which  will  facilitate  the  making  of  addi- 
tional records  by  servipg  as  a  nucleus  about  which  such  records 
may  be  grouped.  In  addition  to  unpublished  records,  it  aims 
to  summarize  the  scattered  references  already  published  and 
thereby  simplify  the  work  of  future  investigators. 

Parasitism  is  a  condition  found  in  many  groups  of  animals 
and  records  from  all  these  groups  have  been  admitted  to  this 
list  with  the  exception  of  the  insects  parasitic  on  insects.  This 
includes  the  large  and  important  groups  of  the  Icheimionidae, 
Tachinidae,  etc.,  which  do  not  properly  come  within  the  scope  of 
the  writer's  work.  Even  as  it  is,  the  record  covers  so  many 
groups,  some  of  which  are  commonly  studied  from  a  standpoint 
quite  different  from  that  of  an  interest  in  parasitism  itself,  that 


334  CowjRADo  College  Publication. 

the  list  could  not  have  been  nearly  so  complete  had  it  not  been 
for  the  assistance  and  cooperation  of  a  number  of  other  workers 
who  have  kindly  furnished  me  with  data.  Records  not  here- 
tofore published  have  been  supplied  by  Professor  Cockerell  and 
Dr.  Ellis  of  the  University  of  Colorado,  Professor  Gillette  and 
Dr.  Kaupp  of  the  Colorado  State  Agricultural  College,  Mr. 
Frederick  Knab  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Dr.  Garri- 
son of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Medical  School,  Professor  Young  of  the 
University  of  North  Dakota,  and  Professor  Ward  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois.  Mr.  Warren  of  Colorado  College  has  turned 
over  to  the  writer  for  examination  a  number  of  parasites  and 
a  large  amount  of  alcoholic  host  material  from  which  the  writer 
has  collected  numerous  interesting,  parasites.  The  writer  is 
indebted  to  Mr.  R.  S.  Clifton  for  access  to  the  records  of  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology.  Host  animals  have  been  identi- 
fied by  Mr.  Warren  (mammals),  Mr.  Schwarz  (coleoptera), 
and  Mr.  Caudell  (orthoptera).  Incidental  identifications  and 
collections  are  credited  in  the  text.  The  larger  number  of  rec- 
ords are  from  the  collection  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag^- 
culture,  the  U.  S.  National  Museum  and  the  U.  S.  Public 
Health  and  Marine  Hospital  Service.  Finally,  this  work  would 
have  been  quite  impossible  had  it  not  been  for  the  courtesy 'of 
President  Slocum  and  Profesor  Schneider  of  Colorado  College 
who  have  very  kindly  permitted  the  writer  to  use  the  labora- 
tories and  equipment  at  Colorado  College  during  the  course  of 
these  collections  and  some  government  investigations. 

Generally  speaking,  the  climate  of  Colorado  is  too  dry  to 
favor  the  multiplication  and  spread  of  parasites.  The  high  alti- 
tude over  much  of  the  state  results  in  a  relatively  low  tempera- 
ture, especially  at  night,  and  this  also  is  unfavorable  to  the  life 
cycle  of  most  parasites.  Parasites  thrive  best  in  warm,  moist  lo- 
calities, the  tropics  being  the  place  where  they  occur  most  abun- 
dantly, and  Colorado  for  the  most  part  is  cool  and  dry.  How- 
ever, the  very  fact  that  natural  conditions  in  Colorado  are  so 
little  suited  to  parasite  life  lends  additional  interest  to  the  study 
of  such  parasites  as  persist  in  spite  of  conditions  naturally  un- 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  335 

favorable  to  parasites  in  general.  Such  as  do  persist  are  pre- 
sumably adapted  to  the  temperature  and  moisture  conditions 
prevalent  over  Colorado  or  else  find  local  conditions  which 
permit  of  parasite  development.  Thus  a  leaky  watering  trough 
might  furnish  the  stomach  worm  of  sheep  with  the  necessary 
moisture  which  the  rain  and  dew  at  the  same  point  would  not 
furnish. 

Some  of  the  forms  given  in  the  following  list  are  appar- 
ently new  and  so  are  listed  under  a  generic  name  only  or  even 
in  some  general  way  without  a  generic  name.  Two  abbrevia- 
tions are  used  throughout:  coll. — collector  or  collected  by; 
det. — determined  by.  In  some  cases,  the  writer  has  taken  the 
liberty  of  substituting  s)monymous  scientific  names  for  the  ones 
furnished  him  by  various  persons  who  have  sent  records  with 
their  own  identifications.  This  is  partly  in  the  interests  of  uni- 
formity to  make  them  agree  with  the  writer's  records  and 
partly  to  make  them  conform  to  the  latest  scientific  acceptation. 


II.    PARASITE  RECORDS. 

(I).  PROTOZOA. 
I.  MASTIGOPHORA, 

Crithidia  melophagi: — Melophagus  ovinus;  intestine.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs.  Apparently  com- 
mon. 

Treponema  pallida: — Homo  sapiens;  any  tissue.  As  might 
be  expected,  a  survey  of  Colorado  medical  literature  shows 
the  disease  due  to  this  organism,  syphilis,  to  be  fairly  com- 
mon, but  there  appear  to  be  no  data  showing  how  the  fre- 
quency of  the  disease  in  Colorado  compares  with  that  in 
other  places. 

2.  SPOROZOA, 

Amoeba  meleagridis.    See  Coccidium  tenellum, 

CocciDiUM  oviforme: — Bos  taurus;  liver.  Det.  Kaupp,  1908- 
'11,  Fort  Collins  abattoir.  4  cases.  Coccidium  oviforme 
is  a  synonym  of  Bimeria  stiedae.  In  this  host  the  parasite 
would  be  more  apt  to  be  a  variety  of  Coccidium  perforans. 

Coccidium  perforans.     See  Coccidium  oviforme. 

Coccidium  tenellum: — Callus  gallus,  Meleagris  gallopavo; 
ceca  and  liver.  Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp,  1908-^1 1,  Fort  Col- 
lins. 2  cases  in  chicken ;  18  cases  in  turkey.  Also  reports 
by  Kaupp  (1911).  This  is  the  organism  credited  by  some 
writers  with  causing  "white  diarrhea"  in  chickens  and 
"blackhead"  in  turkeys ;  often  called  Amoeba  meleagridis. 
The  correct  name  is  a  matter  of  dispute. 

EiMERiA  STIEDAE.    See  Coccidium  oviforme. 

Gregarines: — Platystethus  americanus;  intestine.  Coll.  Hall, 
1911,  Colorado  Springs.    Common. 

Gregarines : — Mountain  cricket ;  intestine.  Coll.  Hall,  1906,  St. 
Peters.    Reported  in  Hall  (1907). 

Haemogregarina  sp  : — Thamnophis  sp. ;  blood.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  1907,  Colorado  Springs,    i  case. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  337 

HiRMOCYSTis  rigida: — Melanoplus  coloradensis,  Melanoplus 
sp.;  intestine  and  occasionally  body  cavity.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  1906,  Canon  City  (reported  by  Hall,  1907)  ;  Hall, 
191 1,  Colorado  Springs  (common);  Ellis,  191 1,  Boulder 
(33  P^r  cent  infected  of  200  host  insects  examined). 
Gregarina  melanopli  Crawley,  1907,  is  a  synonym  of  H, 
rigida,  Hall,  1907,  Crawley's  name  being  published  a  little 
later.  Crawley  and  the  writer  are  agreed  that  the  species 
are  identical.  The  correct  generic  name  is  a  matter  of  un- 
certainty and  must  remain  so  until  the  cyst  development 
and  spore  formation  are  better  known.  Crawley  reported 
this  form  from  Pennsylvania  and  the  writer  has  reported 
it  from  Nebraska  and  has  since  found  it  in  1907  at 
Bethesda,  Maryland. 

MoNOCvsTis  SP. : — Earthworm;  (seminal  vesicles  and  body 
cavity,  presumably).  Coll.  Ramaley  and  Watkins,  Boul- 
der.   Reported  by  Cockerell  (1911). 

Plasmodium  sp.  : — Homo  sapiens;  blood.  Coll.  Drs.  Moleen, 
Lyman,  Monghan,  Roe  and  Matthews,  Denver  ( ?) ;  det. 
Matthews.  5  cases.  Reported  by  Matthews  (1909).  Pa- 
tients had  been  in  other  states  from  2  to  10  years  previous. 
Matthews  concludes  that  malaria  is  not  rare  in  Colorado  in 
patients  coming  from  malarial  areas  outside  of  the  state. 
In  this  connection.  Professor  Gillette  furnishes  an  impor- 
tant record  in  a  letter  to  the  writer  in  which  he  notes  that 
Professor  Weldon  has  found  an  Anopheles  in  Delta  County 
and  says,  "I  believe  this  is  the  first  record  of  the  occurrence 
of  this  genus  in  Colorado  and  is  liable  to  be  accountable  for 
an  outbreak  of  malaria  on  the  western  slope". 

Sarcocystis  miescheri: — Bos  taurus;  heart.  Det.  Kaupp, 
1908-'! I,  Fort  Collins  abattoir,    i  case. 

Sarcocystis  tenella: — Ovis  aries;  oesophageal  muscles. 
Coll.  Ransom  and  Hall,  1911,  Resolis  and  Amo;  Hall  1911, 
Colorado  Springs  abattoir  in  sheep  from  Amo ;  det.  Ran- 
som.    Common. 

Stylocephalus   giganteus: — Eleodes    hispilabrius,   Bleodes 


338  Colorado  College  Publication. 

spp,;  intestine.    Coll.  and  det.  Ellis,  191 1,  Boulder.    De- 
scribed as  a  new  species  by  Ellis  (1912).    Coll.  Ransom, 
191 1,  Amo  (in  E.  hispilabris) ,  det.  Hall.    Common. 
3.  RHIZOPODA, 

Cytoryctes  variolae: — Homo  sapiens;  in  pustules.  The 
presence  of  this  supposed  parasite,  which  is  held  by  some 
to  be  the  cause  of  measles,  is  assumed  from  the  reports  of 
measles  in  the  reports  of  the  Colorado  State  Board  of 
Health.  Cockerell  (1911)  reports  it  from  Boulder  on  a 
similar  basis.  For  1910,  Trask  (1911)  reports  from  Colo- 
rado 1,096  cases*  a  case  rate  of  136.23  per  100,000  inhab- 
itants. Some  protozoologists  hold  that  no  true  parasitic 
organism  has  yet  been  found  in  measles. 

Neuroryctes  h ydrophobiae  : — Homo  sapiens,  Cams  familiaris. 
Bos  taurus,  Equus  caballus,  (  ?)  Felts  domestica,  (  ?)  Canis 
occidentalis;  nervous  system.  Coll.  and  det.  Glover  and 
Kaupp>  i9o8-'io,  Greeley  (in  horse,  cow  and  dog),  Love- 
land,  Longmont  (dog).  Fort  Collins  (dog).  Fort  Lupton, 
Platte ville.  Castle  Rock,  Denver  (dog,  cow,  (?)  cat,  (?) 
wolf).  Reported  by  Glover  and  Kaupp  (1910).  Its  pres- 
ence in  man  is  assumed  from  the  reports  of  cases  of  rabies, 
of  which  this  is  believed  by  some  to  be  the  cause,  in  the 
reports  of  the  Colorado  State  Board  of  Health.  As  in  the 
preceding  case,  some  protozoologists  hold  that  the  so-called 
Neuroryctes  hydrophobiae  is  not  a  parasitic  organism. 
4.  INFUSORIA, 

Nyctotherus  sp.  : — Frog;  (intestinal  tract,  presumably). 
Coll.  Ramaley,  Boulder  County.  Reported  by  Cockerell 
(1911). 

Opalina  sp.  : — Frog;  (intestinal  tract,  presumably).  Coll 
Ramaley,  Boulder  County.    Reported  by  Cockerell  ( 191 1 ) . 

(H.)  PLATYHELMINTHA. 
I.  TREMATODA. 
Fasciola  AMERICANA.    See  Fasciola  magna. 
Fasciola  carnosa.     See  Fasciola  magna. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  339 

Fasciola  hepatica: — Bos  taurus;  liver.  Coll.  and  det.  Dr. 
Ayres,  1907- '09,  Fort  Collins  abattoir  in  cow  probably 
shipped  in  from  out  of  state.  (Statement  made  in  personal 
conversation.)    May  have  been  F.  magna,  q.  v. 

Fasciola  magna: — Bos  taurus;  liver.  Coll.  Francis.  Colorado 
Springs ;  det.  Hassall  as  a  new  species  and  published  by 
Hassall  (1891a)  as  Fasciola  camosa.  This  name  was  pre- 
occupied and  later  Hassall  ( 1891b)  changed  it  to  Fasciola 
americana.  The  correct  name  is  Fasciola  magna  (Bassi, 
1875)  Stiles,  1894.  The  specimens  from  which  Hassall  de- 
scribed the  species  were  collected  in  abattoir  inspection,  and 
the  cattle  from  which  they  were  collected  were  probably 
from  New  Mexico  or  from  some  state  along  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  where  the  parasite  is  enzootic.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  thinking  that  this  parasite  has  no  foothold  in 
Colorado.  The  prevailing  dryness  over  most  of  the  cattle 
ranges  in  this  state  results  in  a  scarcity  of  such  inter- 
mediate hosts  as  snails,  which  are  essential  in  the  life  cycle 
of  flukes  of  this  genus,  so  far  as  these  life  histories  are 
known. 

frematode: — Frog;    lung.      Coll.    Hall,    1906,    Canon    City. 
Common. 

Trematode: — Trout;   stomach    and   intestine.      Fraser   River, 
Fraser.    In  Dr.  Ward's  collection. 
2.  CESTODA. 

Anoplocephala  sp.  : — Evotomys  gapperi  galei,  Microtus  penn- 
sylvanicus  modestus;  intestine.  Coll.  Young,  1908,  Longs 
Peak,  det.  Young  and  Hall. 

Anoplocephala  sp.  : — Peromyscus  sp.,  intestine.  ColL  Young, 
1908,  Longs  Peak,  det.  Young  and  Hall. 

Aploparaksis  (  ?) : — Stcmella  magna  ncglecta;  intestine. 
Coll.?,  1894,  locality?;  det.  Ransom.  In  Colorado  College 
Collection. 

Bothriocephalus  latus.     See  Dibothriocephalus  latus. 

Cestode: — Callospermophilus  lateralis;   intestine.     Coll.   Hall. 
191 1,  Clyde.    I  specimen. 


340  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Cestode: — Centrocercus  urophasianus;  intestine.  Coll.  C.  H. 
Merriam,  1892.  In  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Coll.  This 
is  Rhabdometra  nullicollis,  according  to  Dr.  Ransom,  and 
may  be  part  of  the  same  material  as  the  National  Museum 
specimens  from  which  Dr.  Ransom  described  Rh.  nulli- 
collis,  q.  V. 

Cestode: — Citellus  tridecemlineatus  pallidus;  intestine.  Coll 
Hall,  191 1,  Amo;  Hall,  191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  material 
collected  by  Warren,  1910,  Colorado  Springs.    3  cases. 

Cestode : — Cyanocitta  stelleri  diademata;  intestine.    Coll.  Hall, 

.  191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  Warren, 

1909,  Bear  Creek  Canon,  near  Colorado  Springs,    i  case. 

Cestode : — Homo  sapiens;  intestine.  Coll.  C.  F.  SchoUenberger, 
1903,  Denver.  Reported  by  SchoUenberger  ( 1903) .  Tape- 
worm 39  feet  long.    Probably  Taenia  saginata,  q.  v. 

Cestode: — Neotoma  floridana  baileyi;  intestine.  Coll.  Hall, 
191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  Warren, 
191 1,  Cedar  Point,  Elbert  County,     i  specimen. 

Cestode : — Myrtle  warbler ;  neck.  ( Probably  as  a  result  of  in- 
testines, the  actual  site  of  infection,  being  torn  by  shot.) 
Coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1903,  Fort  Collins. 

Cestode:— Rabbit;  intestine.  "D.  K.*'  (See  Stewart,  1900.), 
writing  from  some  unspecified  place  in  this  state,  says  that 
almost  every  rabbit  at  that  place  had  tapeworms.  It  is 
imposible  to  say  what  tapeworm  this  was,  but  see  Davainea 
salmoni. 

Cestode : — Red-headed  woodpecker ;  intestine.  Coll.  Hall,  1906, 
Cather's  Springs,    i  case. 

Cestode: — Thomomys  fossor;  intestine.  Coll.  Hall,  1911,  from 
alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  Warren,  1909,  Ruxton 
Creek,  near  Colorado  Springs,    i  case. 

Cestode : — Thomomys  sp. ;  intestine.  Coll.  Young,  1908,  Longs 
Peak. 

Cestode : — Trout.  Fraser  River,  Fraser.  In  Dr.  Ward's  collec- 
tion. 


*  The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  341 

Cestode: — Zenaidura  macrura  carolinensis;  intestine.  Coll. 
Hall,  191 1,  Amo. 

Choanotaenia  infundibulum  : — Gallus  gallus;  intestine. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  (i  case); 
Kaupp,  1908-'! I,  Fort  Collins  (2  cases  found  in  87  post- 
mortems). 

CiTTOTAENiA  MOSAIC  A : — SylvUagus  nuttalli  pineHs;  intestine. 
Coll.  Hall,  1906,  near  Seven  Lakes.  Described  as  a  new 
species  by  Hall  (1908).  A  tapeworm  found  in  the  same 
host  near  Gunnison  by  Mr.  Gleason  Lake  of  Colorado 
Springs  and  verbally  described  to  th^  writer  is  probably  the 
same  spfecies. 

CoENURUS  CEREBRALis.    See  Multiccps  multiceps, 

CoENURUS  SERiALis.    See  Multiceps  serialis. 

Cysticercus  bovis.    See  Taenia  saginata. 

CvsTiCERCUS  CELLULOSAE.     See  Taenia  solium. 

Cysticercus  pisiform  is.    See  Taenia  pisiformis. 

Cysticercus  tenuicollis.    See  Taenia  hydatigena. 

Davainea  salmoni  : — Lepus  campestris,  Sylvilagus  auduboni 
baileyi;  intestine.  Coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1903,  Fort  Collins 
(in  L.  campestris),  det.  Ransom;  coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1, 
Resolis  (in  L.  campestris  and  S.  a.  baileyi^,  Amo  and 
Crow's  Roost  (in  S.  a.  baileyi).  The  great  majority  of 
the  cottontail  rabbits  examined  at  these  points  in  Elbert 
and  El  Paso  Counties  harbored  these  worms. 

Davainea  tetragona: — Gallus  gallus;  intestine.  Coll.  Hall, 
191 1,  Amo;  det^  Hall  and  Ransom,     i  case. 

DiBOTHRiocEPHALUS  LATus: — HotHv  sapicHS ;  intestine.  Coll 
at  Leadville  in  Immigrant.  Reported  by  Dock  ( 1898).  Coll. 
In  U.  S.  Hygienic  Laboratory  Collection.  Reported  by 
Pfender  (1910).  Dr.  Hall  of  Denver,  according  to  a  sec- 
retary's abstract  (see  Hall,  1905),  stated  before  the  Denver 
Clinical  and  Pathological  Society  that  a  worm  previously 
exhibited  by  him  was  a  specimen  of  Bothriocephalus  latus. 
This  was  perhaps  the  specimen  collected  by  Dr.  Walker. 
The  correct  name  of  this  worm  is  Dibothriocephalus  latus. 


342  Colorado  College  Publication. 

There  are  no  further  data  given  by  the  secretary  and  it 
can  only  be  assumed  that  the  specimen  was  collected  in 
Colorado.  In  any  case,  the  parasite  must  have  been  im- 
ported. Dr.  Walker's  specimen  was  collected  from  a 
Swede.  An  endemic  center  of  infection  has  recently  been 
discovered  in  the  United  States  in  northern  Michigan. 

DiPYLiDiUM  CANiNUM : — Cottis  familiaris,  Felts  domesHca;  in- 
testine. Coll.  and  det,  Kaupp,  ipoS-'ii,  Fort  Collins  (from 
dog)  ;  coll.  Ellis,  191 1,  Boulder  (from  cat),  det.  Hall. 

EcHiNOCOccus  granulosus: — Bos  taurus;  liver:  (?)  Homo 
sapiens.  Det.  Kaupp,  1908-'!  i.  Fort  Collins  abattoir.  2 
cases  from  cow.  Dr.  Hillkowitz,  according  to  a  secretary's 
abstract  in  Colorado  Medicine  for  Sept.  20,  1904,  read  a 
paper  entitled  "Case  of  Echinococcus".  There  are  no  fur- 
ther data  to  indicate  whether  the  case  occurred  in  Colorado 
and  in  man. 

Hymenolepis  sp.  : — Cynomys  ludovicianus;  intestine.  Coll. 
Hall,  191 1,  Resolis;  det.  Ransom,  i  specimen  from  3  host 
animals  at  Resolis;  none  in  2  host  animals  from  Natural 
Corral,  El  Paso  County. 

IcTHYOTAENiA  LONNBERGi  (?).  See  Pfoteocepholus  lonn- 
bergi  (?). 

LiGULA  siMPLicissiMA : — Suckef.  Coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1903, 
Fort  Collins,  det.  Ransom. 

Metroliasthes  lucida: — Meleagris  gallopavo;  feces  (the  in- 
testine is  the  site  of  infection).  Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1, 
Colorado  Springs.  The  turkeys  were  said  to  have  come 
from  Texas. 

MoNiEziA  expansa: — Ovis  aries;  intestine.  Curtice  (1889) 
says  that  Faville  in  1884,  in  an  article  not  available  to  me, 
reported  this  worm  under  the  name  of  Taenia  expansa  from 
Fort  Collins.  Faville  said  that  the  worms  occurred  in  the 
intestine  and  gall  ducts  and  were  6  inches  to  6  feet  long. 
The  worms  in  the  gall  ducts  were  undoubtedly  Thysano- 
soma  actinioides.  The  intestinal  worms  6  feet  long  were 
certainly  Moniezia  and  might  or  might  not  have  been  M. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  op  Colorado.  343 

expansck  Curtice  (1890)  records  an  outbreak  of  disease 
due  to  Af.  expansa  occurring  annually  in  a  Colorado  flock 
during  July  and  August.  Stiles  and  Hassall  (1893)  re- 
cord this  parasite  from  Colorado  on  the  authority  of  Cur- 
tice. 

MoNiEziA  trigonophora  : — OtAs  aries;  intestine.  Coll.  and 
det.  Hall,  191 1,  Amo.    2  cases. 

MuLTiCEPS  MUXrTiCEPS: — Ovis  aries;  brain.  Hall  (1910) 
notes  2  records  reported  by  the  veterinary  editor  of  the 
American  Sheep  Breeder  in  1901  and  1905,  and  states  in 
comment  that  these  cases  are  doubtful.  This  parasite,  usu- 
ally called  Coenurus  cerebralis,  causes  a  disease  known  as 
gid.  This  disease  has  no  foothold  in  Colorado  and  any 
cases  occurring  in  this  state  would  probably  be  imported 
from  northern  Montana  where  the  disease  is  enzootic.  Cur- 
tice (1982)  records  the  adult  tapeworm,  known  as  Taenia 
coenurus,  from  the  intestine  of  a  dog  in  Colorado,  noting 
that  it  might  be  another  species.  Hall  (1910)  on  re-exam- 
ination of  material  finds  that  it  is  not  MuUiceps  mulHceps. 

MuLTiCEPS  SERiALis: — Lepus  sp.,  Sylvilagus  sp.;  connective 
tissue.  Coll.  191 1,  Carlton;  det.  Hall.  This  parasite  is 
recorded  by  Hall  (1910)  as  seen  by  Dr.  Shantz  in  jackrab- 
bits  at  Wray  and  as  seen  by  Curtice  in  Colorado  as  early 
as  1887  and  1888.  Mr.  Horace  Ragle  of  Colorado  Springs 
tells  me  that  he  found  it  in  a  cottontail  at  Colorado  Springs 
in  1910. 

Proteocephalus  lonnbergi  ( ?)  : — Amblystoma  tigrinum. 
Coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1903,  Fort  Collins,  det.  Ransom.  In 
U.  S.  National  Museum  catalogue  as  Ichtyotaenia  lonn- 
bergi(?). 

Rhabdometra  nulucollis  : — Centrocercus  urophasianus ;  in- 
testine. (Coll.  in  1892).  Described  as  a  new  species  by 
Ransom  (1909). 

Taenia  coenurus.     See  MuUiceps  mulHceps. 

Taenia  expansa.  See  Moniezia  expansa  and  Thysanosoma 
actinioides. 


344  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Taenia  fimbriata.     See  Thysanosoma  actinioides. 

Taenia  hydatigena: — Ovis  aries;  omentum  and  liver  (larva) : 
Canis  familiaris;  intestine  (adult).  Coll.  and  det.  Curtice, 
1886  and  1887,  apparently  at  Colorado  Springs  and  at 
Granger,  near  what  is  now  the  town  of  Falcon,  from  sheep. 
Reported  by  Curtice  (1889  and  1890).  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  191 1,  Resolis  and  Amo,  from  sheep  (common); 
Kaupp,  1908-'! I,  Fort  Collins,  from  sheep  (common),  and 
from  dogs.  The  larval  worm  in  the  sheep  is  commonly 
known  as  Cysticcrcus  tenuicollis  and  the  adult  worm  in  the 
dog  as  Taenia  nwrginata.  This  adult  wonn  may  and 
very  likely  does  occur  in  the  coyote,  but  there  are  no  actual 
records  in  support  of  this. 

Taenia  marginata.     See  Taenia  hydatigena. 

Taenia  pisiform  is: — Lepus  campestris,  Sylvilagus  auduboni 
baileyi;  body  cavity  and  liver  (larva).  Coll.  and  det.  Hall, 
191 1,  Amo  and  Resolis,  from  rabbits  (common)  :  Kaupp, 
i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins,  from  rabbit  (2  cases,  genus  and 
species  of  host  not  specified)  ;  coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1903, 
Fort  Collins,  ( from  Lepus  campestris) ,  det.  Ransom.  The 
adult  worm,  commonly  known  as  Taenia  serrata,  is  usually 
reported  from  dogs,  and  the  presence  of  the  larval  worm  in 
rabbits  is  prima  facie  evidence  that  the  adult  worm  occurs 
in  dogs  in  this  state. 

Taenia  saginata  : — Bos  taurus:  heart  (larva)  :  Homo  sapiens; 
intestines  (adult).  Det.  Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins 
abattoir,  2  cases  (from  cow)  ;  coll.  by  physicians  and  det. 
by  Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii.  Fort  Collins,  3  cases  (from  man); 
coll.  Dr.  Geo.  A.  Boyd,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs,  det.  Hall 
(i  case).  'The  larval  stage  in  the  cow  is  known  as  Cysti- 
cercus  bovis.  The  specimen  collected  by  Dr.  Royd  has 
gravid  proglottids  y/2  cm.  long.  The  egg  measurements 
are  unusual,  but  the  worm  is  assigned  to  T.  saginata  for 
the  reason  that  this  is  a  very  variable  species.  Unfortu- 
nately the  specimen  is  without  a  head. 

Taenia  solium: — Sus  scrofa  domcstica;  heart  (larva).    Det. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  345 

Kaupp,  1908-'!  I,  Fort  Collins  abattoir.  2  cases.  Pfender 
(1910)  finds  almost  no  authentic  cases  of  the  adult  tape- 
worm in  man  in  the  United  States,  although  numerous 
specimens  of  the  larval  form,  commonly  known  as 
CysHcercus  cellulosae,  in  the  hog  show  definitely  that  the 
adult  worm  occurs  in  man  in  this  country.  This  lack  of 
authentic  records  of  the  adult  worm  makes  it  highly  de- 
sirable that  cases  of  the  larval  worm  in  hogs  be  followed 
up  if  possible.  In  this  case,  Dr.  Kaupp  was  unable  to  find 
where  the  hogs  were  from. 

Taenia  sp.  : — Cants  familiaris;  intestine.  See  Multiceps  mul- 
ticeps. 

Taenia  sp.  : — Canis  nehracensis ;  intestine.  Coll.  and  det.  Hall, 
191 1,  Amo. 

Taenia  sp.  : — Erithizon  epixanthum;  intestine.  Coll.  and  det. 
Cocker  ell,  1887,  Naomi,     i  case. 

Taenia  sp.  : — Homo  sapiens.  Coll.  Dr.  Webb.  1909,  Colorado 
Springs,  det.  Stiles. 

Taenia  sp.  : — Lepus  sylvaticus;  intestine.  Coll.  and  det.  Cur- 
tice. Reported  by  Curtice  (1892).  The  host  species 
given  does  not  occur  in  Colorado.  It  is  specified  as  a  cot- 
tontail and  would  be  Sylvilagus  sp.  The  generic  name 
Taenia  is  used  in  a  broad  sense.  There  are  no  rabbit  tape- 
worms of  the  genus  Taenia,  strictly  speaking. 

Taenia  sp: Lepus  texiamis;  intestine.  Coll.  and  det.  Cur- 
tice. Reported  by  Curtice  (1892).  See  comment  on  fore- 
going species  regarding  use  of  Taenia. 

Taenia  sp.  : — Lynx  baileyi;  intestine.  Coll.  Ellis,  191 1,  Boul- 
der, det.  Hall. 

Taenia  sp: — Mephitis  mephitica;  intestine.  Reported  by  Stiles 
and  Hassall  (1894).  According  to  Mr.  Warren,  this 
host  should  be  either  M.  hudsonica  or  M.  mesomelas  iMr- 
ians. 

Taenia  sp: — Taxidea  americana.  So  listed  by  Stiles  and  Has- 
sall.     Warren   (1910)   uses  T.  taxus  for    the    Colorado 


346  Colorado  College  Publication. 

badger.) ;    intestine.     Reported   by    Stiles   and   Hassall 

(1894). 

Taenia  teniaeformis: — Felis  domesHca;  intestine.  Coll. 
Ellis,  191 1,  Boulder,  det.  Hall. 

Thysanosoma  actinioides  : — Ovis  aries;  gall  and  pancreatic 
ducts  and  duodenum.  Coll.  and  det.  Faville,  Fort  Collins ; 
McEachran,  Fort  Collins ;  Curtice,  i886-'87.  Granger  and 
Colorado  Springs;  Hall  and  Ransom,  191 1,  Resolis  and 
Amo;  Hall,  1906  and  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  abattoir,  in 
sheep  from  Resolis,  Amo  and  Fountain;  Kaupp,  1908-'! i. 
Fort  Collins;  Dr.  H.  Busman,  191 1,  Denver  abattoir  in 
sheep  from  Oregon,  Utah  and  Wyoming ;  Dr.  Lamb,  Carr. 
Faville's  cases  were  reported  by  him  in  the  report  of  the 
State  Agricultural  College  for  1884,  an  article  not  availa- 
ble to  me  but  cited  by  Curtice  (1890).  Under  the  name 
of  Taenia  expansa,  Faville  describes  worms  which  are  in 
part  Thysanosoma  actinioides  and  in  part  Moniezia  sp. 
McEachran  (1888)  also  describes  Thysanosoma  from  sheep 
at  the  Agricultural  College  under  the  name  of  Taenia  ex- 
pansa. Crutice  (1889  and  1890)  made  a  study  of  this 
worm,  for  which  he  uses  the  synonym  Taenia  Hmbriata, 
and  of  the  disease  caused  by  it,  and  we  owe  almost  all  of 
our  knowledge  of  this  important  parasite  to  him.  Most  of 
his  work  was  done  around  Granger,  near  the  present  town 
of  Falcon.  The  writer  and  Dr.  Ransom  have  found  the 
worm  very  common  in  sheep  in  eastern  Colorado  and  Dr. 
Kaupp  has  found  it  in  62  out  of  65  sheep  from  northern 
Colorado.  It  is  a  parasite  of  considerable  economic  im- 
portance and  scientific  interest. 

(HI)  NEMATHELMINTHA. 

I.  NBMATODA. 

AsCARis  LUMBRicoiDES : — Homo  sapiens;  intestine  and  body 
cavity  (this  latter  accidental  and  abnormal).  Coll.  and  det. 
Garwood,  Marshall;  Perkins,  Denver.  Garwood  (1907) 
records  cases  of  2  persons,  recently  arrived  from  France, 


The  Parasite  Pauna  of  Cou)rado.  347 

passing  Ascaris  lumptricoides  (misspelling  or  printer's  er- 
ror) during  an  attack  of  typhoid.  Perkins  (1911)  records 
operation  for  appendicitis  where  the  appendix  was  found 
perforated  by  a  lumbricoid  worm,  the  worm  being  found 
crawling  across  the  ascending  colon. 
Ascaris  equorum  : — Bquus  caballus;  intestine.  CoU.  and  det. 
Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins.  6  cases  out  of  41  postmor- 
tems. 

Ascaris  sp: — Mephitis  mephitica;  intestine.  Reported  by 
Stiles  and  Hassall  (1894).  (See  Taenia  sp.  for  note  on 
host  name.) 

Ascaris  suum  : — Sus  scrofa  dotnestica;  intestine.  Coll.  and 
det.  Hall,  1906,  Canon  City;  Hall,  191 1,  Denver  abattoir 
(hogs  said  to  be  from  Nebraska)  ;  Kaupp,  1 908-^1 1,  Fort 
Collins  (common). 

Bei*ascaris  sp: — Canis  nebracensis;  intestine.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  191 1,  Amo.     i  case. 

BEI.ASCARIS  sp: — Felis  dofticstica;  intestine.  Coll.  Ellis,  191 1, 
Boulder,  det.  Hall,     i  case. 

Belascaris  sp: — Lynx  baileyi;  intestine.  Coll.  Ellis,  191 1, 
Boulder,  det.  Hall,     i  case. 

Chabertia  ovina: — Ovis  aries;  large  intestine.  Coll.  and 
det.  Curtice,  i  case.  Reported  by  Curtice  (1890  and 
1892  )  under  the  synonym  Sclerostomum  hypostomum. 

Chabertia  sp: — Thomomys  fossor;  cecum.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  War- 
ren, 1909,  Ruxton  Creek  near  Colorado  Springs,  and  1910, 
Middle  Brush  Creek,  Gunnison  County,  and  Crested 
Buttes. 

CooPERiA  oncophora: — Bos  taurus;  intestine.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  abattoir  from  local  dairy  cat- 
tle.    I  case. 

Cyuchnostomum  catin.\tum: — Equus  caballus.  Coll.  S.  A. 
Johnson,  1907,  Fort  Collins,  det.  H.  W.  Graybill. 

Cyuchnostomum    spp: — Equus    caballus;  cecum  and  colon. 


348  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  (i  case) ;  coll. 
S.  A.  Johnson,  1907,  Fort  Collins,  det.  H.  W.  Graybill. 

Cylichnostomum  tetracanthum  : — Equus  caballus;  cecum 
and  colon.  Coll.  Cockerell,  1888,  West  Cliffe;  O'Brine, 
1890,  Fort  Collins;  coll.  and  det.  Kaupp,  1908-'!!,  Fort 
Collins  {22  cases  out  of  41  postmortems);  Hall,  191 1, 
Colorado  Springs  (i  case). 

DiRoFiLARiA  iMMiTis.     See  FUario  immitis. 

FiLARiA  ATTENUATA : — Stctnella  magna  neglecta;  thoracic  cav- 
ity.    Coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1903,  Fort  Collins,  det.  Ransom. 

FiLARiA  cervina: — Bos  taurus:  body  cavity.  Coll.  and  det. 
Kaupp,  1908-'! I,  Fort  Collins.  12  cases  out  of  18  post- 
mortems.   This  should  be  called  Sctaria  labiato-papillosa. 

FiLARiA  iMiTis.      See  Filaria  immitis. 

FiLARiA  immitis: — Ca$tis  familiaris;  heart.  Coll.  and  det. 
Van  Meter,  1892,  Denver.  Reported  by  Van  Meter  ( 1892) 
as  a  case  of  Filaria  imitis  (misspelling).  Dog  had  recently 
come  from  Arkansas  and  had  doubtless  acquired  the  infec- 
tion there.  F.  immitis  is  now  DiroHlaria  immitis  and  type 
of  the  genus. 

FiLARiA  papillosa: — Equus  caballus;  body  cavity.  Coll.  and 
det.  Kaupp.  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins.  36  cases  out  of  41  post- 
mortems.   This  should  be  called  Sctaria  equina. 

Filaria  sp.  : — Asia,  wilsonianus ;  subcutaneous  in  neck  region. 
Coll.  Duce  and  Rusk,  Burnt  Knoll,  det.  Hall.  Reported 
by  Cockerell  (1911). 

Gonoylonema  scutatum: — Bos  taurus;  oesophageal  submu- 
cosa.  Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Denver  abattoir  (origin 
of  cattle  not  ascertained)  and  Colorado  Springs  abattoir 
from  local  dairy  cattle  (3  cases  out  of  4  cows  examined). 

Habronema  muscae: — Musca  domcstica;  body  cavity.  Coll. 
and  det.  Ransom,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs.  Common.  Re- 
ported by  Ransom  (1911).  The  presence  of  the  adult 
worm  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse  may  be  safely  inferred 
from  the  presence  of  the  larva  in  the  fly. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Cou)Rado.  349 

Haemonchus  contortus: — Ovis  aries,  Bos  taurus,  Capra 
hircus  angoricnsis;  fourth  stomach.  Coll.  and  det.  Curtice, 
1886,  Granger  (in  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Collection) 
from  sheep;  Hall  and  Ransom,  191 1,  Resolis  and  Amo; 
Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  abattoir  in  sheep  from 
Resolis,  Amo  and  Fountain  (common),  in  cattle  from 
Colorado  Springs  dairies  and  from  Monument,  and  in  a 
goat  from  Amo  (i  case).  Curtice*s  collections  are  reported 
by  Hall  (1912).  This  parasite,  known  as  the  stomach 
worm  of  sheep,  causes  considerable  loss  to  sheepmen  in  the 
eastern,  southern  and  middle  western  states.  In  the  dry 
plains  of  Colorado,  conditions  are  not  so  favorable  for  its 
development,  and  while  it  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  sheep 
examined  it  nearly  always  occurs  in  such  small  numbers  as* 
to  be  of  little  or  no  economic  importance.  The  greatest 
number  the  writer  has  yet  found  in  a  Colorado  sheep  was 
536  and  this  was  unusually  large.  In  eastern  sheep  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  thousands.  West  of  the  Mississippi, 
the  stomach  worm  is  supplanted  by  the  fringed  tapeworm, 
Thysanosoma  actinioides,  as  a  destructive  parasite  of  prime 
economic  importance. 

Heterakis  papillosa: — Callus  gallus;  ceca.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  (3  cases)  ;  Kaupp,  1908-'! i, 
Fort  Collins  (46  cases  out  of  87  postmortems). 

Heterakis  perspiciixum: — Gallus  gallus;  intestine.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  (2  cases)  ;  Kaupp, 
1908-'! I,  Fort  Collins  (24  cases  out  of  87  postmortems). 

Hookworm  : — Homo  sapiens;  intestine.  An  editorial  in  Colo- 
rado Medicine  for  December,  1909,  says  of  pellagra  and 
uncinariasis  "The  interest  of  Colorado  physicians  in  these 
diseases  is  purely  academic,  no  case  of  either  having  been 
reported  in  this  state''.  It  does  not  follow  from  the  fact 
that  there  have  been  no  reports  of  it  that  hookworm  dis- 
ease has  only  an  academic  interest  for  Colorado  physicians. 
While  conditions  over  much  the  greater  part  of  the  state 
are  unfavorable  to  the  development  and  spread  of  hook- 


350  Colorado  College  Publication. 

worm  disease,  there  are,  nevertheless,  mines  in  this  state, 
and  especially  in  southern  Colorado,  where  the  disease 
might  be  looked  for  with  a  fair  likelihood  of  finding  it. 
Dr.  Stiles  tells  me  that  a  recent  examination  of  some  miners 
in  Colorado  failed  to  show  any  cases,  but  more  investiga- 
tion is  necessary.  Some  of  the  mines  oflfer  satisfactory 
conditons  for  the  development  of  the  hookworm  and  only 
need  the  coming  of  a  carrier  to  introduce  it.  That  such 
carriers  enter  the  state  is  beyond  question.  Dr.  Webb  of 
Colorado  Springs  had  a  hookworm  patient  from  Tennes- 
see during  the  summer  of  191 1.  Diagnosis  was  made  on 
the  basis  of  the  eggs  in  the  feces  and  the  worms  passed 
subsequent  to  the  administration  of  a  dose  of  thymol.  Un- 
fortunately none  of  the  worms  were  saved  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say  whether  it  was  the  hookworm  of  the  Old  or 
New  World.  It  was  probably  the  latter,  Necator  ameri 
canus, 

Mermis  sp: — (Found  on  cabbage;  parasitic  in  insects).  Re- 
ported by  Chittenden  (1905).    See  Spurious  parasites. 

Nematode: — Citellus    elegans;    intestine.       Coll.  Hall,   191 1, 
"from  alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  Warren,  191 1, 
Waldon. 

Nematode : — Citellus  tridecemlineatus  pallidus;  stomach.  Coll. 
Hall,  191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  War- 
ren, 1 9 10,  Colorado  Springs. 

Nematode: — Citellus  /.  pallidus;  small  intestine.  Coll.  Hall, 
191 1,  Amo. 

Nematode: — Citellus  t.  pallidus;  large  and  small  intestine.  Coll. 
Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs. 

Nematode,: — Eleodes  obsoleta;  body  cavity  (encysted).  Coll. 
Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs. 

Nematode: — Taxidea americana.  (So labelled.  Warren  (1910) 
uses  T.  taxus,  as  already  noted.)  Coll.  Curtice  (  ?),  1886, 
Granger  (Falcon).  In  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Col- 
lection. 

Nematode: — Thomomys  fossor;    intestine.      Coll.  Hall,  191 1, 


The  Parasite  Fauna  op  Colorado.  351 

from  alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  Warren,  191 1, 
Livermore. 

Nematodirus  fiucolus  : — Ovis  aries,  Capra  hircus  angorien- 
sis;  intestine.  Coll.  Hall,  191 1,  Amo  (from  sheep),  det. 
Hall  and  Ransom  (common);  coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1, 
Colorado  Springs  abattoir  in  goat  from  Amo  (i  case). 

Nematodirus  sp: — Eutamias  quadrivitattus ;  intestine.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  1911,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected 
by  Warren,  1910,  Crested  Buttes. 

Nematodirus  sp: — Neotoma  cinerea  rupicola;  intestine.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  1911,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected 
by  Warren  and  Durand,  191 1,  Pawnee  Buttes. 

Oesophagostomum  radiatum  : — Bos  taurus;  nodules  in  lower 
part  of  small  intestine.  Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colo- 
rado Springs  abattoir  in  cow  from  Monument,     i  case. 

Oesophagostomum  sp.  : — Macacus  rhesus;  large  intestine. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1911,  Colorado  Springs.  The  monkey, 
one  of  Dr.  Webb's  experiment  animals,  had  been  in  this 
country  i  year  and  had  probably  brought  this  infection  to 
this  country  with  it. 

OsTERTAGiA  BULirOSA : — OiAs  ortes ;  fourth  stomach.  Coll.  and 
det.  Hall  and  Ransom,  191  J,  Resolis  and  Amo;  Hall,  1911, 
Colorado  Springs  abattoir  in  sheep  from  Resolis.  This 
parasite  was  first  collected  by  the  writer  in  sheep  at  Colo- 
rado Springs  and  was  described  as  a  new  species  by  Ran- 
som and  Hall  (1912). 

OsTERTAGiA  ciRCUMCiNCTA : — Ovis  arics ;  fourth  stomach. 
Coll.  Hall,  1911,  Denver  abattoir  (in  sheep  from  Wyom- 
ing and  Utah),  det.  Hall  and  Ransom.  Stomach  contents 
sent  by  Dr.  Busman. 

OSTERTAGIA  MARSHALU : — OtAs  aries;  fourth  stomach.  Coll. 
Hall,  1911,  Denver  abattoir  (in  sheep  from  Wyoming  and 
Utah),  det.  Ransom  and  Hall.  Stomach  contents  sent  by 
Dr.  Busman. 

OSTERTAGIA  occiDENTALis : — OzHs  Qfies;  fourth  stomach.  Coll. 


352  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Hall,  191 1,  Denver  abattoir  (in  sheep  from  Wyoming),  det. 
Hall  and  Ransom.     Stomach  contents  sent  by  Dr.  Busman. 

OsTERTAGiA  osTERTAGi : — Bos  taufus;  fouith  stomach.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  abattoir  in  cow  from 
Monument,     i  case. 

OxYURis  CURVULA : — Equus  caballus;  colon  and  rectum.  Coll. 
and  det.  Kaupp,  i9o8-*ii.  Fort  Collins  (10  cases  out  of  41 
postmortems)  ;  coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1907,  Fort  Collins,  det. 
H.  W.  Graybill;  coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1911,  Colorado 
Springs  (i  case). 

OxYURis  obvelata: — Mus  musculus;  cecum.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs.    Common. 

OxYURis  sp. : — Eutamias  amoenus  operarius;  cecum  and  large 
intestine.  Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Clyde.  3  cases  out  of  4 
postmortems. 

OxYURis  SP. : — Eutamias  quadrivittatus ;  cecum  and  large  intes- 
tine. Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  mate- 
rial collected  by  Warren,  19 10,  Crested  Buttes. 

OxYURis  sp: — Microtus  mordaux;  cecum  and  large  intestine. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1911,  from  alcoholic  host  material  col- 
lected by  Warren,  19 10,  Crested  Buttes. 

OxYURis  SP. : — Neotoma  cinerea  rupicola;  large  intestine.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected 
by  Warren,  191 1,  Pawnee  Buttes.    4  cases. 

OxYURis  sp: — Neotoma  floridana  bailcyi;  large  intestine.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  1911,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected 
by  Warren,  1911,  Cedar  Point. 

OxYURis  vermicularis: — Homo  sapiens,  Fort  Collins.  Det. 
Kaupp,  from  a  specimen  sent  in  by  physician. 

Physaloptera  alata: — Accipiter  velox;  stomach  and  intes- 
tine.   Coll.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1903,  Fort  Collins,  det.  Ransom. 

Physaloptera  torquata: — Taxidea  taxus;  intestine.  Coll. 
Dr.  A.  H.  Dodge,  191 1,  Las  Animas,  det.  Hall.  In  U.  S. 
Naval  Medical  School  Collection. 

RicTULARiA  SP. : — Canis  twbraeensis;  intestine.  Coll.  and  det. 
Hall,  1911,  Amo.     i  case. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  op  Colorado.  353 

ScLEROSTOMUM  HYPosTOMUM.     See  Chabertia  oznna. 

Setaria  equina.    See  Filaria  papulosa. 

Setaria  labiato-papillosa.     See  Filaria  cervina 

Spiroptera  obtusa: — Mus  musculus;  stomach.  Coll.  Hall, 
1911,  Colorado  Springs  (6  cases  out  of  6  postmortems), 
and  Ellis,  191 1,  Boulder  (i  case)  ;  det.  Hall. 

Spiroptera  sp.  : — Citellus  tridecemlifieatus  pailidus;  stomach. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Amo  and  Colorado  Springs. 

Spiroptera  sp.  : — Cyiwmys  ludozncianus;  stomach.  Coll.  and 
det.  Hall,  191 1,  Resolis. 

Spiroptera  sp.  : — Sylvilagus  auduboni  baileyi;  stomach.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Resolis. 

Spiroptera  strongyuna: — Sus  scrofa  domestica;  stomach. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Denver  abattoir  in  hogs  said  to 
be  from  Nebraska. 

Strongyloides  papillosus  : — Ovis  aries;  intestine.  Coll.  Ran- 
som and  Hall,  191 1,  Amo,  det.  Hall. 

Strongylus  armatus.      See  Strongylus  znilgaris. 

Strongylus  edentatus: — Equus  caballus.  Coll.  S.  A.  John- 
son, 1907,  Fort  Collins,  det.  H.  W.  Graybill. 

Strongylus  equinus: — Equus  caballus;  cecum  and  colon. 
Coll.  O'Brine,  1890,  Fort  Collins  (In  Bureau  of  Entomol- 
ogy Collection);  coll.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs,  (i 
case),  det  Ransom. 

Strongylus  vulgaris: — Equus  caballus;  cecum  and  colon. 
Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp,  igoS-'ii,  Fort  Collins  (38  cases  out 
of  41  postmortems,  i  case  in  testis  of  cryptorchid,  1911)  ; 
coll.  Dr.  Whitehouse,  North  Park,  det.  Kaupp  (i  case  in 
testis  of  cryptorchid) ;  coll.  Dr.  Brocker,  Steamboat 
Springs  (i  case  in  testis  of  cryptorchid).  Dr.  Kaupp  re- 
ports that  40  per  cent,  of  the  horses  autopsied  at  Fort  Col- 
lins have  aneurisms  of  the  anterior  mesenteric  artery,  due 
to  larval  strongyles. 

Trichostrongylus  sp: — Ozns  aries;  intestine.  Coll.  Ransom 
and  Hall,  191 1,  Amo,  det.  Hall. 

Trichuris  ovis: — Ozns  aries;  cecum.     Coll.  and   det.   Hall, 


354  Colorado  College  Publication. 

191 1,  Resolis  and  at  Colorado  Springs  abattoir  in  sheep 

from  Resolis. 
Trichuris  sp.  : — Thomomys  fossor;    cecum.      Coll.  and  det. 

Hall,  191 1,  from  alcoholic  host  material  collected  by  War- 
ren, 1910,  Crested  Buttes,  and  191 1,  Livermore. 
Tropidocerca  sp.  : — Bufo  virginianus.     Collected  in  1893.    In 

National  Museum  Collection. 
Toxocara  canis  : — Canis  familiaris;  intestine.     Coll.  and  det. 

Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins. 
Toxocara  sp: — Canis  familiaris;  intestine.    Coll.  and  det.  Hall, 

191 1,  Colorado  Springs.       i  case. 
Toxocara  sp.  : — Felis  domestica;  intestine.     Coll.  Hall,  1904, 

Colorado  Springs,  det.  Hall.     (Specimens  not  preserved. 

Impossible  to  refer  them  to  the  later  genera  Belascaris  and 

Toxascaris,) 

2.  ACANTHACEPHALA, 

EcHiNORHYNCiius  HiRUDiNACEOus : — Sus  scrofa  domestica; 
intestine.  Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp,  i9o8-*ii.  Fort  Collins 
(common) ;  Hall,  191 1,  Denver  abattoir  in  hog  said  to  be 
from  Nebraska  (i  case). 

3.  GORDIACEA, 

Gordius  lineatus: — Host  ( ?).    Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1906,  Little 

Fountain   Creek    (south   of  Colorado   Springs)    and   St. 

Peters. 
Gordius  longareolatxis: — Host  (?).    Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1906, 

St.  Peters. 
Gordius  sp,  :—Uost  (?).     Coll.  W.  A.  Hammond,  1857  (?), 

Western  Colorado,  det.  Leidy.    Reported  by  Leidy  (1857) 

as  collected  525  miles  west  of  Fort  Riley,  Kansas.    This 

would  be  somewhere  in  western  Colorado. 
Gordius  sp,:— Host  ( ?).    Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1906,  St.  Peters. 
Gordius  sp,:— Host  (?).     Coll.    and    det.    Hall,    1906,   Rock 

Creek  (south  of  Colorado  Springs). 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Coix)Rado.  355 

(IV.)    ANNULATA. 
I.  HIRUDTNEA. 

Placobdella  rugosa: — Host  (?).      Coll.  Hall,  1907,  Canon 

City,  det.  J.  Percy  Moore. 
Erpobdella  punctata: — Host  (?).     Coll.  Hall,  1907,  Canon 

City,  det.  J.  Percy  Moore. 

(V.)    ARTHROPODA. 
I.  CRUSTACEA. 

Achtheres  or  Lernaeopoda: — Trout;  mouth  and  gills.  Coll. 
D.  C.  Beaman,  Denver  ( ?).    In  Dr.  Ward's  collection. 

Dr.  Charles  Branch  Wilson  informs  me  that  he  knows 
of  no  parasitic  copepods  from  Colorado,  and  has  no  rec- 
ords of  any  in  MS.  notes  of  G.  G.  Gurley,  Richard  Rath- 
bun,  M.  T.  Thompson  or  Edwin  Linton.  Dr.  Harriet 
Richardson  tells  me  that  she  knows  of  no  parasitic  isopods 
from  Colorado. 

2.  INSECTA, 
(I.)    PLATYPTERA. 

CoLPOCEPHALUM  ASSiMiLE: — Whooping  crane  (Grus  anteri- 
cana,  per  Kellogg  1900)  ;  skin.  Coll.  and  det.  Gillette, 
Lamar.     Reported  by  Osborn  (1896). 

CoLPOCEPHALUM  LATICEPS : — Botaurus  lentiginosus ;  skin. 
Coll.  A.  C.  Stephenson,  Fort  Collins.  Reported  by  Os- 
born (1902). 

DocoPHORUS  DiSTiNCTus : — CoTvus  coTQX  stttuotus;  skin.  Re- 
ported by  Kellogg  (1900). 

DocoPHORUS  siALLii: — Stolia  sialis;  skin.  Kellogg  (1900) 
lists  this  from  "Merriam,  Colo."  and  refers  it  to  Osborn 
(1896).  Osborn,  however,  in  his  description  of  this  new 
species  refers  it  to  "Merriam  Coll.",  presumably  an  abbre- 
viation of  "Merriam  Collection."  There  is  no  record  from 
Colorado,  as  far  as  the  writer  is  aware. 

DocoPHORUS  SP. : — Asio  flammeus;  skin.  Coll.  and  det.  Cock- 
erell,  1910,  Boulder  County. 


356  Colorado  Coulbge  Publication. 

DocoPHORUS  SP. : — Cynomys  ludoz*icianus ;  skin.    Coll.  and  det. 

Hall,  1911,  Natural  Corral,  El  Paso  County.     Insects  of 

this  genus  are  obviously  errant  when  found  on  hosts  other 

than  birds.  The  probable  true  host  of  this  insect  is  Speotyto 
*         cunicularia  hypogaea,  but  the  parasite  is  not  D.  speotyti. 
DocoPHORUS  SPEOTYTI : — Spcotyto  cunicularia  hypogaea;  skin. 

Coll.  C.  F.  Baker,  Fort  Collins ;  described  as  a  new  species 

by  Osborn  (1896). 
LiPEURUS  DOCOPHOROiDES : — Gollus  gdlus ;   skin.     Coll.  Chas. 

Euler,  1907,  Boulder;  det.  Kellogg.     (Data  from  Cocker- 
ell). 
Menopon  biseriatum  : — Gallus  gallus;   skin.     Coll.  and  det. 

Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins  (common). 
Menopon   pallidum  '.' — Gallus  gallus;    skin.      Coll.  and  det. 

Kaupp,  1908-'!  I,  Fort  Collins  (common)  ;  coll.  Cockerell, 

1888,  West  CHflfe. 
Physostomum  hastatum: — Junco  hyemalis   oregonus;   skin 

Coll.  A.  C.  Stephenson,  Fort  Collins.     Described  as  a  new 

species  by  Osborn  (1902). 
Physostomum  sp.  : — Song  sparrow ;    skin.      Coll.  H.  de  W. 

Belts,  1910,  Boulder;  det.  Cockerell. 
Trichc«)ECTes   limbatus: — Capra  hircus  angoriensis;    skin. 

Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  in  goat  from 

Amo.     I  case. 
Trichodectes  mephitidis: — Taxidea  taxus;  skin.    Coll.  J.  A. 

Rowher,  1907,  from  badger  collected  by  Warren  near  Jef- 
ferson; det.  Cockerell. 
Trichodectes  pilosus: — Equus  cahallus;  skin.    Coll.  and  det. 

Kaupp,  1909,  northern  Colorado,     i  case. 
(2.)    HEMIPTERA. 
Acanthi  A  lectularia  : — Homo  sapiens;  skin.     Coll.  and  det. 

Hall,    191 1,  Colorado   Springs.     This  widely  distributed 

parasite,  the  bedbug,  is  getting  increasing  attention  as  the 

carrier  of  diseases. 
Haematopinus  asini: — Equus  caballus;  skin.     Coll.  and  det. 

Kaupp,  191 1,  northern  Colorado,    i  case. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  357 

Haematopinus  mcwtanus: — Western  gray  squirrel;  skin. 
Coll.  Baker,  Fort  Collins;  described  as  a  new  species  by 
Osborn  (1896). 

Haematopinus  pedalis: — Ovis  aries;  skin.  Coll.  and  det. 
Kaupp,  1908-'! I,  Fort  Collins,    i  case. 

Haematopinus  sp.  : — Eutamias  amoenus  operarius;  skin.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Clyde. 

Haematopinus  suis: — Sus  scrofa  domestica;  skin.  Coll.  and 
det.  Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins.    Common. 

Pediculus  capitis: — Homo  sapiens;  in  hair  of  head.  The 
writer  recalls  seeing  this  in  Denver  in  1887  and  knew  of 
several  cases  in  Colorado  Springs  about  1898.  In  the  last 
case,  the  lice  were  spread  among  pupils  at  school,  appar- 
ently by  the  general  use  of  a  comb  kept  in  the  girls'  cloak 
room.  The  individual  comb  is,  of  course,  practically  as 
desirable  as  the  individual  drinking  cup,  and  for  much  the 
same  reasons. 

(3.)    DIPTERA. 

Aedes  curriei: — Host  (?).    Coll.  E.  P.  Taylor,  1906,  Grand 

Junction;    Cockerell,   Florissant;    S.   A.   Rohwer,    1907, 

Florissant ;   det.  Dyar  and  Knab.     Recorded  from  Grand 

Junction  by  Dyar  (1907). 
Aedes  nigromacuus: — Host  (?).    Coll.  H.  L.  Shantz,  1909, 

Akron;    S.  A.  Rohwer,   1907,  Boulder;    det.   Dyar  and 

Knab. 
Aedes  sp.  : — Host  (?).    Coll.  C.  Dwight  Marsh,  1910,  Mount 

Carbon,  det.  Knab. 
Aedes   sylvestris: — Host    (?).     Coll.   E.   P.   Taylor,    1906, 

Grand  Junction ;  Cockerell,  Boulder ;  det.  Dyar  and  Knab. 

See  Ctilex  stitnulans. 
Anopheles  sp.  : — [Homo  sapiens,]     Coll.  G.  P.  Weldon,  191 1, 

Delta  County,  according  to  letter  from  Professor  Gillette. 

This  record  is  very  important.     See  Plasmodium  sp. 
Caluphora    viridescens: — Host     (?).       Coll.    C.    Dwight 

Marsh,  1910,  Mount  Carbon,  det.  Coquillet. 


358  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Calliphora  vomitoria: — Host  (?).  Coll.  C.  Dwight  Marsh, 
1910,  Mount  Carbon,  det.  Coquillet. 

Ceratopogon  cockerellii: — Host  (?).  Coll.  Cockerell,  Cus- 
ter County.  Described  as  a  new  species  by  Coquillett 
(1901). 

Ceratopogon  specularis: — Host  (?).  Described  as  a  new 
species,  partly  on  Colorado  material,  by  Coquillett  (1901). 

Chrysops    carbonarius: — Host    (?).      Recorded    by    Hine 

(1904). 
Chrysops  coloradensis  : — Host    (?).      Recorded    by    Hine 

(1904). 
Chrysops  coquilettii: — Host  (  ?).  Recorded  by  Hine  (1904) 

p.  246.    Apparently  an  error  as  p.  221  specifies  California 

exclusively  and  apparently  correctly. 
Chrysops  discalis: — Host  (?).    Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 
Chrysops  fulvaster: — Host   (?).    Coll.  Titus,   1904,  Delta, 

det.  Coquillet.     A  record  by  Hine  ( 1904)  may  be  based  on 

Titus's  record  in  the  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Chrysops  lupus: — Host  (  ?).    Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 
Chrysops  vittatus  : — Bos  taurus;  skin.  Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp, 

1908-'! I,  in  mountains  around  Fort  Collins.     Common. 
CuLEX  CONSOBRINUS: — Host  (?).     Det.  Coquillet.     Reported 

by  Howard  (1900).    The  correct  name  of  this  species  is 

Culiseta  inornatus  q.  v. 
CuLEX  STiMULANS: — Host  ( ?).    Det.  Coquillet.     Reported  by 

Howard   (1900).      The  correct  name  of  this  species  is 

Aedes  sylvestris,  q.  v. 
CuLEX  TARSALis: — Host  ( ?).    Coll.  S.  A.  Rohwer,  1907,  Flor- 
issant; E.  P.  Taylor,  1906,  Grand  Junction;  E.  S.  Tucker, 

Denver ;  det.  Dyar  and  Knab. 
Culiseta  incidens: — Host  (?).    Coll.  at  Burke;  coll.  E.  P. 

Taylor,  1906,  Plateau  Canon ;  det.  Dyar  and  Knab. 
Culiseta  inornatus: — Host     (?)      Coll.    Cockerell,    1908, 

Boulder,  det.  Dyar;  coll.  S.  A.  Rohwer,  1907,  Florissant; 

E.  S.  Tucker,  Denver:   det.  Dyar  and  Knab.     See  Cidex 

consobrinus. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Coix)rado.  359 

CuusETA  sp.:— Host  (?).  Coll.  C.  Dwight  Marsh,  1910, 
Mount  Carbon,  det.  Knab. 

CuTEREBRA  AMERICANA: — Host  (?).  Adult  fly  coU.  and  det. 
Gillette,  1893  and  1897,  Fort  Collins.  Also  collected  in 
Fort  Collins  in  1909  according  to  letter  from  Professor  Gil- 
lette. 

CuTEREBRA  cuNicuu : — Rabbit;  subcutaneous.  Estes  Park. 
Reported  by'Osbom  (1896). 

CuTEREBRA  LEPivoRA : — Host  (  ?).  Recorded  by  Swenk  (1905). 

CuTEREBRA  LEPUScuu : — Host  (?).  Coll.  O.  G.  Babcock, 
1910,  Fort  Collins,  according  to  letter  from  Professor  Gil- 
lette. 

CuTEREBRA  SP. : — Citelius  tridecemlineatus  pallidus;  subcuta- 
neous.   Coll.  H.  M.  Ragle,  1911,  Golden;  det.  Hall. 

CuTEREBRA  SP. : — Neotomc  fallax  (  ?)  ;  subcutaneous.  Coll. 
Young,  1902,  Boulder,  det.  Hall. 

CuTEREBRA    TENEBROSA : — Host    (?).       Recorded    by    Swenk 

(1905). 

Fly  larvae: — Homo  sapiens;  subcutaneous.  Coll.  Drs.  Wm. 
C.  Mitchell,  H.  B.  Whiting,  and  E.  P.  Hershey.  Mitchell 
(1905)  reported  3  cases  of  fly  larvae  in  man.  Dr.  Whit- 
ing, in  the  discussion  of  the  paper  before  the  Denver 
Academy  of  Medicine,  reported  i  additional  case  and  Dr. 
Hershey  2  additional  cases.  The  abstract  does  not  state 
definitely  that  the  cases  occurred  in  Colorado,  though  the 
presumption  is  that  they  did.  The  nature  of  the  infection 
suggests  that  these  are  additional  cases  of  Paralucilia 
macellaria,  q.  v. 

Gastrophilus  equi: — Equus  caballus;  stomach.  Coll.  D. 
O'Brine,  1890,  Fort  Collins;  coll.  and  det.  E.  G.  Titus, 
1897,  Fort  Collins,  according  to  letter  from  Professor  Gil- 
lette (larva  found  in  stable) ;  Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii.  Fort  Col- 
lins (6  cases  out  of  41  postmortems) ;  Hall,  1911,  Colorado 
Springs  (i  case);  Gillette  has  collected  the  adult  fly  at 
Craig. 

Gastrophilus  haemorrhoidaus  : — Equus  caballus;  stomach. 


360  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp,  1908-'!  i,  Fort  Collins.  35  cases  out 
of  41  postmortems.  Gillette  has  collected  the  adult  fly 
from  unspecified  locality  in  Colorado. 

Gastrophilus  nasalis: — Equus  caballus;  stomach.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  (i  case)  ;  adult  fly 
coll.  and  det.  Gillette,  1902  and  1909,  Fort  Collins,  and 
1903,  Greeley ;  adult  fly  coll.  and  det.  S.  A.  Johnson,  1904, 
Steamboat  Springs,  according  to  letter  from  Professor  Gil- 
lette. 

Haematobia  serrata: — Bos  taunts;  skin.  Coll.  and  det. 
Kaupp,  1908-'!  I,  Fort  Collins.     Common. 

Haematopota  AxMERICana: — Host   (?).     Recorded  by  Hine 

(1904). 

Hypoderma  lineata: — Bos  taunts;  subcutaneous.  Coll.  W. 
L.  Campbell,  1884,  Denver;  coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1901,  Amo 
(i  case)  ;  Kaupp,  1908-'! i.  Fort  Collins  (common).  The 
adult  fly  has  been  collected  at  Siebert,  and  also  by  Craw- 
ford Moore,  1905,  at  Yuma,  according  to  letter  from  Pro- 
fessor Gillette. 

Melophagus  ovinus: — OtHs  aries;  skin.  Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp, 
i9o8-'ii.  Fort  Collins  (common);  Hall,  191 1,  Resolis, 
Amo,  and  Colorado  Springs  abattoir  on  sheep  from  these  2 
places  (common).  This  parasite  commonly  known  as  the 
sheep  tick,  is  cosmopolitan  and  apparently  does  some  little 
damage  here  as  elsewhere. 

Nycteribia  sp.  : — Myotis  evotis;  skin.  Coll.  Warren,  191 1, 
Steamboat  Springs;  det.  Banks. 

Oestrus  ovis  : — Ovis  aries;  nasal  passages  and  frontal  sinuses. 
Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins  (common); 
Hall,  1911,  Resolis,  Amo,  and  Colorado  Springs  abattoir 
in  sheep  from  these  2  places ;  adult  fly  coll.  and  det.  E.  G. 
Titus,  1900,  Fort  Collins,  and  reared  from  grub  by  Gillette, 
1897,  Fort  Collins,  acording  to  letter  from  Professor  Gil- 
lette. In  its  larval  stage  this  parasite  is  known  as  "grub 
in  the  head'*.  It  does  considerable  damage  in  the  United 
States,  including  some  Rocky  Mountain  states,  but  it  has 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  361 

not  been  reported  as  causing  serious  trouble  in  Colorado 
and  the  writer  has  not  yet  found  a  severe  infection  in  this 
state. 

Paralucilia  macellaria: — Homo  sapiens;  nostril,  ear  and 
subcutaneous.  Coll.  R.  W.  Corwin,  1908,  Pueblo  (from 
nostril  of  Italian  woman)  ;  Chauncey  E.  Tennant,  1905, 
Denver  (from  ear  and  subcutaneous  on  the  side  of  neck 
of  a  child)  ;  Gillette,  1905,  Fort  Collins  (from  ear  of  hos- 
pital patient)  :  det.  Coquillet.  This  fly  or  its  larva,  the 
latter  being  commonly  known  as  the  **screw  worm",  is  re- 
ported by  writers  under  a  number  of  scientific  names,  the 
one  g^ven  here  being  the  preferred  one,  according  to  Mr. 
Knab.  Infections  not  infrequently  end  in  the  death  of  the 
host,  though  apparently  none  of  the  Colorado  cases  termi- 
nated fatally,  judging  from  the  data  available  in  these 
records  which  are  in  the  files  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
See  also  cases  of  myiasis  noted  under  "Fly  larvae". 

Pangonia  incisa: — Host  (?).    Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 

Sarcophaga  sp: — Grasshopper.  Coll.  A.  C.  Maxson,  191 1, 
Longmont,  det.  Walton.  Apparently  responsible  for  the 
death  of  many  grasshoppers. 

Sarcophaga  sp: — Host  (?).  Coll.  G.  W.  Martin,  1900, 
Sterling.     In  Bureau  of  Entomology  Collection. 

SiLVius  GiGANTULUs: — Host  (?).    Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 

S11.VIUS  POLUNosus : — Homo  sapiens;  skin.  Coll.  Hall,  191 1, 
Resolis,  det.  Knab.     Also  recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 

SiMUUUM  FULVUM  :-^Host  (?).  Recorded  by  Coquillet 
(1902). 

Stomoxys  calcitrans: — Homo  sapiens;  skin.  Coll.  Hall, 
191 1,  Resolis,  det.  Knab. 

Tabanus  atratus: — Bos  taurus;  skin.  Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp, 
1908-'!  I,  Fort  Collins.    Common. 

Tabanus  centron: — Host  ( ?).     Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 

Tabanus  coffeatus: — Host  ( ?).     Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 

Tabanus  epistalus: — Host  (?).     Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 

Tabanus  insuetus: — Host  (?).     Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 


362  Colorado  Collbce  Publication. 

Tabanus  intensivus: — Host  ( ?).  Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 
Tabanus  lineola  : — Bos  taurus;  skin.     C6\l,  and  det.  Kaupp, 

i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins.     Common.      Recorded    by    Hine 

(1904)  also. 
Tabanus  phaenops: — Host  (?).     Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 
Tabanus  punctifer: — Host  (  ?).     Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 
Tabanus  reinwardtii: — Host  (?).     Coll.  Dr.  F.  H.  Snow, 

Estes  Park  and  Manitou  Park ;  E.  J.  Oslar,  Southwestern 

Colorado.    Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 
Tabanus  rhombicus: — Host  (  ?).    Recorded  by  Hine  (1904). 
Tabanus    septentrionalis  : — Host   (?).       Coll.  C.  Dwight 

Marsh,  1910,  Mount  Carbon,  det.  Coquillet. 
Tabanus  sonomensis: — Host  (?).     Coll.  C.  Dwight  Marsh, 

19 10,  Mount  Carbon,  det.  Coquillet. 
Tanypus  occidentalis  : — Host  (?).     Coll.  Cockerell,  Custer 

County.    Described  as  a  new  species  by  Coquillet  (1902). 
Trichobius  corynorhini  : — Corynorhinus  macrotis  pallescens; 

skin.     Coll.  Cockerell,  Great  Sphinx  Mine.     Described  as 

a  new  species  by  Cockerell  (1910). 

(4.)  SIPHONAPTERA, 

Ceratophyllus  bacchi: — Citellus  tridecemlineatus  pallidus: 
skin.  Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1911,  Amo  and  Natural  Corral, 
El  Paso  County. 

Ceratophyllus  bruneri: — Citellus  tridecemlineatus  (More 
accurately,  C  t.  pallidus)  ;  skin.  Coll.  Baker,  Fort  Collins. 
Described  as  a  new  species,  partly  on  Colorado  material, 
by  Baker  (1895)  under  the  name  of  Pulex  bruneri.  Trans- 
ferred to  the  genus  Ceratophyllus  by  Wagner  (1898). 

Ceratophyllus  coloradensis  : — Sciurus  fremonti;  skin.  Coll. 
Bruner,  Georgetown.  Described  as  a  new  species  by 
Baker  (1895)  under  the  name  of  Pulex  coloradensis. 
Transferred  to  the  genus  Ceratophyllus  by  Wagner, 
(1898). 

Ceratophyllus  divisus: — Sciurus  fremonti;  skin.  Coll. 
Bnmer,   Georgetown.      Described  as   a  new   species  by 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  363 

Baker  (1895)  under  the  name  of  Pulex  longispinus.  This 
name  was  preoccupied,  and  hence  the  species  was  renamed 
by  Baker  (1898)  as  Pulex  divisus.  It  was  subsequently 
transferred  to  the  genus  Ceratophyllus  by  Baker  (1904). 

Ceratophyllus  hirsutus: — Citellus  elegans,  Cynomys  ludo- 
vicianus;  skin.  Coll.  Gillette,  from  prairie-dog.  De- 
scribed as  a  new  species  by  Baker  (1895)  under  the  name 
of  Pulex  hirsutus. .  Transferred  to  the  genus  Ceratophyl- 
lus by  Wagner  (1898).  Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  from 
prairie-dog,  Resolis  and  at  Natural  Corral,  El  Paso 
County;  coll.  Warren,  191 1,  from  picket-pin  gopher,  Wal- 
don,  det.  Hall. 

Ceratophyllus  ignotus: — Geomys  bursarius  (So  listed  by 
Baker.  Warren  ( 1910)  states  that  the  only  Colorado  form 
is  G,  lutescens,),  Thomotnys  talpoides  (So  listed  by  Baker. 
Warren  (1910)  makes  the  Colorado  form  Th,  t.  agrestis.)  ; 
skin.  Coll.  Baker,  Fort  Collins.  Described  as  a  new 
species  by  Baker  (1895)  under  the  name  of  Pulex  ignotus, 
and  later  (Baker,  1895)  as  Typhlopsylla  anuericana. 
Transferred  to  the  genus  Ceratophyllus  by  Wagner 
.(1898). 

Ceratophyllus  lucidus  : — Sciunis  fremonti;  skin.  Coll. 
Baker,  1899,  Pagosa  Peak.  Described  as  a  new  species 
by  Baker  (1904). 

Ceratophyllus  montanus: — Sciurus  aberti,  Citellus  varie- 
gatus  grammurus;  skin.  Coll.  J.  D.  Stannard  on  Abert's 
squirrel,  "Foothills  west  of  Fort  Collins."  According  to 
Mr.  Warren,  the  host  in  this  locality  would  be  5.  aherti 
ferreus.  Described  as  a  new  species  by  Baker  (1895) 
under  the  name  of  Pulex  montanus.  Transferred  to  the 
genus  Ceratophyllus  by  Wagner  (1898).  Coll.  and  det. 
Baker,  Arboles,  on  rock  squirrel ;  coll.  Warren,  1909,  Colo- 
rado Springs,  on  rock  squirrel,  det.  Rothschild. 

Ceratophyllus  sp.  : — Callospermophilus  or  Eutamias  (Speci- 
mens mixed  in  collection  or  in  transit.)  ;  skin.   Coll.  War- 


364  Colorado  College  Publication. 

ren,  1909,  det.  Rothschild.  The  writer  has  found  Cera- 
tophyllus  on  Eutamias  but  not  on    Callospermophilus. 

Ceratophyllus  sp.  : — Citellus  tridecemlineatus  pallidus;  skin. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Colorado  Springs  and  Natural 
Corral,  El  Paso  County. 

Ceratophyllus  spp.  : — Butamias  amoenus  operarius;  skin 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Clyde. 

Ceratophyllus  sp.  : — Marmota  flaznventer;  skin.  Coll.  War- 
ren, 191 1,  Chamber's  Lake,  det.  Hall. 

Ceratophyllus  spp.  : — Xeototnc  cinerea  orolestes;  skin.  Coll. 
Warren,  191 1,  Buffalo  Pass  Sawmill,  det.  Hall. 

Ceratophyllus  sp.  : — Xcotoma  fallax;   skin.     Coll.  Warren, 

1909,  Colorado  Springs,  det.  Rothschild. 
Ceratophyllus  sp.  : — Ochotona  saxatilis;  skin.  Coll.  Warren, 

1910,  Gunnison  County,  det  Hall. 
Ceratophyllus  sp.  : — Putorius  ariaonensis;   skin.   Coll.  War- 
ren, 191 1,  Steamboat  Springs,  det.  Hall. 

Ceratopsyllus  crosbyi: — Myotis  evotis;  skin.  Coll.  War- 
ren, 191 1,  Steamboat  Springs,  det.  Hall. 

Ctenocephalus  inaequalis: — Lepus  sp.;  skin.  Coll.  and  det. 
Baker,  Arboles.     Reported  by  Baker  (1904). 

Ctenocephalus  canis: — Canis  familiaris;  skin.  Coll.  and 
det.  Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii.  Fort  Collins.  This  flea,  commonly 
recorded  under  its  synonym,  Pulex  serraticeps,  is  found 
as  a  parasite  of  man  in  this  country  more  often  than  is 
Pulex  irritans,  the  flea  which  in  Europe  attacks  man  as  its 
primary  host. 

Ctenocephalus  canis  ( ?) : — Host  (?).  Coll.  Cockerel], 
Swift  Creek,  Custer  County,  det.  L.  O.  Howard. 

Ctenopsvllus  alpinus: — Ncotoma  sp.;  skin.  Coll.  Bruner, 
Georgetown.  Described  as  a  new  species  by  Baker 
(1895)  ""<ier  the  name  of  Typhlopsylla  alpina.  Trans- 
ferred to  the  genus  Ctenopsyllus  by  Wagner  (1898). 

HoPLOPSYLLUS  AFFiNis: — Sylvilagus  auduboni  baileyi;  skin. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  1911,  Colorado  Springs. 

HoPLOPSYLLUS  ANOMALUS: — Citcllus  Sp. ;  skift.     Coll.  Baker, 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  365 

1899,  Arboles.      Described  as  a  new    species    by  Baker 

( 1904)  under  the  name  of  Pulex  anomalus.     Transferred 

to  the  genus  Hoplopsyllus  by  Baker  (1905). 
HoPLOPSYLLUS  SP. : — Lepus  campestris;   skin.      Coll.  and  det. 

Hall,  191 1,  Resolis. 
Hoplopsyllus  sp.  : — Sylvilagus  auduboni  bailey i;  skin.     Coll. 

and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Amo. 
Pulex  anomalus.      See  Hoplopsyllus  anomalus. 
Pulex  coloradensis.     See  Ceratophyllus  coloradensis. 
Pulex  divisus.     See  Ceratophyllus  divisus. 
Pulex  hirsutus.     See  Ceratophyllus  hirsutus. 
Pulex  ignotus.    See  Ceratophyllus  ignotus. 
Pulex  longispinus.     See  Ceratophyllus  ditnsus. 
Pulex  montanus.     See  Ceratophyllus  montanus. 
Pulex  sciuri  (  ?).     Host  (  ?).     Coll.  Cockerell,  Short  Creek, 

Custer  County,  det.  L.  O.  Howard. 
Pulex  serraticeps.     See  Ctenocephalus  canis. 
Spilopsyllus  sp.  : — Sylvilagus  auduboni  baileyi;   skin.     Coll. 

and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Resolis  and  Amo. 
Typhlopsylla  alpina.     See  Ctenocephalus  alpinus. 
Typhlopsylla  AMERICANA.      See  Ceratophyllus  ignotus. 

3.  ARACHNIDA. 
.(I.)    ACARINA. 

Ixodes  sp.  : — Homo  sapiens,  Putorius  arizonensis;  skin.     Coll. 

Warren,  191 1,  Steamboat  Springs,  det.  Banks.     Nymphs. 

Occurrence  on  man  by  accidental  transfer. 
Cnemidocoptes   mutans: — Callus  gallus;    skin.      Coll.   and 

det.  Kaupp,  iqoS-'ii,  Fort  Collins.     Occasional.     This  is 

the  cause  of  "scaly  leg'*  in  chickens. 
Demodex  follicui^arum  : — Sus  scrofa  domestica;   follicles  of 

skin.      Coll.  and  det.  Kaupp,   1908-'!  i»  Fort  Collins.      i 

case,  entire  body  involved. 
Dermacentor    americanus: — Homo    sapiens;    neck.      Fort 

Collins.     Recorded  by  Banks  (1895).    This  is  the  species 


366  Colorado  College  Publication. 

which  Banks  now  calls  D.  venustus,  q.  v.,  and  which  Stiles 
calls  D.  andersoni, 

Dermacentor  andersonl    See  Z).  venustus. 

Dermacentor  reticulatus: — Bos  taurus,  Equus  caballus; 
skin.  Det.  Kaupp,  igoS-'ii,  2  cases.  Specimens  sent  in 
from  eastern  Colorado. 

Dermacentor  variabilis: — Host  (?).  Coll.  Cockerell,  191 1, 
Tolland,  det.  Banks. 

Dermacentor  venustus: — Homo  sapiens,  (?)  Neotoma  cin- 
erea  orolestes,  et  al.  Reported  from  man  by  Banks 
(1895)  from  Fort  Collins  under  name  of  D.  atnericanus, 
q.  v.;  by  Banks  (1908)  and  Stiles  (1910)  from  Fort  Col- 
lins and  Boulder;  by  Cockerell  (1911)  from  Boulder 
County;  by  Bishopp  (1911)  from  Colorado;  by  Hunter 
and  Bishopp  (1911)  from  Boulder,  Clear  Creek,  Eagle, 
Garfield,  Gunnison,  Jefferson,  Larimer,  Mesa,  Pitkin  and 
Summit  Counties.  A  Dermacentor  nymph,  probably  of 
this  species  from  Neotoma  c.  orolestes,  coll.  Warren,  1911, 
Log  Cabin,  det.  Banks.  This  tick,  called  by  Stiles  D,  ander- 
soni, is  the  carrier  of  Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever. 

Dermanyssus  gallinae: — G alius  gdlus;  skin.  Coll.  A. 
Cameron,  Fort  Collins.  Recorded  by  Banks  (1895). 
Coll.  F.  G.  Pabor,  1909,  Boulder;  Hall,  191 1,  Resolis: 
det.  Banks. 

Haemaphysalis  chordeilis: — Killdeer;  skin.  A  nymph  col- 
lected at  Fort  Collins  is  reported  by  Banks  (1908)  as 
possibly  belonging  to  this  species. 

Hyletastes.     See  Iphis  sp. 

Iphis  sp.  :— Host  (?).  Coll.  Gillette,  Fort  Collins.  Recorded 
by  Banks  (1895).  According  to  Banks  (1904),  the  cor- 
rect name  of  this  genus  is  Hyletastes. 

Ixodes  angustus  (  ?) : — Ochotona  saxatUis;  skin.  Coll.  War- 
ren, 191 1,  Gunnison  County,  det.  Hall. 

Ixodes  cookei: — **Small  mammals";  skin.  Reported  by 
Banks  (1908)  from  Denver. 

Ixodes  marxi  : — Fox ;  skin.     Reported  from  Denver  by  Banks 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Coi/>rado.  367 

(1908).  The  article  describes  this  as  a  new  species  but 
does  not  give  the  locality  of  the  type  specimens.  The  hosts 
are  said  to  be  red  squirrels  in  the  eastern  United  States. 

Laelaps  sp.  :— Host  (?).  Coll.  Gillette,  Fort  Collins.  Re- 
corded by  Banks  (1895).    - 

Laminosioptes  cysticola: — Callus  gallus;  subcutaneous 
Coll.  E.  Grant,  191 1,  Denver,  det.  Ransom. 

LiPONYSSUS  SP. : — Citellus  tridecemlineatus  paUidus;  skin. 
Coll.  and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Natural  Corral,  El  Paso  County. 

Macrocheles  sp.  : — Aphodius  caloradensis,  Aphodius  znttatus; 
on  thorax.    Coll.  Hall,  191 1,  Amo,  det.  Banks. 

MiCROTROMBiDiUM  ix)CUSTARUM : — (Grasshoppcrs).  Coll.  W. 
P.  Cockerell,  1907,  Boulder,  det.  Banks.  Reported  by 
Cockerell  (1911). 

Ornithodoros  megnini: — Bos  taurus;  ears.  Coll.  Tom 
Swain,  1908,  Paradox,  det.  Hassall;  det.  Kaupp,  1908-'!  i, 
from  specimens  sent  in  from  eastern  Colorado;  reported 
by  Hunter  and  Bishopp  (1911b)  from  southern  Colorado. 

PiGMEOPHORUS  SP. : —  Conthon  chaiories;  on  abdomen  under 
elytra.    Coll.  Hall,  191 1,  Amo,  det.  Banks. 

PsoROPTES  COMMUNIS  Bovis: — Bos  tauTus ;  skin.  All  of  the 
counties  in  eastern  Colorado,  as  far  west  as  the  eastern 
part  of  Weld,  Adams,  Arapahoe,  Elbert,  Lincoln,  El  Paso, 
Pueblo,  Huerfano  and  Las  Animas  Counties,  are  under 
federal  quarantine  for  cattle  scab. 

PsoROPTES  COMMUNIS  ovis : — Ovis  aries,  Ovis  canadensis; 
skin.  A  number  of  the  southern  counties  in  Colorado  are 
still  under  federal  quarantine  for  sheep  scab,  caused  by 
this  parasite.  (See  Map.  fig.  i).  Warren  (1910)  records 
that  75  Mountain  sheep  or  Bighorn  were  found  dead  of 
this  disease  at  one  time  at  the  head  of  Sapinero  Creek, 
having  been  infected  from  bands  of  domestic  sheep. 

PsoROPTES  (  ?)  : — Butatnias  amoenus  operarius;  skin.  Coll. 
and  det.  Hall,  191 1,  Clyde. 

Rhipicephalus  sp.  : — Killdeer  (misprinted  as  Kittdeer).  Coll. 
R.  C.  Stephenson,  Fort  Collins.      Recorded    by    Banks 


368  Colorado  College  Publication. 

(1895).  Later  referred  to  by  Banks  (1908)  as  Haema- 
physalis  chordeilis,  q.  v. 

Sarcoptid  mite: — Eutamias  aftwcnus  operarius;  skin.  Coll. 
Hall,  191 1,  Clyde. 

Trichotarsus  sp.  : — Osmia  leonis.  Coll.  Edna  Baker,  Boul- 
der, det.  Banks.     Reported  by  Cockerell  (1911). 

Trombidium  HOLOSERiCEUM  : — Gallus  gollus ;  skin.  Coll.  and 
det.  Kaupp,  i9o8-'ii,  Fort  Collins.     Very  common. 

Tyroglyphus  sp.  : — Listrochelus  fimhripcs;  under  elytra  and 
on  thorax.    Coll.  Hall,  191 1,  Amo,  det.  Banks. 

(VI.)    SPURIOUS  PARASITES. 

In  the  parasite  collection  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Indus- 
try, there  are  two  specimens  of  spurious  parasites  collected  by 
physicians  in  Denver  and  sent  in  to  the  Bureau  for  identification 
as  parasites.  One  of  these  was  found  to  consist  of  fragments 
of  earthworm  and  the  other  was  an  insect  larva.  The  larva 
was  determined  by  Dr.  Chittenden  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomol- 
ogy as  Tenebrio  obscurus.  Both  specimens  were  said  to  have 
been  collected  in  human  feces.  Probably  their  presence  there 
was  due  to  accident  or  some  hysterical  patients  had  swallowed 
these  things  and  they  had  passed  the  alimentary  canal  without 
digesting.  Chittenden  (1905)  reports  cases  where  the  pres- 
ence of  a  hairworm,  Mermis  sp.,  [or,  perhaps,  Gordius],  found 
in  cabbage  from  some  place  in  Colorado  resulted  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  cabbage,  during  a  scare  over  this  so-called  **cab- 
bage  snake'*.  These  worms  are  parasitic  in  insects  and  their 
occasional  presence  in  man  is  probably  du^  to  swallowing  the 
worms  in  drinking  water.  The  writer  has  collected  from  the 
intestine  of  Macacus  rhesus  the  banana  fibers  which  were  first 
described  by  Stiles  and  Hiassall  (1902)  as  a  spurious  parasite 
of  man. 


III.   COMPENDIUM  OF  THE  PARASITES  LISTED 

IN  THIS  PAPER  ARRANGED  ACCORD- 

ING  TO  THEIR  HOSTS. 

(L)  CHORD  ATA. 
I.    MAMMALIA. 
(I.)  PRIMATES. 

Homo  sapiens: — Acanthia  lechilaria,  Anopheles  sp.,  Ascarts 
lumbricoides,  Cestode,  Cytoryctes  variolae,  Dermacenior 
andersoni  seu  tfenusttis,  Dibothrioc^phdus  lattis,  Echinoc- 
occus  granulosus,  Fly  larvae,  Hookworm,  Ixodes  sp.,  Neu- 
roryctes  hydrophobiae,  Oxyuris  vermicularis,  Paralucilia 
macellaria,  Pediculus  capitis,  Plasmodium  sp.,  Silvius  pol- 
linosus,  Stomoxys  calcitrans,  Taenia  saginata,  Taenia  sp., 
Treponema  pallida. 

Macacus  rhesus: — (Esophagostomum  sp. 

(2.)    CARNIVORA. 
Canis   famiuaris: — Ctenocephahis  cants,  Dipylidium   cani- 

num,  Filaria  immitis,  ( ?)    Multiceps   multiceps,    Neuro- 

ryctes  hydrophobiae.  Taenia  hydatigena,  Taenia  sp.,  Toxo- 

cara  canis,  Toxocara  sp. 
Canis  nebracensis: — Belascaris  sp.,  Rictutaria  sp..  Taenia  sp. 
Canis  occidentalis  : — (  ?)  Neuroryctes  hydrophobiae. 
Feus  domestica: — Belascaris  sp.,  Dipylidium  caninum,   (?) 

Neuroryctes  hydrophobiae.  Taenia  teniaeformis,  Toxocara 

sp. 
Fox : — Ixodes  marxi. 

Lynx  baileyi  : — Belascaris  sp..  Taenia  sp. 
Mephitis  hudsonica.    See  M.  mephitica. 
Mephitis  mephitica  (This  should  be  either  M.  hudsonica  or 

M.  m^somelas  varians.) : — Ascaris  sp.,  Taenia  sp. 
Mephitis  mesomelas  varians.    See  M.  m^epMtica. 
Putorius  arizonensis: — Ceratophyllus  sp.,  Ixodes  sp. 


370  COWRADO  C0I.LEGE  PUBI.ICATU)N. 

Taxidba  AMERICANA.    See  T.  taxus. 

Taxidba  taxus: — Nematode,  Pyhsaloptera  torquata.  Taenia 
sp.,  Trichodectes  mephitidis. 

(3.)    RODENTIA. 

Cai.u)Spermophilus  lateralis  : — Cestode. 

Callospermophilus  sp.  : — Ceratophyllus  sp. 

CiTELLUS  ELEGANS : — CerotopyUlus  hirsutus,  Nematode. 

CiTELLUS  SP. : — Hoplopsyllus  anofnalus, 

CiTELLUS  TRiDECEMLiNEATus  PALLiDUS : — Ccratophyllus  bacchi, 
Ceratophyllus  bruneri,  Ceratophyllus  sp.,  Cestode,  Cutere- 
bra  sp.,  Liponyssus  sp..  Nematode,  Spiroptera  sp. 

CiTELLUS  VARIEGATUS  GRAMMURUS: — Cerotophyllus  montanus. 

Cynomys  ludovicianus  : — Ceratophyllus  hirsutus,  Ceratophyl- 
lus sp.,  Docophorus  sp.,  Hymenolepis  sp.,  Spiroptera  sp. 

Erithizon  epixanthum  : — Taenia  sp. 

EuTAMius  AMOENUS  oPERARius: — Ceratophyllus  spp.,  Haema- 
topinus  sp.,  Oxyuris  sp.,  Psoroptes  (  ?),  Sarcoptid  mite. 

EuTAMiAS  QUADRiviTTATUS : — Nematodirus  sp.,  Oxyuris  sp. 

EvoTOMYS  GAPPERi  GALEi  I — Anoplocephola  sp. 

Geomys  bursarius.    See  G.  lutescens. 

Geomys  lutescena  : — Ceratophyllus  ignotus. 

Lepus  campestris: — Davinea  salmoni,  Hoplopsyllus  sp.. 
Taenia  pisifornUs. 

Lepus  sp.  : — Ctenocephalus  inaequalis,  Multiceps  serialis. 

Lepus  sylvaticus  (This  should  be  Sylvilagus  sp.)    Taenia  sp. 

Lepus  texianus  : — Taenia  sp. 

Marmota  flaviventer: — Ceratophyllus  sp. 

MiCROTUs  MORDAX : — Oxyuris  sp. 

MicROTus  PENNSYLVANicus  MODESTus : — Anoplocephola  sp. 

Mus  MUSCULUS: — Oxyuris  obvelata,  Spiroptera  obtusa. 

Neotoma  cinerea  rupicola: — Cestode,  Nematodirus  sp., 
Oxyuris  sp. 

Neotoma  cinerea  orolestes: — Ceratophyllus  spp..  Derma- 
centor  venustus  (  ?),  Hoplopsyllus  sp. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  371 

Neotoma  fallax  : — Ceratophyllus  sp.,  Cuterebra  sp. 
Neotoma  fw)RIDana  baileyi  : — Cestode,  Oxyuris  sp. 
Neotoma  sp.  : — Ctenopsyllus  alpinus. 
OcHOTONA    SAXATius: — Cerotophyllus    sp.,    Ixodes    angus- 

tus  (?). 
Peromyscus  sp.  : — Anoplocephala  sp. 
Rabbit: — Cestode,  Cuterebra  cuniculi. 
Rock  squirrel.    See  Citellus  variegatus  grammurus. 
Sciurus  aberti.    See  S.  a.  ferreus. 
SciURUS  ABERTI  FERREUS  i—Ceratophyllus  montanus. 
Sciurus  fremonti  : — Ceratophyllus  coloradensis,  Ceratophyllus 

divisus,  Ceratophyllus  lucidus. 
SvLViLAGUs  AUDUBONi  BAiLEYi : — Davifiea  saltnoni,  Hoplop- 

syllus  affinis,  Hoplopsyllus  sp.,  Spilopsyllus  sp.,  Spiroptera 

sp.,  Taenia  pisiformis, 
Sylvilagus  nuttali  PiNETis : — Cittotaenia  mosaica. 
Sylvilagus  sp.  : — Multiceps  serialis. 
Thomomys  fossor: — Cestode,  Chcbertia  sp.,  Nematode,  Tri- 

churls  sp. 
Thomomys  sp.  : — Cestode. 

Thomomys  talpoides  agrestis  : — Ceratophyllus  ignotus. 
Western  gray  squirrel : — Haematopinus  montanus. 

(4.)    UNGULATA. 

Bos  TAURUS: — Chrysops  vittatus,  Cooperia  oncophora,  Cocci- 
dium  oviforme,  Dermacentor  reticulaius,  Bchinococcus 
granulosus,  Fasciola  hepatica,  Fasciola  magna,  Fit  aria  cer- 
vina,  Gongylonema  scutatum,  Haematobia  serrata,  Haem- 
onchus  contortus,  Hypoderma  lineata,  Neuroryctes  hydro- 
phobiae,  CBsophagostomum  radiatum,  Ornithodoros  meg- 
nini,  Osteragia  osteragi,  Psoroptes  communis  bovis,  Sar- 
cocystis  miescheri,  Tabanus  atratus,  Tabanus  lineola. 
Taenia  saginata. 

Capra  hircus  angoriensis: — Haemonchus  contortus,  Nema- 
todirus  aiicollis,  Trichodectes  limbatus. 

Equus  caballus: — Ascaris  equorum,  Cylichnostomum  catina- 


372  Colorado  College  Publication. 

turn,  Cyclichnostomum  sp.,  Cylichnostomutn  tetracanthutn, 
Dcrmacentor  reticulatus,  Filaria  papulosa,  Gastropkilus 
equi,  Gastropkilus  haemorrhoidalis,  Gastropkilus  nasalis, 
Haematopinus  asini,  Xcuroryctes  kydropkobiae,  Oxyuris 
curzmla,  Strongylus  cdcntatus,  Strongylus  equinus,  Strong- 
ylus  vulgaris,  Trichodcctes  pilosus. 

Ovis  ARIES : — Chabertia  oznna,  Haematopinus  pcdalis,  Hacmon- 
chus  contortus,  Melopkagus  oznnus,  Moniezia  expansa, 
Moniezia  trigonophora,  (?)  Multiceps  multiceps,  Xema- 
todirus  HHcollis,  CBstrus  ozis,  Osteriagia  bullosa,  Oster- 
tagia  circumcincta,  Ostcrtagia  tnarshalli,  Ostertagia  occi- 
dentalis,  Psoroptes  communis  ovis,  Sarcocystis  tcnella, 
Strongyloides  papillosus,  Taenia  kydatigena,  Thysanosonta 
actinioides,  Trickostrongylus  sp.,  Trichuris  oz'is. 

Ovis  canadensis: — Psoroptes  communis  ovis. 

Sus  SCROFA  domestica  : — Ascaris  suum,  Demodex  folliculorum, 
Eckinorkynchus  hirudinaceous,  Haematopinus  suis,  Spir- 
optera  strongylina,  Taenia  solium. 

(5.)    CHIROPTERA. 

CoRYNORHiNUS    MACROTis    PALLESCENS: — Trickobtus  coryno- 

rhini. 
Myotis  evotis: — Ceratopsyllus  crosbyi,  Nycteribia  sp. 

2.   AVES. 

Acci PITER  VELox  : — Pkysoloptcra  data. 

Asio  FLAMMEUS: — Docopkorus  sp. 

Asio  wiLSONiANUS: — Filaria  sp. 

BoTAURUS  LENTiGiNosus: — Colpoccpkoium  laticeps. 

Centrocercus  urophasianus: — Cestode,  Rhabdometra  nul- 
licollis. 

CoRvus  CORAX  siNUATus: — Docopkorus  distinctus. 

Cyanocitta  stelleri  diademata: — Cestode. 

Callus  callus: — Choanotaenia  infundibulum,  Cnemidocoptes 
mutans,  Coccidum  tenellum,  Davinea  tetragona,  Der- 
manyssus  gallinae,  Heterakis  papulosa,  Heterakis  perspicil- 
lum,    Laminosioptes    cysticola,    Lipeuris    docophoroides. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Cou)Rado.  373 

Menopon    biseriatum,    Menopon    pallidum,    Trombidium 

holoseriseum. 
Grus  AMERICANA : — Colpocepholum  assimile. 
JuNCO  HYEMAUS  OREGONUS : — Physostomum  hasiatum. 
Killdeer : — Haemaphy sails  chordeilis. 
Meleagris   galu)pavo: — Coccidium   tenellum,    Metroliasthcs 

lucida. 
Myrtle  warbler : — Cestode. 
Red-headed  woodpecker : — Cestode. 
SiAUA  siALis: — Docophofus  siallii,     (Erroneous  record.) 
Song  sparrow: — Physostomum  sp. 

Speotyto  cunicularia  hypogaea: — Docophorus  speotyi. 
Sternella  magna  neglecta  : — Aploparakis  (  ?),  Filaria  attcn- 

uata. 
Whooping  crane.    See  Grus  americana. 
Zenaidura  macrura  carolinensis  : — Cestode. 

3.  RBPTILIA. 
(i.)    OPHIDIA. 

Thamnophis  sp.  : — Haemogregarina  sp. 

4.  AMPHIBIA. 
(I.)    URODBLA. 

Amblystoma  tigrinum: — Proteocephalus  lonnbergi  (?). 
(2.)    ANURA. 

BuFo  virginianus: — Tropidocerca  sp. 

Frog : — Trematode,  Nyctotherus  sp.,  Opalina  sp. 

5.   PISCES. 
Sucker : — Ligula  simplicissima. 
Trout : — Achtheres  or  Lernaeopoda,  Cestode,  Trematode. 

(II.)    ARTHROPODA. 
I.    INSECT  A. 

Aphodius  cou)Radensis  : — Macrocheles  sp, 
Aphodius  vittatus: — Macrocheles  sp. 
Canthon  chau)RTes: — Pigmeophorus  sp.. 


374  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Eleodes  hispilabris: — Styloceph€dus  giganteus. 

Eleodes  obsoleta  : — Nematode. 

Eleodes  sp.  : — Stylocephalus  giganteus. 

Grasshopper: — Microtrombidium  locustarum,  Sarcophaga  sp.. 

Melanoplus  coloradensis  : — Hirmocystis  rigida. 

LiSTROCHELUS  FiMBRiPES: — Tyroglyphus  sp. 

Melanoplus  sp  : — Hirmocystis  rigida. 

Melophagus  oyinus: — Critkidia  melophagi. 

Mountain  cricket : — Gregarine. 

MuscA  domestica: — Habronema  muscae. 

OsMiA  LEONis : — Trichotarsus  sp. 

Platystethus  americanus: — Greg^ine. 

(III.)    ANNULATA. 
Earthworm : — Monocystis  sp. 

(IV.)  HOSTS  NOT  GIVEN. 
Aedes  curriei,  Aedes  nigromaculis,  Aedes  sp.,  Aedes 
sylvestris,  Calliphora  viridcscens,  CalHphora  vomitoria,  Cerato- 
pogon  cockerellii,  Ceratopogon  specularis,  Chrysops  carbon- 
arius,  Chrysops  coloradensis,  (  ?)  Chrysops  coquilettii,  Chrysops 
discalis,  Chrysops  fulvaster,  Chrysops  lupus,  Colpocephalum 
laticeps,  Ctenocephalus  canis  ( ?),  Culex  tarsalis,  Culiseta  inci- 
dcns,  Culiseta  inornatus,  Culiseta  sp.,  Cuterebra  americana, 
Cuterebra  lepivora,  Cuterebra  lepusculi,  Cuterebra  tenebrosa, 
Derntacentor  variabilis,  Erpobdclla  punctata,  Gordius  lineatus, 
Gordius  longareolatus,  Gordius  spp.,  Haematopota  atnericana, 
I  phis  sp.,  Ixodes  cookei,  Laelaps  sp.,  Mermis  sp.,  Pangonia  in- 
cisa,  Placobdella  rugosa,  Pulex  sciuri  (?),  Sarcophaga  sp., 
SUvius  gigantulus,  Simulium  fuh^um,  Tabanus  centron,  Ta- 
bonus  coffeatus,  Tabanus  epistalus,  Tabanus  insuetus,  Tabanus 
intensizms,  Tabanus  phaenops,  Tabanus  punctifer,  Tabanus 
reimvardtii,  Tabanus  rhontbicus,  Tabanus  septentrionalis,  Ta- 
banus sonomensis,  Tanypus  occidentalis. 


IV.    SUMMARY. 

In  this  summary  the  word  identified  is  used  to  indicate 
that  at  least  a  generic  indentification  has  been  given.  The  fore- 
going list  of  Colorado  parasites  includes  15  identified  and  2  un- 
identified protozoan  forms,  2  identified  and  2  unidentified  trem- 
atoda,  34  identified  and  13  unidentified  cestoda,  67  identified 
and  8  unidentified  nemathelminthes,  2  identified  annelida,  i  un- 
identified crustacean,  15  identified  platyptera,  7  identified  hem- 
iptera,  59  identified  and  i  unidentified  diptera,,  27  identified 
siphonaptera,  and  27  identified  arachnida ;  a  total  of  250  identi- 
fied and  27  unidentified  parasites,  or  281  altogether.  These  are 
recorded  from  two  species  of  primates,  9  carnivores,  37  rodents, 
6  ungulates,  and  2  bats  (a  total  of  56  mammalian  hosts)  ;  from 
19  birds  (one  of  the  bird  records  is  an  error)  ;  from  i  reptile; 
from  3  amphibians ;  from  2  fish  (the  total  vertebrate  hosts  being 
81);  from  15  insects;  and  from  i  annelid  (the  total  inverte- 
brate hosts  being  16).  The  total  vertebrate  and  invertebrate 
hosts  is  97.  Including  counties  quarantined  for  sheep  and 
cattle  scab,  parasites  are  recorded  from  117  localities  in  55 
counties.  There  are  no  records  from  7  counties.  Of  a  total  of 
310  records  of  all  parasites  from  all  places,  exclusive  of  scab  in 
sheep,  about  one-third  of  the  records  are  from  Colorado 
Springs  and  Fort  Collins,  due  to  the  fact  that  Dr.  Ransom  and 
the  writer  have  been  collecting  at  Colorado  Springs,  and  Dr. 
Kaupp  at  Fort  Collins. 

The  following  parasitic  species  were  described  from  Colo- 
rado: Fasciola  carnosa  seu  aniericana  Hassall,  1892  (Found  to 
be  identical  with  F.  magna;  collected  in  abattoir  inspection  and 
has  no  place  as  an  established  parasite  in  this  state)  ;  Citto taenia 
mosttica  Hall,  1908;  Ostertagia  bullosa  Ransom  and  Hall,  191 2; 
Rhabdometra  nullicollis  Ransom,  1909;  Docophorus  speotyti 
Osborn,  1896;  Physostomum  hastatum  Osborn,  1902;  Haema- 
topinus  tnontanus  Osborn,  1896;  Ceratopogon  cockerellii  Co- 
quillet,  1901 ;  Ceratopogon  specularis  Coquillet,  1901 ;  Tanypus 


376  Colorado  College  Publication. 

occidentalis  Coquillet,  igo2  ;Trichobius  corynorhini  Cockerell, 
1910;  Ceratophyllus  coloradensis  (Baker,  1895) ;  Ceratophyllus 
divisus  (Baker,  1895)  J  Ceratophyllus  hirsutus  (Baker,  1895)  ; 
Ceratophyllus  ignotus  (Baker,  1895);  Ceratophyllus  lucidus 
Baker,  1904;  Ceratophyllus  montanus  (Baker,  1895) ;  Ctenop- 
syllus  alpinus  (Baker,  1895)  ;  and  Hoplopsyllus  anotnalus  (Ba- 
ker, 1904). 

The  cooperation  of  zoologists,  physicians,  and  veterinarians 
in  enlarging  this  record  will  be  appreciated.  Parasites  may  be 
sent  for  identification  to  the  Zoological  Division  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  or  records  sent  to  the  writer  will  be  in- 
cluded in  a  subsequent  paper  if  the  number  received  warrants  it. 

A  valuable  host  reference  will  be  found  either  in  the  work 
of  Warren  (1910)  or  Cary  (1911). 


V.    BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Baker,  Carl  F. 

1895  . Preliminary  studies  in  Siphonaptera  <Canad. 

Entom.,  Lond.  [Ont],  v.  27  (i).  Jan.,  pp.  19-22;  (3), 

Mar.,  pp.  63-67;   (4),  Apr.,  pp.  108-112;   (5),  May,  pp. 

130-132;  (6),  June,  pp.  162-164;  (7),  July,  pp.  186-191 ; 

(8),  Aug.,  pp.  221-222. 

1904  . A  revision  of  American  Siphonaptera,  or  fleas, 

together  with  a  complete  list  and  bibliography  of  the 
group  <Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.  (1361),  v.  27, 
pp.  365-469,  pis.  10-26. 

1905  . The  classification  of  the  American  Siphonap- 
tera, pp.  121-170.    8°.  Washington. 

1906  . Idem.  <Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.  (1417), 

V.  29,  pp.  121-170. 

Banks,  Nathan. 

1895  . The  arachnida  of  Colorado.    [Paper  read  Mar. 

25]  <Ann.  N.  York  Acad.  Sc,  v.  8  (6-12).  Nov.,  pp. 

417-434. 
1904  . — A  treatise  on  the  Acarina  or  mites  <Proc.  U.  S. 

Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.,  v.  28,  pp.  1-114,  figs.  1-201. 
1904            . — Idem.  Reprint.  8°.  Washington. 
1908  . A  revision  of  the  Ixodoidea,  or  ticks,  of  the 

United  States  <Bull.  Tech.  ser.  (15),  Bureau  Entom., 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash.,  June  6,  61  pp.,  pis.  i-io. 

Bishopp,  F.  C. 

191 1  . The  distribution  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  spot- 

ted-fever tick.  (Dermacentor  venustus  Banks)  < Cir- 
cular 136,  Bureau  Entom.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash., 
Mar.  31,  pp.  1-4,  fig.  I. 

Cary,  Merritt. 

191 1  . North  American  fauna  No.  33.     A  biological 

survey  of  Colorado.  256  pp.  39  figs,  i  map  8°.  Wash- 
ington.    [Pub.  Aug.  17.] 


378  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Chittenden,  F.  H. 

1905  . ^The  cabbage  hair-worm  <  Circular  62,  Bureau 

Entom.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash.,  pp.  1-6,  fig.  i.  [Is- 
sued May  17.] 

Cockerell,  T.  D.  A. 

191 1  . The    fauna    of    Boulder    County,    Colorado 

<Univ.  Colorado  Studies,  Boulder,  v.  8  (4),  June,  pp. 

227-256,  figs.  1-5. 

Coquillet,  D.  W. 

1901  . — New  diptera  in  the  U.  S.  National  Museum 
<Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.  (1225),  v.  23,  pp.  593- 
618. 

1902  . New  diptera  from  North  America,  pp.  83-126. 

8^  Wash. 

1903  . Idem.  <Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.  (1280), 

V.  25,  pp.  83-126. 

Crawley,  Howard. 

1907  . The  polycystid  g^egarines  of  the  United  States 

(third  contribution)   <Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc,  Phila.,  v. 

59,  part  2,  Apr.-Sept.,  pp.  220-228,  pi.  18,  figs.  1-13. 

Curtice,  Cooper. 

1889  • Tape- worm  disease  of  sheep  of  the  western 

plains  <4th  and  5th  Ann.  Rep.,  Bureau  Animal  Indust.. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash.  (1887-88),  pp.  167-186,  pis. 
1-2,  figs.  1-15. 

1890  . The  animal  parasites  of  sheep.     222  pp.,  36 

pis.  8"*.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.)  Washington. 

1892  . Parasites.     Being  a  list  of  those  infesting  the 

domesticated  animals  and  man  in  the  United  States  <J. 

Comp.  M.  &  Vet.  Arch.,  N.  Y.,  v.  13  (4),  Apr.,  pp.  223- 

236. 
Dock,  George. 
1898  . Intestinal    parasites.      <Am.    System    Pract. 

Med.  (Loomis  &  Thompson),  N.  Y.  and  Phila.,  v.  3,  pp. 

315-349- 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  379 

Dyar,  Harrison  G. 

1907  . Report  on  the  mosquitoes  of  the  coast  region 

of  California,  with  descriptions  of  new  species  <Proc. 

U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.  (1516),  v.  32,  pp.  121-129. 

Ellis,  Max  M. 

191 2  . A  new  species  of  polycystic!  gregarine  from 

the  United  States  <Zool.  Anz.,  Leipz.,  v.  39  (i),  3. 

Jan.,  pp.  25-27,  figs.  1-2. 
1912  . Idem.  Reprint.  8°.     [Leipzig.] 

Garwood,  [Dr.] 

1907  . [Epidemic  of  typhoid    fever.]       [Secretary's 

abstract  of  paper  read  before  Boulder  County  Med.  Soc, 

Aug.  i]     < Colorado  Med.,  Denver,  v.  4  (8),  Aug.,  pp. 

363- 
Glover,  George  H.;  &  Kaupp,  B.  F.  [Drs.] 
1910  . Rabies    <Bull.   162  Colorado  Agric.  Exper. 

Station,  Fort  Collins,  July,  pp.  1-8,  figs.  1-4. 

Hall,  [Dr.] 

1905  . —  [Report  on  the  case  of  tapeworm.]     [Secretary's 

abstract  of  paper  read  before  Denver  Clin.  —  Path.  Soc] 
<Colorado  Med.,  Denver,  v.  2  (5),  May,  p.  146. 

Hall,  Maurice  C. 

1907  . A  study  of  some  gregarines  with  especial  ref- 
erence to  HirmocysHs  rigida,  n.  sp.  <  Studies  Zool.  Lab., 
Univ.  Neb.,  Lincoln  {77),  June  8,  26  pp.,  i  pi.,  figs.  1-21. 

1908  . A   new    rabbit   cestode,    Cittotaenia   mosaica 

<Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.  (1629),  v.  34,  pp.  691- 
699,  figs.  1-6. 

19 10  . The  gid  parasite  and  allied  species  of  the  ces- 

tode genus  Multiceps.  i.  Historical  review  <^Bull.  125, 
pt.  I,  Bureau  Animal  Indust.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Oct. 
10,  pp.  1-68,  fig.  I. 

1 91 2  . Our  present  knowledge  of  the  distribution  and 

importance  of  some  parasitic  diseases  of  sheep  and  cat- 


380  Colorado  College  Publication. 

tie  <27  Ann.  Rep.  Bureau  Animal  Indust.  (1910),  pp. 
419-463,  figs.  45-62,  pis.  35-36. 

1912  . Idem.  <Circular  193,  Bureau  Animal  Indust., 

Dept.  Agric,  Wash.,  pp.  419-463,  figs.  45-62,  pis.  35-36. 

Hassall,  Albert. 

1891a  . A  new  species  of  trematode  infesting  cattle 

<Am.  Vet.  Rev.,  N.  Y.,  v.  15,  July,  pp.  208-209,  i  fig. 
1891b  . Fasciola    americana     (Hassall,    July,    1891) 

<Am.  Vet.  Rev.,  v.  15,  Sept.,  p.  359. 

Hillkowitz,  Philip. 

[1904]         . Case  of  echinococcus.     [Notice  of  paper  read 

before    Med.   Soc.  of    Denver,   Sept.   20]    <  Colorado 

Med.,  Denver,  v.  i  (12)  Oct.,  p.  368. 

Hine,  James  S. 

1904.  The  tabanidae  of  western  United  States  and 

Canada  <Ohio  Naturalist,  Columbus,  v.  5   (2),  Dec. 

pp.  217-248. 

Howard,  L.  O. 

1900  . Notes  on  the  mosquitoes  of  the  United  States, 

giving  some  account  of  their  structure  and  biology,  with 
remarks  on  remedies  <Bull.  25,  n.  s.,  Div.  Entom.,  U. 
S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash.,  70  pp.,  22  figs. 

Hunter,  W.  D. ;  &  Bishopp,  F.  C. 

1911a  . The  Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever  tick.  With 

special  reference  to  the  problem  of  its  control  in  the  Bit- 
ter Root  Valley  in  Montana  <Bull.  105,  Bureau  Entom., 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash.,  pp.  1-47,  figs.  1-3,  tables  1-6, 
pis.  1-3.     [Issued  Nov.  17.] 

1911b  . Some   of   the   more   important   ticks   of   the 

United  States  <  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash. 
(1910),  pp.  219-230,  pis.  15-16,  figs. 

Kaupp,  B.  F. 

1911  . Entero-hepatitis  '(Amoebiasis)     <Am.    Vet. 

Rev.,  N.  Y.,  V.  39  (4),  July,  pp.  410-416,  figs.  1-5. 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  381 

Kellogg,  Vernon  L. 

1900  . A  list  of  the  biting  lice  (MalloiAaga)  taken 

from  birds  and  mammals  of  North  America  <Proc.  U. 

S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.  (1183),  v.  22,  pp.  39-100. 

Leidy,  Joseph. 

1857  . [Gordius  and  CBstrus,]     [Secretary's  abstract] 

<Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Phila.  [v.  9,  2.  s.,  v.  i],    Dec., 

p.  204. 

Matthews,  B.  F.  [Dr.] 

1909  . Disguised  malaria.     [Secretary's  abstract  of 

paper  read  before  Med.  Soc.,  City  &  County  of  Denver, 

Oct  5]  < Colorado  Med.,  Denver,  v.  6  (11),  Nov.,  pp. 

451-452. 
McEachran,  William  [Veterinarian] 
1888  Report   of  the   veterinarian    <i.    Ann.    Rep. 

Agric.  Exper.  Station,  State  Agric.  Coll.  Colorado,  pp. 
223-226. 

Mitchell,  Wm.  C.  [Dr.] 

1905  . Infection  with  fly  larvae.     [Abstract  of  paper 

read  before  Denver  Acad.  Med.,  Feb.  24]  <  Colorado 
Med.,  Denver,  v.  2  (4),  Apr.,  p.  118;  discussion  pp. 
1 18- 1 19. 

Osbom,  Herbert. 

1896  .' Insects  aflfecting  domestic  animals:     An  ac- 

count of  the  species  of  importance  in  North  America, 
with  mention  of  related  forms  occurring  on  other  ani- 
mals <Bull.  5,  n.  s.,  Div.  Entom.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric, 
Wash.,  302  pp.,  170  figs.,  pis.  1-5. 

1902  .  . Mallophagan     records     and     descriptions 

<Ohio  Naturalist,  Columbus,  v.  2  (4),  Feb.,  pp.  201- 
204,  pi.  14,  figs.  1-4. 

Perkins,  James  M.  [M.  D.,  Denver,  Colo.] 

191 1  . Report  of  a  few  odd  things  found  at  opera- 


382  Colorado  College  PrBLicwTioN. 

tions.  Case  2  <  Denver  M.  Times  &  Utah  M.  J.  (353), 
V.  30  (12),  June,  p.  463,  2  figs. 

Pfender,  Charles  A.  [M.  D.,  Wash.,  D.  C] 

1910  . A  brief  discussion  of  the  economic  importance 

of  the  most  common  adult  cestodes  of  man  in  the  United 
States  (Taenia  saginata,  Dibothriocephaius  latus,  Hy- 
menolepis  natw,  and  Taenia  solium ) ;  with  report  of 
two  cases  <Texas  M.  J.,  Austin,  v.  25  (8),  Feb.,  pp. 
293-308. 

Ransom,  Brayton  Howard. 

1909  . The    taenioid    cestodes    of    North    American 

birds  <Bull.  69,  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Wash.,  Dec.  31,  pp. 
1-141,  figs.  1-42. 

191 1  . The    life    history  of    a    parasitic    nematode- 

Habronema  mtiscae  <Science,  X.  Y..  n.  s.  (881),  v.  34, 
Nov.  17,  pp.  690-692. 

Ransom,  Brayton  Howard ;  &  Hall,  Maurice  C. 

1912  . A  new  nematode,  Ostertagia  bullosa,  parasitic 

in  the  alimentary  tract  of  sheep.  <Proc.  U.  S.  Nat. 
Mus.,  Wash.  (1892),  V.  42,  pp.  175-179,  figs.  1-4. 

[Stewart,  Henry] 

1900        .    Sheep  are  infected  by  rabbits.  [Reply  to  query] 

<Am.  Sheep  Breeder,  Chicago,  o.  s.  v.  20  (9),  n.  s.,  v. 

17  (9),  p.  438. 
Stiles,  Ch.  Warden. 

1910  . The    taxonomic    value    of    the    miscroscopic 

structure  of  the  stigmal  plates  in  the  tick  genus  Dentta- 
ccntor  <Bull.  62,  Hyg.  Lab.,  U.  S.  Pub.  Health  &  Mar.- 
Hosp.  Serv.,  Wash.,  72  pp..  pis.  1-43,  figs.  1-134. 

Stiles,  Ch.  Warden :  &  Hassan,  Albert. 

1893  • ^  revision    of    the    adult    cestodes  of    cattle, 

sheep,  and  allied  animals  <Bull.  4,  Bureau  Animal  In- 
dust.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  Wash.,  134  pp..  pis.  1-16. 

1894  . A  preliminary  catalogue  of  the  parasites  con- 


The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.  383 

tained  in  the  collections  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  United  States  Army  Medical  Museum, 
Biological  Department  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania (Coll.  Leidy)  and  in  Coll.  Stiles  and  Coll.  Hassall 
<Vet.  Mag.,  Phila.,  v.  1  (4),  Apr.,  pp.  245-253;  (5), 
May,  pp.  331-354. 

1902  . Spurious  parasitism  due  to  partially  digested 

bananas.  {In  Eleven  miscellaneous  papers  on  animal 
parasites)  <Bull.  35,  Bureau  Animal  Indust.,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agric,  Wash.,  pp.  56-57,  figs.  37-38. 

Swenk,  Myron  H.  [Lincoln,  Neb.] 

1905  . Class  I,  Hexapoda.    Order  iv.,  Diptera.    The 

North  American  species  of  Cutercbra  <J.  N.  York  En- 
tom.  Soc,  N.  Y.,  V.  13  (4),  Dec,  pp.  181-185. 

Trask,  John  W.  [Asst.  Surg.-Genl.] 

191 1  . Small  pox  in  the  United   States^prevalence 

and  geographic  distribution  during  the  calendar  year 

1910  <Pub.  Health  Rep.,  Wash.,  v.  26  (25),  June  23, 

pp.  943-953»  2  maps. 
Van  Meter,  S.  D.  [M.  D.,  Denver] 
1892  . The  Filaria  imitis.    <Tr.  Colorado  State  Med. 

Soc,  June,  pp.  288-292. 

Wagner,  Julius  Nikolavich. 

1898  . Aphanopterologische  Studien.     3.     Ueber  die 

Gattung  Pitlcx  und  Beschreibung  neuer  Arten  der  Gat- 
tung  Ceratophyllus,  Ctenopsylla,  Ccratopysylla,  und 
Typhlopsylla  <Trudy  russk.  entom.  Obsh.  (1896-97),  v. 
3I'  pp.  555-594,  pis.  8-10,  figs.  1-30. 


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Editor-in-Chief        •        •        -        -        -    WiixiAk  F.  Swctm,  UU  D. 
Managing  Editor        -        -         -        -        -     Fwrian  Ca jori.  Ph.  D. 


'  E.  C.  Hiixs*  Fh.  D.,  Lnrtr.  D. 
Asioeiaie  Editors  A  B.  C.  Schnbidse.  Ph.D. 

lO.  M.  UowK,  Ph.D.,  Secretary, 


SCIENCE  SERIES. 

Hot.  1-tf  Science  Series*  1-4  Social  Science  Series  and  1-14  Laniruate  Seriet,  have  ftiypeared  in 
Cotttrad^  CoiUgM  JPrn^tkaiiam,  Vols.  MO  inclusive.  Nob.  M7  Science  Series.  1-3  Social  Science  Series 
and  1-9  Language  Series*  are  out  of  print. 

SCI£W:E  S£IUES-VoL  xb. 

No.  I.  The  Myxomycctes  of  Colorado.— fF.  C.  Sturgis. 
"  2.  Stellar  Variability  and  Its  Causes.— F.  //.  Loud. 
"     3»    On  the  Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations*  by  Eriand  Samuel 

Bring  (1786. — Translated  and  annotated  by  Florian  Cajori. 
**     4.    A  CiMnparison  of  Tempcratiures  (1906)  Between  Colorado  Springs 

and  Lake  Moraine.*— F.  H,  Loud. 
"     5.    Meteorological  Statistics  for  1907.—:/^.  H.  toud, 
"     6.    The  Distribution  of  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region. — 

£.  C.  Schneider. 
"     7.    A  History  of  the  Arithmetical  Methods  of  Approximation  to  the 

Roots  of  Niunerical  Equations  of  One  Unknown  Quantity. — 

florian  Cajori. 
"     8.    The  Succession  of  Plant  Life  on  the  Gravel  Slides  in  the  Vicinity 

of  Pike's    Peak. — Edward  C.  Schneider. 
"     9.    The  History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy.— fiJwarrf  R.  Warren. 
"  10.    The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado. — Maurice  C.  Hall, 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE  SERlES-rVoL  fL 

No.    I.    The  Cripple  Creek  Strike,  1893-4.— B.  M.  Rastatl. 
^'     2.    Tributes  to  the  Late  General  William  J.  Pahner  from  his  Fellow 
Citizens  in  Colorado  Springs.— Edited  %  Af  ary  G.  Slocum. 
.    "     3i    The  Nation's  Guarantee  of  Personal  Rights.-r-Pr^^'rf^n/  W,  p. 
Slocum. 


KAR^ARD  CCLUCr  liS.tAfY 

C«KOr  IKl 

*^ACUAU  gCHCOl  Cf  EOVCATm 

tSSU  iNSriTUTE  COLUCTIM 

MV.  7.  Ittt 


A  Guide  to  the  Botanical  Literature 

OF  THE  MyXOMYCETES  FROM  1875  TO  1912 
By  William  C.  Sturgis.  Ph.  D. 


A  GUIDE  TO  THE  BOTANICAL  LITERATURE  OF 
THE  MYXOMYGETES  FROM  1875  TO  1912. 


By  William  C.  Sturgis,  Ph.  D. 


The  following  compilation  has  arisen  out  of  the  writer's 
necessities  in  a  study  of  the  Myxomycetes  extending  over  the  past 
twenty  years.  The  literature  of  this  subject  is  so  varied  in  char- 
acter and  is  included  in  publications  often  of  so  limited  a  circula- 
tion, that  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  for  the  student  to  ascertain 
what  work  has  been  done  along  a  specific  line  of  research  unless  he 
has  himself  followed  and  recorded  the  literature  as  it  appeared  or 
h^s  access  to  some  very  complete  technical  library.  Even  so. 
the  task  of  searching  out  the  desired  material,  especially  if  it  be 
a  specific  subject  rather  than  an  author  which  is  sought  for,  is  not 
only  laborious  but  too  often  fruitless. 

The  present  writer  has  been  fortunate  in  the  possession,  for 
many  years,  of  a  fairly  good  library,  and  recently  in  the  opportun- 
ity of  examining  the  exceptionally  complete  library  of  Professor 
W.  G.  Farlow  of  Harvard  University.  It  has  therefore  been  pos- 
sible to  compile  a  bibliography  which  is  believed  to  include  a 
majority  of  the  botanical  titles  issued  since  the  date  of  Rostafinski's 
Monograph. 

A  few  words  of  explanation  regarding  the  form  which  this 
compilation  has  finally  taken  may  serve  to  render  it  more  readily 
available. 

Inasmuch  as  Rostafinski's  Monograph  contains  a  bibliography,, 
the  date  of  its  publication  has  been  taken  as  a  starting-point.  No 
titles  previous  to  1876  are  therefore  included  in  the  following  list 
except  such  as  are  omitted  in  Rostafinski's  bibliography.  It  has 
been  thought  advisable  however,  to  cross-refer  many  of  the  titles 
listed  by  that  author  under  the  appropriate  subject-title.  In  such 
cases  the  fact  is  indicated  by  the  bracketed  letter  R  following  the 
citation. 

Whenever  articles  cited  have  been  reviewed  in  current 
journals,  such  reviews  are  also  cited,  the  references  thereto  being 


386  Colorado  College  Publication. 

enclosed  in  brackets.  In  many  instances  it  has  been  possible  to 
add  also  a  brief  note  referring  to  the  article  in  question. 

It  has  proved  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  select  suitable 
subject-headings  and  the  references  under  such  headings.  To  have 
adopted  a  complete  cross-reference  system  including  all  of  the 
leading  words  in  the  titles  cited  as  well  as  precise  references  to 
monographs  and  works  of  a  general  character  wherein  the  various 
subjects  are  treated,  would  manifestly  have  extended  the  work 
beyond  all  reasonable  bounds.  The  plan  adopted  will,  it  is  hoped, 
enable  the  student  to  obtain  at  least  a  clue  to  what  has  been  done 
along  the  line  which  he  desires  to  pursue.  The  compiler  has  also 
confined  himself  fairly  closely  to  citations  from  botanical  authors 
only.  Undoubtedly  therefore,  much  valuable  material  has  been 
omitted  especially  in  the  fields  of  physiology  and  cytology. 

The  rules  of  citation  adopted  by  the  Madison  Botanical  Con- 
gress have  been  followed  in  a  general  way,  but  no  rules  can  cover 
all  cases. 

In  order  to  distinguish  readily  between  subject-headings  and 
citations  of  authors,  the  former  are  printed  in  heavy-face  type. 
In  order  to  save  space,  the  citations  under  subject-headings  are 
greatly  abbreviated;  by  referring  however,  to  the  corresponding 
author-heading,  the  citation  will  be  found  in  a  more  complete 
form. 

In  conclusion  the  compiler  desires  to  express  his  indebtedness 
to  Professor  W.  G.  Farlow  of  Harvard  University  for  invaluable 
assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  bibliography,  not  only  in 
permitting  the  free  use  of  his  library  but  also  in  the  labor  of 
verifying  many  of  the  references. 


BIBI.IOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MyXOMYCETES.  387 

Adanson,  M.    Families  de  Plantes.     2  vol.  Paris.  1763. 
Aethalium.    See  Fuligo. 

Affinities     (See    also   Classification.)      DeBary,    Die    Mycetozoen. 

1864.     (R).— Roze,  Bull,  Soc.  Bot.  1873.  (R).— DeBary,  Comp. 

Morph.     1887. — Olive,     Proc.     Ind.     Acad.     Sc.     1899. — Rosen, 

Jahresb.  Schles.  Ges.  1901. — ^Jaczewski,  Mykol.  Fl.  1907. 

Africa,    East      Hennings,    Engler    Bot.    Jahr'b.    1904,    1906. — Eichel- 

baum,  Verb.  Nat.  Ver.  Hamburg.  1906. 
Africa,  South     Kalchbrenner,  Grevillea.     1882. 
Alabama    Earle,  Contribs.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  1901. 
Alexandrovicz,  J.     Structure   and   Development  of   the   Myxomy- 

cetes.    98  pp.  6  pis.  Warsaw  (In  Russian).  1872. 
Algae,  Myxomycetes  on    Lemmermann,  Abb.  Nat.  Ver.  1901. 
Algeria    Montague,  Explor.  Scient.  1846.  (R) 
Allen  W.  B.     Notes  on  the  Mycetozoa  collected  at  the  Baslow 

Foray.    Trans.  British  Mycol.  Soc.  3:  185-188,  1910. 
Almeida,  J.  V.  d'    Contribution  a  la  Mycoflore  de  Portugal,  Lisbon. 

1903. 
Alpine  Forms    (See  also  Switzerland  and  Colorado.)    Voss,  Mycol. 

Carniol.      1892. — Fries,    Arkiv.    f.     Bot.      1906. — Schinz,     Ber. 

Schweiz.  Bot.  Ges.  1907. — Meylan,  Bull  Soc.  Vaud.  1908. 
Alternation  of  Generations    See  Metagenesis. 
Amaurochaete     Magnus,  Sitz'b.  Ges.  Nat.  Fr.  1889. 
Animal  Nature  of  Myxomycetes     Pokorny,  Verhandl.  Z.  B.  Ver. 

1861;  Bonplandia.  1862.— Cooke,  Grevillea,  1880  &  1881.— Kent. 

Pop.  Sc.  Rev.  1880  &  1881.— Cooke,  Introd.  Study  Fung.  1895. 
Anonymous      Enzyme    of    Myxomycetes.      Botanical    Magazine, 

Tokyo,  ai;  (197).     (In  Japanese).     1907. 
On  the  Occurrence  of  "Crown  gall"  in  England. 

Journ.  Board  Agric,  London.    18:  614-620.    1910. 

Report  of  the    Drumnadrochit   Foray  and   Com- 


plete List  of  Fungi  and  Mycetozoa  gathered.    Trans.  British 
Mycol.    Soc.  3:  47-60.    1910. 

Complete  List  of  Fungi  and  Mycetozoa  gathered 


during    the    Baslow    F'oray.      Trans.    British    Mycol.    Soc.    3: 
142-149.     1910. 

The   Chester   Spring   Foray,   and   the   Fungi   and 


Mycetozoa    then    collected.      Trans.    British    Mycol.    Soc.    3: 
233-238.     191 1. 
Crown-gall  of  Plants.     Gardener's  Chron.  49:  312. 


1911. 


388  Colorado  College  Publication. 


The  Wrexham  Foray,  with  Fungi  and  Mycetozoa 

then  collected.     Trans.  British  Mycol.  Soc.  3:  239-249.    191 1. 

lAsittgna    Lister,  Journ.  Bot.  1898. 

Aquatic  Myxomycete    Ward,  Quart.  Journ.  Mic.  Sc.  1884. 

Arcjrria  Wigand,  Ann.  Sc.  Nat.  1862;  Pringsheim,  Jahrb.  1863. 
— Kranzlin,  Archiv.  f.  Protistenk.  1907. — Torrend,  Bull.  Soc. 
Port.  Sc.  Nat.  1909. 

Argentina  Spegazzini,  Anal.  Soc.  Cient.  t88i;  Bol.  Acad.  Nac. 
1887;  Rev.  Fac.  Agron.  1896;  Anal.  Mus.  Nac.  1899,  1909. 
— Fries,  Arkiv  f.  Bot.  1903. 

Atkinson,  G.  F.  On  the  Swarm  Spores  of  Pythium  and  Cera- 
tiomyxa.  Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  &  Sc.  43:  291-292.  (Ab- 
stract). 1895. 

Australia  Berkeley,  London  Journ.  Bot.  1845.  (R). — Berkeley  & 
Broome,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  1878. — Berkeley,  Journ.  Linn.  Soc. 
1881. — Cooke,  Grevillea,  1888. — Bresadola  &  Saccardo,  Mal- 
pighia.  1890. 

Austria  Scopoli,  Flor.  Carniolica.  1760.  (R). — ^Jacquin,  Miscell. 
Austr.  1778.  (R). — Sauter.  Pilzveg.  Ober-Pinzgaues.  1841.  (R). 
Raciborski,  Myx.  Agri.  Cracov.  1884. — Krupa,  Kosmos.  1886. 
— Rimmer,  Jahresber.  niederosterr.  L.-L.-Sem.  1892.— Voss, 
Mycol.  Carniolica.  1892. — Gutwinski,  Ber.  phys.  Com.  Akad. 
Wiss.  1901. — Strasser,  Verb.  Zool.-Bot.  Ges.  1901. — Magnus, 
Die  Pilze.  1905. —  Bubak  u.  Kabat,  Ber.  Nat.-Med.  Ver.  1906. — 
von  Hohnel.  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeits.  1906. — Keissler,  Ann.  Mycol. 
1907. — Neuwirth,  Jahresb.  Realgym.  191 1. 

Ayers,  H.  Methods  of  Study  of  the  Myxamoebae  and  the  Plas- 
modia of  the  Mycetozoa.  Journ.  Applied  Microscopy,  i: 
1-3,  15-17.  1898. 

Bacteria,  Relation  of  Pinoy:  Bull.  Soc.  Myc.  Fr.  1902;  Ann.  Inst. 
Pasteur.   1907. — Smith,   Bacteria  etc.   191 1. 

Badhamia  Berkeley,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  1852.  (R).— Lister,  Ann. 
of  Bot.  1888. — Ingham,  Naturalist.  1904. — Cheesman,  Natural- 
ist, 1905. 

Balfour,  B.  Notes  on  British  Myxomycetes.  Grevillea.  10:  117-119. 
1882.     (Deals  with  5  species  of  Trichia.) 

Baranetzki,  J.  Influence  de  la  Lumiere  sur  les  Plasmodia  des 
Myxomycetes.  Mem.  Soc.  Nat.  Sc.  Nat.  Cherbourg.  19:  321- 
360.   1876.   (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  4:   130,  359,  &  731.   1876.) 

Barbazette,  L.  Tentative  List  of  Myxomycetes  of  Northern  In- 
diana and  Southern  Michigan.  Midland  Naturalist,  i:  38-43. 
1909. 


Bibliography  op  the  Myxomycetes.  389 

Bary,  A.  de    Morphologic  und  Physiologic  der  Pilzc,  Flechtcn  und 

Myxomyccten.  Leipzig  (Engelmann).  1866. 
Vcrgleichende  Morphologic  und  Biologic  dcr  Pilze, 

Mycctozocn    und    Bactcricn.    Leipzig    (Englcmann).    1884. 

Comparative  Morphology  and  Biology  of  the  Fungi, 


Mycetozoa   and    Bacteria.   Authorized    English    translation    by 
H.    E.    F.    Garnscy,    Revised    by    J.    B.    Balfour.    London 

(Frowdc).  1887. 
Baumlcr,  J.   A.     Beitrage   zur   Kryptogamenflora   des   Presburger 

Comitates,   IL     Verhandl.    Verein.    Natur.    u.    Heilk.    Presburg. 

p.  61-126.  1890.  (Bot.  Centralbl.  Beih.  i:  94.  1891.) 
Fungi    Schemnitzenscs.   Ein   Beitrag   zur   ungari- 

schen    Pilzflora,   IL      Verhandl.    K.    K.    Zool.     Bot.    Gesellsch. 

Wien.  40:   139-148.   1890.   (Just.   Bot.  Jahrasbr.  i8^   147.  1892.) 

(Bot.  Centralbl.  Beih.  i:  96.  1891.)  (15  Myxomycetes  recorded.) 
Notiz  ijber  Brcfeldia.  Verhandl.  K.  K.   Zool.-Bot. 


Gesellsch.  Wien  49:   104-105.   1899. 
Bavaria  Schaeffer,  Fung.  Icon.  1762-74.  (R). — Schrank,  Baierische 

Fl.  1786.  (R).— Martins,  Fl.  Crypt.  Erlang.  1817.  (R). 
Beardslee,  H.  C.     Three  Rare   Myxomycetes.  Torreya.  8:  253-255. 

1908.    (Notes    on    Cribraria    violacea.    C.    minutissima.    Clasto- 

derma  DcBaryanum.) 
Belgium      Demazieres,    Cat.    Plantes    omises.    1823.    (R). — Kickx, 

Flore     Crypt.     1867. — Lambotte,    Flore     Myc.     Beige.     1880. — 

Bommer    et     Rousseau,     Bull.     Soc.     Roy.     1891. — Wildtinan, 
'  Prodrome  Fl.  Beige.  1897. 
Bell,  A.  T.     The  Slime   Moulds   (Myxomycetes)   of  Crete.     Publ. 

Nebraska  Acad.  Sc.  a:  15.  1892. 
Bennett,   A.    W.      On    The    Classification    of    Cryptogams.    Quart. 

Journ.  Microscop.  N.  S.  20:  408-412.   1880. 
An    Introduction    to    the    Study    of    Flowerless 

Plants,    their    Structure    and    Classification.    London    (Gurney 

&  Jackson).  1891. 

&  Murray,  G.     A  Handbook  of  Cryptogamic  Bot- 


any, pp.  viii  -|-  473.  London    (Longmans  Green   &  Co.)   18 
(Contains,  p.  401-406,  an  account  of  the  Myxomycetes  and  re- 
lated organisms.) 

Berkeley,    M.    J.     Australian    Fungi.     Journ.    Linnean    Soc.    Botany. 
18:  383-389.  1881. 

Three  new  Indian  Fungi.    Grevillea.  11:  39-40.  1882. 

(Describes  Tilmadoche  cavipes,  n.  s.) 

■■ &    Broome,    C.    E.    Enumeration    of   the    Fungi    of 


Ceylon.     Journ.    Linnean   Soc.    Botany.   14:  81-87.    1876.      (In- 


390  Cow)RADo  College  Publication. 

eludes    53    Myxomycctcs;    many   new    species;    Alwisia,    n,   g. 
Ci.  Fetch,  List  of  the  Mycetozoa  of  Ceylon,  1910.) 

Supplement  to  the  Enumeration  of 


Fungi  of  Ceylon.    Journ.  Linnean  Soc.  Botany.  15:  82-86.  i  pi. 
1877. 

Notices   of   British   Fungi.     Ann   & 


Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  IV.  17:  139-140.  1877;  V.  i:  26.  1878.  a:  212.  1879. 
9:  183.  1882. 

List     of     Fungi     from     Brisbane, 


Queensland,  with  Descriptions  of  New  Species.     Trans.  Linnean 
Soc.  IL  i:  406.  1878.     (2  Myxomycetes.) 
Berkeley,   M.  J.   &  Cooke,  M.   C.     The   Fungi  of  Brazil.     Journ. 
Linnean  Soc.  Botany.  15:  393-394.  1877.     (Includes  7  Myxomy- 
cetes.) 

Berkeley,    M.    J.    &    Curtis,    M.    A.      Characters    of    New    Fungi 

collected   in   the   North    Pacific    Exploring   Expedition.     Proc. 

Amer.    Acad.    Arts    &    Sc.    4:    111-136.    1859.      (Includes    Licea 

stipitata.  B,  &  Rav.  and  L.  rubiformis,  n.  s.) 
Berlese,  A.  N.     Myxomyccteae.  In  Saccardo,  Sylloge  Fungorum  7': 

323-450.  Patavii.  1888. 
Bessey,  C.  E.     Botany  for  High  Schools  and  Colleges.  (2nd  Ed.) 

New   York  (Holt).  1881.     (Contains,  p.  207-211,  a  general  ac- 
count of  the  Myxomycetes.) 
Bilgram,   H.     Diachaea  cylindrica,  a  New   Species  of   Mycetozoa. 

Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Philadelphia.  57:  524.  1905. 
Unusual  Forms  of  Myxomycetes.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat. 

Sc,  Philadelphia.  6a:  271-277.  1910. 
Biology     (See  also  Development  and  Life-History.)     Stahl,   Bot. 

Zeit'g.     1884— Zopf,     Die     Pilzthiere.     1885.— DeBary,     Comp. 

Morph.     1887.— Lippert,     Verb.     Zool.-Bot.     Ges.     1896.— Fry, 

Mycetozoa.   1899. — Lyell,  Trans.  Perthsh.  Soc.    1908. — Ledoux- 

Lebard,  Bull.  Soc.  Myc.  France.  191 1. 
Blanchet,    R.      Note    sur    un    nouveau    Cryptogame.      Bull.    Soc. 

Vaudoise  Sc.  Nat.  7:  1861. 
Blunns,    M.     A    Cancerous    Disease    of    the    Grape-Vine    (due   to 

Dendrophagus    globosus.)    Agric.    Gaz.    New    South    Wales.12: 

1097.  1902. 
Blunt,   T.    P.     A    Function    of   Chlorophyll.     Philosoph.   Journ.    III. 

18:  620.  1888.  (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  16*:  312.  1890.)   (Notes  on 

protective  coloration  in  plasmodium  of  Brefeldia.) 
Blytt,  A.     Clastoderma,  novum   Myxomycetum  genus.  Botanische 

Zeitung.  38:  343-   1880. 


Bibliography  of  the  Myxomycetes.  391 


Myxomyceter  fra  Norge.   Christiana   Videnskabs- 

Selskabs  Forhandlinger.  No.  2.  13  pp.  1892.  (Bot.  Centralbl.  53: 

349.  1893.)  (70  species.    New  species  in  Physarum,  Comatricha 

and  Perichaena.) 
Bohemia     Celakovsky,  Dissertationsarbeit.  1893. 
Bolivia    Fries,  Arkiv.  f.  Bot.  1903. 
Bommer,   E.  &  Rousseau,  M.     Contributions  a  la  Flore  mycolo- 

gique  de  Belgique.     Bull.   Soc.  Roy.   Bot.   Beige.  99:  205-302. 

1891.     (Mentions  i  Myxomycete.) 
Borneo    Cesati.  Att.  Acad.  Sc.  1879. 
Bosnia    Protic,  Wiss.  Mitth.  Bosn.  1901. 
Bowman,  T.     Account   of  a  new   Plant  of  the   Gasteromycetous 

Order  of  Fungi.  (Enerthenema).    Trans.  Linnean  Soc.  Botany. 

16:  151-154.  I  pl.  1830. 
Boyer,  G.  &  Jaczewski,  A.  de     Materiaux  p.  1.  Flore  mycologique 

des    Environs    de    Montpellier.    Bull.    Soc.    Bot.    France.    40: 

cclxxxv.  1893.     (Lists  5  Myxomycetes.) 
Brazil     Martins,    Decas    Plant.    Mycet.    1821.    (R). — Berkeley    & 

Cooke,  Journ.    Linn.    Soc.   1877. — Spegazzini,   An.   Soc.    Cient. 

1881;     Bol.    Acad.     Nac.     1889. — Hennings,    Hedwigia,    Beibl. 

1902. — Jahn,  Ber.   Deutsch.   Bot.  Ges.   1902;  -Hedwigia.   1904. — 

von    Hohnel,    Denkschr.    K.    Ak.    Wiss.    Wien.    1907. — Sydow, 

Ann.  Mycol.  1907. 
Brefeldia     Blunt,  Phil.  Journ.  1888.— Lister,  Ann.  of  Bot.   1888.— 

Ferry,   Rev.    Mycol.    1895.—   Baumler,   K.    K.    Zool.-Bot.   Ges. 

Wien.  1899. 
Bresadola,  J.   &  Saccardo,   P.   A.     Pugillus   Mycctum  Australien- 

sium.     Malpighia.  4:  300.  1890.  (Just,  Bot.  Jahresber,  18*:  159. 

1892.)     (Includes  4  Myxomycetes.) 
Brooks,  F.  T.    Nuclear  Fusions  and  Reduction  Phenomena  in  the 

Myxomycetes.     New  Phytologist.  8:  82-83.  1908. 
Bruck,  W.  F.    Beitrage  zur  Physiologie  der  Mycetozoen.     Zeitschr. 

Allgem.  Physiologie.  7:  505-558.  1908. 
Brunaud,    P.     Liste    des    Myxomycetes    recoltes    dans    la  'Charente- 

Inferieure.     Ann.  Soc,  Sc.  Nat.  Charente-Inf.  No.  25.  1889. 
Champignons  recoltes  dans  le  Departement  de  la 

Charente-Inferieure,  I.    Act.  Soc.  Linn.  Bordeaux.  44:  211-259. 

1891.     (Includes  35  Myxomycetes.) 

Miscellanees   Mycolgiques,   III.     Act.   Soc.    Linn. 


Bordeaux.  5a:  1898.     (Mentions  4  Myxomycetes.) 
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39^  Cou)RALK)  College  Publication. 

Bubak,    F.    &    Kabat,   J.    E.      Fiinfter    Beitrag    zur    Pilzflora    von 

TiroL       Ber.    Naturwiss.-Mediz.    Vercins    Innsbruck.    30:    20   pp. 

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Buchet,  S.     Les  Myxomycctes  dc  la  Foret  dc  Fontainebleau.     Rev. 

Gen.  de  Botanique.  23:  409-417.  1911. 
Bucholtz,    F.      Verzeichnis    der    bisher    fiir    die    Ostsecprovinzen 

bekannt  gewordenen  Myxogasteres.     Korrespondenzbl.  Naturf. 

Vereins  Riga,  51 :  93-108.  1908. 
Bucknall,  C.    The  Fungi  of  the  Bristol  District,  III.     Proc.  Bristol 

Naturalists  Soc.  N.  S.  6:  274-277.  1891.     (Describes  new  species  in 

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Burrell,  W.  H.     Mycetozoa.     Trans.  Norfolk  &  Norwich  Naturalist's 

Soc,  6".  52;  449.  2  pis.  1899.     Id.  9:  106-107.  1910. 
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Zopf.  Pilzthiere.  1885. 
California     Phillips,    Grevillea.    1876-77. — Harkness,   Calif.   Ac.   Sc. 

1880. 
Campbell,    D.    H.    A    University   Text-Book    of    Botany.    New    York 

(Macmillan).    1902.      (Includes,  p.  68-71,  a  brief  account  of  the 

Myxomycetes  as  doubtful  plants.) 
Canada     (See   also   Rocky    Mts.   and    Nova   Scotia.)      Cheesnian, 

Trans.  Brit.  Myc.  Soc.  191 1. 
Capillitium      (See   also   Elaters.)      Schlectendahl.    Hot.    Zeit.    1844. 

(R). — Ursprung,   Ber.   Deutsch.   Bot.  Ges.   1906. 
Cavara,   F    Ulteriore  Contribuzione  alia   Micolg^a  loinbarda.     Atti  R. 

Istituto  Bot.  Univers.  Pavia.  1894.     (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  aa':  68. 

1897.)    (Includes  5  Myxomycetes.) 
Celakovsky,  L.     Ueber  den  dreifachen   (ienerationswechsel   der   Pflan- 

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1877.  (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  6:  327-328.  1880.) 

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1892.  (R^v.  Mycol.  19:  102.  1897.) 

Die  Mvxomvceten  Bohmens.    Archiv  Natur wisscnsch. 


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Chemotaxis  Zopf,  Pilzthiere.  1885. — Stange,  Bot.  Zeit'g.  1890— 
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Chrzaszez,  T.  Physarum  leucophaeum  ferox,  eine  hefefresscnde 
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Cilia  Plenge,  Verb.  Nat.-Med.  Ver.  1899.— Jahn,  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot. 
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Journ.  Cinn.  Soc.  1900. — Vanderyst,  Rapport.  1904. — Lister,  Journ. 


394  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Bot.   1907. — ^Jaczewskii  Mykol.  F!.   1907.   (For  earlier,  fmidanicntal 

systems  of  classification  see  Persoon,  Synopsis  Meth.   I'ungorum, 

1801. — Fries,    Systema    Mycologicum,    i82i-*30. — Rostafinski,    Slu- 

zowce  Monografia,  1875. 
CUstoderma     Blytt,  Bot.  Zeit  g.  1880. 
Clifford,  J.  B.     Notes  on  some  Physiological  Properties  of  a  Myxomy- 

cete  Plasmodium.     Annals  of  Botany.  11:   179-181.   1897.     (Deals 

with  rheotropism  and  thermotropism.) 
Cobelli,  R.    I  Fungi  della  Valle  Lagarina.     Michelia.  a:  240.  1882.     (4 

Myxomycetes.) 
Cockerell,  T.  D.  A.    The  Fauna  of  Boulder  County,  Colorado.     Univ. 

of  Colorado  Studies.  8:  231-237.   1911.     (Includes  the  Mycetozoa 

and  gives  a  list  of  species.)  • 

Cohn,   F.     Ueber  sein   1871   aufgestelltes  Thallophytensytem.     Jahrcs- 

ber.  Schles.  Gesellsch.  Vaterl.  Cultur.  p.279-289.  1879.     (Just.  Bot. 

Jahresb.  7:  455-456.  527-5^8.  1883.) 
Colloderma     Lister,  Journ.  Bot.  1910. 
Colombia     L^veille,  Prodr.  Fl.  Nov.  Gran.  1863. 
Colorado      Macbride,    Bull.    Univ.    Iowa.    1893. — Sturgis,   Colo.    Coll. 

Pub.  1907. — Cockerell,  Univ.  of  Colo.  Studies.  191 1. 
Colors  of  Plasmodia  etc.    (See  also  Pigment.)  Hlunt,  Philos.  Journ. 

1888.— Zopf   Bot.   Zeit.    1889;    Flora,    1889.— Lister,   Ann.   of    Bot. 

1890. — Zopf,   Beitr.   Phys.   Morph.   1892. — Minataka,   Nature,    1910. 
Comatricha    Jahn,  Festschr.  f.  Schwendcner.  1899. 
Comes,  O.    I  Funghi  in  rapporto  all'  economia  domestica  ed  alia  piante 

agrarie.    Lezioni  nella  R.  Scuola  Sup.  Agric.  di  Portici.  Napoli.  184 

pp.  34  pis.  1880.  (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  9:  256.  1884.) 
Conard,  H.  S.     Spore  Formation  in  Lycogala  exiguum,  Morg.     Proc. 

Iowa  Acad.  Sc.  17:  83-84.  1910. 
Constantineau,  J.  C.    Uber  die  Fntwicklungsbedingungen  der  Myxomy- 

ceten.    Annales  Mycologici.  4 :  495-540.  1906.  (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber. 

34*:  213-215.   1907.)      (The  factors  influencing  germination,  plas- 

modium-formation  and  fruiting  in  14  species  occurring  near  Halle.) 
Cook,   O.    F.     Methods   of   Collecting   and    Preserving    Myxomycetes. 

Botanical  Gazette,  16:  263.  1891. 
Some  General  Questions  in  the  Classification  of  the 

Myxomycetes.     Proc.  Bot.  Club.  Am.  Asso.  Adv.  Sc.  1892.     (An 

unpublished   paper   referred  to  by  title  only  in   Bot.   Gazette.   17: 

295.  1892.) 

Personal    Nomenclature  in   the  Myxomycetes.     BulL 


Torrey  Bot.  Club.  2a:  431-434.  i895 
Cooke,  M.  C.    The  Myxomycetes  of  Great  Britain  arranged  according 


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to  the  Method  of  Rostafinski.  96  pp.  24  pis.  Lottdon.  (Williams  & 
Norgate.)  1877. 

The  Myxomyctes  of  the  United  States  arranged  ac- 


cording to  the  Method  of  Rostafinski.    Annals  Lyceum  Nat.  Hist. 
New  York.  11:  378-409.  1877. 

The  Myxomycetes.    (A  Resum6  of  Rostafinski's  class- 


ification.) Grevillea.  5:  159-162.  1877. 

New  Zealand  Fungi.     Grevillea.  8:  59-60.  1879. 


(Lists    8    Myxomycetes.     Describes    Ceratium    roseum    and     C. 
fuscum.) 

"Animal  Nature"  of  Myxomycetes.  Grevillea.  9 :  41-43. 


1880.     (A  criticism  of  Kent's  classification  of  the  Myxomycetes  as 
Protozoa.) 

New  British  Fungi.     Grevillea.  10:   115-117.  1882. 


(New  species  in  Physarum  and  Trichia.) 

Two  Remarkable  Fungi.    Grevillea.  16:  20.  1887. 


(Describes  Hemiarcyria  applanta.) 

Australian  Fungi.  Grevillea.  16:  74.  1888.     (2  Myxo- 


mycetes, Licea  spumarioidea  n.  s.,  and  Hemiarcyria  fuliginea,  n.  s.) 
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phy, Classification,  and  Distribution.  London  (Black).  1895. 
(Includes,  p.304-316,  an  excellent  account  of  the  Myxomycetes.) 
&  Ellis,  J.  B.    New  Jersey  Fungi.    Grevillea  5:  33^  49, 


89.   1876;  Id.  6:  I,  82.  1877.     (Includes  i8  Myxomycetes.) 
Coon,  J.  M.    Cornuvia  Serpula,  a  species  new  to  Britain.    Journ.  Roy. 

Microscop.  Soc.  p.142-146.  2  pis.  1907. 
Mycetozoa:   Cornuvia    Serpula.       Ann.  Report  Roy. 

Cornwall  Polytech.  Soc.  1906:  88-91.  i  pi.  1908. 
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Suisse  croissant  sur  le  territoire  d.l.  commune  d'Aclens.    Bull.  Soc. 

Vaudoise  Sc.  Nat.  29:  97-136.  1893;     Id.  31:  227.  1895. 
Corda,  A.  C.  J.,  Die  Pilze  Deutschlands.     Sturm,  Deutschlands  Flora. 

3^  1829. 
Cornuvia     Coon,  Journ.   Roy.  Micr.  Soc.   1907;  Ann.  Rep.  Cornw. 

Polyt.  Soc.  1908.* 
Costa  Rica     Hennings,  Hedwigia,  Beibl.  1902. 
Crete    Bell,  Publ.  Neb.  Acad.  Sc.  1892. 
Cribraria     Schrader,  Nov.  Gen.  Plant.   1797.   (R). — Rex,  Bot.  Gaz. 

1894." 
Crossland,  C.    Fungi  of  Masham  and  Swinton  (Yorkshire).    Naturalist, 

p.21-31.  1902.     (Includes  20  Myxomycetes.) 
Crown-Gall     (Dendrophagus.  q.  v.) 
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396  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Rex.     Bull.  Soc.  Valais.  Sc.  Nat.  34:   27-36.   1907.     (Includes   i 

Myxomycete.) 
Cuba    Berkeley,  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  1868.  (R). 
Culture  Methods     Ensch,  Miscell.  Biol.  1899— Nadson,  Scrip.  Bot. 

1899. — Macbride,   Rhodora.    1900. — Lister,   Journ.   of   Bot.    1901. — 

Lendner,  Bull.  Herb.  Boissier.    1902. — Pinoy,  Bull.   Soc.  Myc.  Fr. 

1902. — Nadson,  Bull.  Jard.  Imp.  1903. — Pinoy,  Compt.  Rend.  1903. 

— Constantineau,  Ann.  Mycol.  1906. — Richter,  Bedeut.  d.  Reinkul- 

tur.   1907. 
Currents  in   Plasmodium     Lister,    Month.    Micros.   Journ.    1877. — 

Rhumbler,     Nat.     Rundschau,     i904.-^Harper,     Science,     1907. — 

Hilton,  Journ.  Quekett  Mic.  CI.  1908.— Vouk,  Sitz'ber.  K.  Akad. 

1910. 
Cytology    (See  also  Nucleus.)     Rosen,  Cohn's  Beitr.  1892. — Lister, 

Journ.    Linn.    Soc.    1893. — Harper,    Bot.    Gaz.    1900. — Jahn,   Ber. 

Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1904. — Prowazek,  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr.  1904. — 

Jahn,  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1907. — Olive,  Science.  1907;  Trans. 

Wis.   Ac.   Sc.    1907. — Tischler,    Schwalbe's    Jahrb.    1907. — Brooks, 

New  Phytol.  1908. — Harper,  Science.  1908. 
Daniel,  L.     Liste  des  Champignons   Basidiomycetes    recoltes    jusqu'^ 

ce  jour  dans  le  Departement  d.  1.  Mayennc.     Bull.  Soc.  d'fitudci 

Scient.  d'Angers.  ai :  25-96.   1892.     (Mentions  Myxomycetcs  inci- 
dentally.) 
DeBary     See  Bary,  de. 
DeCandolle    See  Candolle,  de. 
Denayer,  A.     Les  vegetaux  inferieurs.     Thallophytes  et  Cryptogames 

vasculaires.  Bruxelles  (Manceaux).   113  pp.  399  figs.  1887.     ^ Just, 

Bot.  Jahresber.  16*:  312.  1890.) 
Dendrophagus    Toumey,  Ariz.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  1900. — Blunns,  Agr. 

Gaz.  N.  S.  W.  1902. — Quiniance,  Proc.  Georgia  Hort.  Soc.  1900. — 

Massee,  Journ.  Bd.  Agr.   191 1. — Sorauer  et  al,  Handbuch.  1908. 
Denmark    Schumacher,  Enuni.  Plant.  Saelland.  1801  &  1803.  (R). — 

Hornemann,  Flora  Danica.  1810-1829.  (R). — Raunkiaer,  Bot  Tids- 

skr.  1890. — Rostrup,  Gart.-Tidende.  1906. 
Destree,  C.    Derniere  Contribution  au  Catalogue  ties  Champignons  des 

Environs  de  la  Haye.    Nederl.  Kruidk.  Archief  3.  I.  p.  127.  1895. 
Destructive     Effects       (see     also     Parasitic     Effects.)      Rostrup, 

Sygdomme     Landbrugspl.     1893. — Ritzema-Bos,     Zeits.     Pfl'krank. 

1894,    1903.— Sorauer,    Handbuch    Pfl'krank.    1905. — Wulff,    Zeits. 

Pfl'krank.  1906,  1908. 
Development      (see    also    Life-History    and    Biology.)      Schmitz, 

Linnaea.  1842.  (R). — Cienkowski,  Pringsheim  Jahrb.  1863.  (R). — 

Alexandrowicz,    Strojenie    etc.    1872.    (R). — van    Tieghem,    Bull. 


BiBUOGRAPHY  OB^  THE  MyXOMYCETES.  397 

Soc.  Bot.  1876— DeBary,  Comp.  Morph.  1887.— Rex,  Bot.  Gaz.  1890. 

— Fry,    Mycetozoa.    1899. — Klebs,    Pringsheim   Jahrb.    1900. — Con- 

stantineau,  Ann.  Myc.  1906. — Hilton,  Journ.  Quek.  Micr.  CI.  1910. 

— Ronn,  Schriften  Nat.  Ver.  191 1. — Vouk,  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeitschr. 

191 1. — (see  also  references  under  Monographs  and  General.) 
Diachaea     Rex,   Proc.  Acad.   Nat.   Sc.   Phila.   1892,   1895. — Bilgram, 

Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Phila.  1905, 
Dictydium      Schrader,    Nov.    Plant.    Gen.    1797.    (R). — Jahn,    Ber. 

Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1901. 
Didymium      Harper,    Science.    1908 — Kanomata,    Bull.    Coll.    Agr. 

Tokyo.  1908. — Pinoy,  Compt.  Rend.  Soc.  Biol.  1908. 
Distribution     (See  also  Seasonal  Distribution.)    Zollinger,   Flora. 

1847.    (R).— Fries,    (E.    P.),    Akad.    Afhandl.    1857.— Jahn,    Ber. 

Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.   1902. — Macbride,    Proc.  Iowa    Acad.    1905. — 

Schinz,  Ber.  Schweiz.  Bot.  Ges.   1907. — Meylan,  Bull.  Soc.  vaud. 

1908. — Ledoux-Lebard,  Bull.  Soc.    Myc.    191 1. — Saunders,    Trans. 

Herts.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  191 1. 
Dominica    Lister,  Journ.  Bot.  1898. 
Ducommun,  J.  C.     Taschenbuch   fiir  den  schweizerischen   Botanik.  2 

Aufl.  1881. 
Durand,  E.  J.     Some  Rare  Myxomycetes  of  Central  New  York,  with 

Notes  on  the  Germination  of  Enteridium  Rozeanum.      Botanical 

Gazette.   19:  89-95.  2  pis.   1894.    (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  aa*:   100. 

1897.) 

Earle,  F.  S.  Systematic  Catalogue  of  the  plants  growing  without  cul- 
tivation in  Alabama.  Slime-Moulds.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. ;  Div.  of 
Bot;  Contribs.  from  the  U.  S.  National  Herbarium.  6:  p.  139-142. 
1901. 

Echinostelium    Lister,  Trans.  Brit.  Myc.  Soc.  1904. 

Ecuador    Patouillard  &  Lagerheim,  Bull.  Soc.  Myc.  1893. 

Eichelbaum,  F.  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Pilzflora  des  Ostusamba- 
ragebirges.  Verhandl.  Naturwiss.  Vereins  Hamburg.  HI  Folge. 
14:  92  pp.  1906.     (Describes  Trichia  Stuhlmanni  n.  s.) 

Eisenach,  H.  Uebersicht  der  bisher  in  der  Umgegend  von  Cassel 
beobachteten  Pilze.  36  pp.  Cassel.  1878.  (Includes  38  Myxomy- 
cetes.) 

Elaters  (See  also  Capillitium.)  Corda,  Ueb.  Spiralfauerzellen. 
1837,  (R). — Henfrey,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  1852.  (R). — Currey, 
Quart.  Jour.  Mic.  Sc.  1855.  (R). — Berkeley,  Journ.  Proc.  Linn. 
Soc.  1863.  (R). — Ursprung,  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1906. 

Electricity,  Influence  of    Zopf,  Pilzthiere.  1885. 

Ellis,  J.  B.  &  Everhart,  B.  M.     New  Species  of  Fungi  from  Wash- 


398  Colorado  College  Publication. 

ington  Territory.    BulL  Washburn  College.  Lab.  Nat.  Hist,  i:  3-6. 
1884. 

Engelke,  C.  Uber  die  Myxomyceten  mit  besonderer  Beriicksichti- 
gung  der  bei  Hannover  vorkommenden  Arten.  Jahresber. 
Naturhist.  Gesellsch.  Hannover.  Hot.  Abth.  p.14-18.  1910.  (Hot. 
Centralbl.  116:  441-442.  191 1.)     (Records  66  species.) 

Eine     abweichende     Form    der     Fuligo     varians. 

Jahresb.  Naturhist.  Gesellsch.  Hannover.  Hot.  Abth.  p.38.  1910. 
(Bot.  Centralbl.  116:  441.  191 1.) 

England  Hudson,  Fl.  Anglica.  1778.  (R).— Relhan,  Fl.  Cantab. 
1785.  (R).— Sibthorp,  Fl.  Oxon.  1794.  (R).— Sowerby,  Col.  Figs. 
Eng.  F'ung.  1797.  (R). — Purton,  Brit.  Plants.  1817.  (R).— John- 
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Engler,  A.  Syllabus  der  Fflanzenfamilien.  Berlin  (Borntraeger). 
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Ensch,  N.  Notes  sur  les  Myxomycetes.  Miscellanees  biologiques, 
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tralbl. 86:  8-10.  1901.)  (Rev.  Mycol.  24:  62-67.  1902.)  (A  study 
of  conditions  influencing  cultivation  of  Chondrioderma  and 
Fuligo.) 

Enteridium  Wingate,  Froc.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc.  Fhila.  1889.— Durand, 
Bot.  Gaz.  1894. 

Enzymes,  Presence  of  Krukenberg.  Unters.  phys.  Inst.  Heidelb. 
1878. — Anonymous,  Bot.  Mag.  Tokyo.  1907. — Schroder,  Beitr. 
Chem.  Phys.  Path.  1907. 

Erionema  Penzig,  Myx.  Fl.  Buitenzorg.  1898. —  Lister,  Journ.  Bot. 
1904. 

Exsiccati  Jaap,  Myx.  Exsicc.  (Rabenhorsts  Fungi  Europaei,  Ellis 
&  Everhart's  N.  Amer.  Fungi,  and  others  of  the  older  standard 
sets  include  many  Myxomycetes.) 

Fairman,  C.  E.  Puff-balls,  Slime-Molds  and  Cup  Fungi  of  Orleans 
County,  N.  Y.     Proc.  Rochester  Acad.  Sc.  3:  206-220  1900. 

Famintzin,  A.  &  Woronin,  M.  Ueber  zwei  neue  Formen  von 
Schleimpilzen,  Ceratium  hydnoides  und  Ceratium  porioides. 
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Farlow,  W.  G.  List  of  Fungi  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston. 
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Feeding  (See  Ingestion  and  Nutrition.) 

Ferraris,  T.  Material!  per  una  Flora  micologica  del  Pieiwonte; 
Mixomiceti  ed  Eumiceti  raccolti  nei  dintorni  di  Crescentino. 
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Ferry,  R.     Les  Phenomenes  d'  Hybridation  chez  les  Myxomycetes 
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Voracjte  des   Plasmodes  de   Myxomycetes  d'apres 

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Finland  (See  also  Russia.)  Ny lander,  Notiser  pro  Fauna  etc. 
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Fischer,  E.  Ueber  einiger  in  Sumatra  gesammelte  Pilze.  Mitth. 
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Food-Material,  Influence  of  (See  also  Trophotropism.)  Constan- 
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Fossil  Myxomycetes  Renault,  Le  Naturaliste.  1894. — Meschinelli, 
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France  Villars,  Hist.  d.  PI.  d.  Dauphine.  1789.  (R).— Bulliard,  Hist, 
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R.  E.     Bidrag  till  Kannedomen  om  Sveriges  Myxomycet- 

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400  Cou)RADo  College  Publication. 


Sveriges   Myxomycetcr.     Kongl.  Veten.«kaps-Akad. 

Forhandl  No.  3.  p.215-246.  1899.  (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber,  aj*: 
46,  1901.)  (128  species.  Critical  notes  on  the  less  common 
forms.) 

Myxomyceten  von  Argentinen  und  Bolivia.    Arkiv. 


f.  Botanik.  i:  57-70.  1903.  (Just  Bot.  Jahresber.  31*:  27.  1904.} 
(Hedwigia,  Bcibl.  4a:  (243).  1903.)  (47  species.  Physarum 
aeheum  n.  s,  described.) 

Myxomycetfloran  i  de  JimtlAndska  Fjalltrakterna. 


Arkiv  f.  Botanik.  6:  1-9.  1906.  (Bot  Centrabl.  104:  209.  1907.) 
(31  species.  Critical  notes  on  9  peculiarly  Alpine  forms.) 

Gasteromyceter,  Discomyceter  och   Myxomyceter 


insamlade  under  Svenska  Botaniska  Foreningens  Excursion  till 
Aelfkarleo,  Sept.  1910.    Svensk.  Bot.  Tidskr.  4:  98-99.  1910. 

Nagra  ord  om  Myxomycetenfloran  i  Torne  Lapp- 


mark.     Svensk.  Bot.  Tidskr.  4:  253-262.  191 1. 

Fry,  E.  &  A.     The  Mycetozoa  and  Some  Questions  which  They 
Suggest.  London  (Knowledge  Office.)  Pp.  viii,  -|-  82.  1899. 
(A  discussion,  in  popular  terms,  of  the  nature  and  biology  of 
the  group.) 

Fuligo  Marchant,  Hist.  Acad.  Roy.  Sc.  1727.  (R). — Wortmann, 
Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1885.— Stange,  Bot  Zeit'g.  1890.— 
Ritzema-Bos,  Zeits.  Pfl'kr.  1894— Harper,  Bot  Gaz.  1900. — 
Harshberger,  Bot  Gaz.  1901;  Journ.  Mycol.  1902. — Engelke, 
Jahresb.  Nat.  Ges.,  Hannover.  1910. 

Gaillard,  A.  Catalogue  raisonne  des  Ascomycetes,  Oomycetes  et 
Myxomycetes  observes  dans  le  Departement  Maine-et-Loire 
pendant  les  Annees  1899-1902.  Bull.  Soc.  d'Etudes  Scient. 
Angers,  N.  S.  35:  183-215.  1906. 

Garnsey,  H.  E.  F.  &  Balfour,  J.  B.  (See  DeBary,  Comparative 
Morphology.) 

Gelatine^  Decomposition  of    Jelinek,  Sitz'ber.  K.  Bohm  .Ges.  1907. 

General  (See  also  Monographs.)  Quelet,  Rev.  Mycol.  1879. — 
Bessey,  Botany.  1881.— Schroeter,  Krypt.  Flora  Schles.  1885.— 
Zopf,  Pilzthiere.  1885.— Raunkiaer,  Bot.  Tidsskr.  1888— Bennett 
&  Murray,  Handbook.  1889. — Cooke,  Introd.  Study  Fung.  1895. 
—Schroeter,  Engler  u.  Prantl,  Nat.  Pfl'fam.  1897.— Fry,  Myce- 
tozoa, 1899. — Jahn,  Naturw.  Rundschau.  1899. — Schmidt,  Die 
Natur,  1899. — Scott,  Introd.  Struc.  Bot.  1899.  Hutchinson, 
Trans.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  1901. — Saunders,  Sci.  Gossip,  1901. — 
Campbell,  Univ.  Text-Book.  1902. —  Sorauer,  Handbuch.  1908. 
—Horn,  Norwich  Sc.  Gossip  Gub,  1910.— Strasburger  et  al, 
Lehrbuch.  1910. 


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Sluzowce  Monografia.  Most  general  botanical  text-books  in- 
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Geographical  Distribution    See  Distribution. 

Geotropism  Rosanoff,  Mem.  Soc.  Imp.  1868.— Zopf,  Pilzthiere, 
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Germany  (See  also  Prussia,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wtirttemberg.) 
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Germination  Bail,  Verb.  Zool-Bot.  Ges.  1859.  (R) — Hoffmann,  Bot. 
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Glycogen,  Presence  of    Ensch,  Miscell  Biol.  1899. 

Gravitation,  Influence  of    (See  Geotropism.) 

Great  Britain  (See  also  England,  Scotland,  Ireland  and  Wales.) 
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Grimm,  M.  O  Mixomizetach  Peterburgskoi  Gubernii  (The  Myxo- 
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Guillemot,  J.  Champignons  observes  k  Toulon  et  dans  ses  envir- 
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Gutwinski,  R.  Materyaly  do  flory  sluzowcow  Galicyi.  (The 
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1902.)  (Notes  on  20  species  from  Galicia  and  Karlsbad.  De- 
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Hariot,  P.  Stemonitis  dictyospora,  Rost.  Journ.  de  Botanique,  5l 
356.  1891.     (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  19':  199.  1894.) 


402  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Harkness,  R.  W.  &  Moore,  J.  P.  Catalogue  of  the  Pacific  Coast 
Fungi.  California  Acad.  Sc.  46  pp.  1880.  (Includes  40  Myxo- 
mycetes.) 

Harper,  R.  A.  Cell  and  Nuclear  Division  in  Fuligo  varians.  Botan- 
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Figures   produced  by   Protoplasmic  Streaming  in 

Fungi  and  Slime  Moulds.     Abstract  in  Science,  N.  S.  25:  282. 
1907. 

Progressive  Cleavage  in  Didymium.    Science,  N.  S. 


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Harshberger,  J.   W.     Observations   upon  the   Feeding   Plasmodia 

of  Fuligo  septica.     Botanical  Gazette.  31:  198-203.  1901. 
Distribution  of  Nuclei  in  the  Feeding  Plasmodia 

of  Fuligo  septica.    Journ.  of  Mycology.  8:  158-160.  1902. 

A  Grass-Killing   Slime   Mould.   (Physarum  cincr- 


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Compare,  BSumler  in  Verhandl.  Zool.     Bot.  Ges.  1890.) 
Kin    neuer    Myxogasteren-Typus.      Oesterr.    Bot. 

Zeitschr.  27:  83-85.  1878.  (Just,  Bot.  Jahresber.  5:  106-107.  1879.) 
Uj    adatok    magyarhon    kryptogam    virauyahoz    az 


1878,  evbol.  (New  Contributions  to  the  Cryptogamic  Flora  of 

Hungary.)   Magyar  Tud.  Akad.   Ertek.  9':  15  pp.   1880.     (Just, 

Bot.  Jahresb.  7:  520.  1883.) 
Heat,  Influence  of  (See  Thermotropism.) 
Heckel,  E.  &  Chareyre,  J.     Les  Champignons  examinees  au  point 

de  vue  evolutif.  57  pp.  i  pi.  Bordeaux.  (Cadoret.)  1885.     (Just, 

Bot.  Jahresber.  13:  270-271.  1887.) 
Hedbom,  K.     Nagra  nyara  fynd  Svenska  Myxomyceter.     Svensk 

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Uppsala.     Svensk  Bot.  Tidskr.  4:  (i5Q)-(i6i).  1910. 
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Hemiarcyria    Rex,  Proc.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc.  1892. 
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Wochenschr.  f.  Brauerfei.  18:  Nos.  12  &  13.  1901.  (Centralbl. 
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Hennings,  P.     Beitrage  zur  Pilzflora  Sudamerikas.     Hcdwigia.  35: 
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Die  in  den  Gewachshausern  des   Berliner  botan- 

ischen  Gartens  beobachteten  Pilze.  Verhandl.  Bot.  Vereins 
Prov.  Brandenburg.  40:  109-176.  1898.  (Lists  34  Myxomy- 
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Fungi  costaricensis,  I.    Hedwigia,  Beibl.  41:  (loi). 


1902.    (Lists  3  Myxomycetes.) 

Fungi  paraenses,   IL     Hedwigia.   Beibl.  41:   (fs). 

1902.     (Lists  5  Myxomycetes.) 

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Beitrage  zur  Pilzflora  des  Gouvernements  Moskau. 


Hedwigia,  Beibl.  42:  (109).  1903.  (5  Myxomycetes.)  43:  66.  1904. 
(2  Myxomycetes,  not  before  listed).  45:  22.  1905.  (5  Myxomy- 
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Heterodictyon     Schilberszky,  Bot.  Centralbl.   1896. 

Hibbert-Ware,  A.  Mycetozoa  of  the  Scarborough  District.  Nat- 
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Hilton,  A.  E.  On  the  Study  of  the  Mycetozoa.  Journ.  Quekett 
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The   Life-Phases   of  Mycetozoa.     Journ.   Quekett 


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404  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Hollos,    L.      Beitrage   zur    Kenntniss    dcr    Pilzflora   im    Kaukasus. 

Math.-Naturwissensch.  Ber.  Ungarn.  ao:  315-325.  1905. 
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Myxomycetes.) 
Hungary       Hazslinzsky,     Magyar- Myxogast.     1877;     Abh.     Geb. 

Naturw.    1880. — Raciborski,    Hedwigia.    1885;    Verhandl     Ver. 

Nat.-Heilk.  1890— Baumler,  Verhandl.  Zool.-Bot.  Ges.  1890. 
Hutchinson,   R.    R.     Mycetozoa.       Trans.    Nat.    Hist.    Soc.    East- 
bourne, N.  S.  3:  232-234.  1901. 
Hybrids      Massee,    Monograph.    1892. — Ferry,    Rev.    Myc.    1895. — 

Martin,  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  1899— Schinz,  Mitteil.   Nat.  Ges.   1906. 
Hydrotropism      (See    also    Moisture.)      Zopf,    Pilzthiere.    1885. — 

DeBary,  Comp.  Morph.  1887.— Kolkwitz,  Bot.  Central'bl.  1897. 
Hymenobolus    Zukal,  Oesterr.  Bot.  Zeits.  1893. 
India    (See  also  Ceylon.)  Berkeley,  Hooker's  Journ.  Bot.  1851  e.  s. 

(R);  Grevillea.  1882. 
Indiana     Olive,   Proc.   Ind.   Acad.   Sc.    1898. — Thomas,    Proc.   Ind. 

Acad.  Sc.   1901. — Mutchler,  Proc.  Ind.  Acad.  Sc.   1902,   1904. — 

Barbazette,  Midland  Nat.  1909. 
Ingestion  of  Foreign  Matter     (See  also  Nutrition.)     Lister,  Ann. 

of    Bot.    1890;    Journ.    Linn.    Soc.    1890. — Pfeffer,    Abh.    Math. 

Phys.  Classe  etc.  1890. — Celakovsky,  Flora.  1892. — Ferry,  Rev. 

Myc.  1895. 
Ingham,  W.     Badhamia  rubiginosa,  var.  globosa.     Naturalist.  No. 

574:  p.  342.  1904. 
locraterium    Jahn,  Hedwigia.  1904. 
Iowa    Macbride,  Bull.  Lab.  Nat.  Hist.  Iowa.  1892. 
Ireland    Pirn,  Sc.  Proc.  Roy.  Dublin  Soc.  1878. 
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Notes  on  Mycetozoa.    Journ.  of  Botany.  36:  161-166. 


I    pi.     1898.       (Describes    Physarum    straminipes    and    Didymium 
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Mycetozoa  of  Antigua.     Journ.  of  Botany.  36:  378- 


379.  1898.     (8  species  added  to  the  list  recorded  in  36:  113-122.) 
Notes  on  Mycetozoa.    Journ.  of  Botany.  37:  145-152. 


I  pi.  1899.     (Critical  notes  on  31  rare  species  and  varieties.  De- 
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(Deals  with  Badhamia  and  Didymium.) 

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of  Botany,  British  Museum.  Ed.  III.  London.  1909. 
Two  New  Mycetozoa.    Journ.  of  Botany.  48:  7$.  1910. 

(Bot.  Centralbl.  114:   171.  1910.)      (Describes  Physarum  alpinum 

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Botany.  48:  310-312.  1910.     (Bot.  Centralbl.  1x6:  364.  1911.)  (Ann, 
Mycol.  9:  299.  1911.) 

Two  New  Species  of  Mycetozoa.    Journ.  of  Botany. 


49:  61-62.  1911.  (Describes  Licea  castanea  and  Hemitrichia  minor.) 
A  Monograph  of  the  Mycetozoa.  Ed.  IL  (See  A.  Lister, 


1894.) 

Listerella    Jahn,  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1906. 
Lotsy,  J.  P.    Vortrage  iiber  botanische  Stammesgeschicte  gehalten  an 

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atik.    I  Band:  Algen  u.  Pilze.  Jena  (Fischer).  828  pp.  1907. 
Lycogala     Retzius,   Handl.   Svensk.   Vet.   Ak.   1769.   (R). — Conard, 

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Lycll      Natural  History  of  the  Mycetozoa,  with  Notes  on  some  local 

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Macbride,  T.  H.     A  New  Physarum  from  Colorado.     Bull.  Lab.  Nat. 

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Hist.  Univ.  Iowa,  a:  99-162,  384-389.   11   pis.   1893.     (A  general 

account    of  the    Myxomycetes    and    a  systematic    account    of    75 

species.) 


4J2  Colorado  College  Publication. 


Nicaraguan    Myxomycctes.      Bull.    Lab.    Nat.    Hist 

Univ.  Iowa.  2:  377-31^3',  A'  73-75-  1893,  1H96.  (Lists  25  species 
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The  Nomenclature  Question  among  the  Slime-Moulds. 


Proc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sc.  3:  (3) -(8).  1896. 

The  North  American  Slime-Moulds;    being  a  list  of 


all  Species  of  Myxomycetes  hitherto  described  from  North  Amer- 
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On   Studying  Slime-Moulds.     Journ.  Applied  Micro- 


scopy. 2 :  585-587.  1899- 

The   Slime-Moulds.     Rhodora.  2:   75-81.    i   pi.   1900. 


(Just,  Bot.  Jahresber.  28*:  94.   1902.)      (A  popular  account  with 
directions  for  cultivating,  etc.) 
The  Slime-Moulds  of  New  Mexico.    Proc.  Iowa  Acad. 


Sc.  12:  33-38.  1905.     (25  species,  with  remarks  on  distribution.) 

A  new  Genus  of  Myxomycetes?     Mycologia.  3:  39-40. 


I  pi.  191 1.     (Ann.  Mycolog.  9:  300.  191 1.)     (Describes  and  figures 

Schenella  simplex,  w.  g.,  n.  s.) 
Magnus,  P.    Ueber  ein  merkwurdifees  und  schadliches  Auftreten  cines 

Schleimpilzes,    der    Amaurochaete    atra    (A.    et    S.)    in    Berlin. 

Sitzungsber.  Gesellsch.  Naturf.  Freunde,  Berlin,  p.  63-64.  1889. 
Erstes  Verzeichniss  der  ihm  aus  dem  Kanton  Grau- 

bunden     bekannt     gewordenen      Pilze.       Jahresber.      Naturf. 

Gesellsch.  Graubiindens,  N.  F.  34:  1-73.  1891. 

Die  Pilze.    Dalla  Torre  u.  Sarntheim,  Flora  von  Tirol, 


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Maine  Harvey,  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  CI.  i896-'99.— White,  Bull.  Torr. 
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Malay  Peninsula     Saccardo  &  Paoletti,  Att.  R.  1st.  1888. 

Marchand,  L.  finumeration  methodique  et  raisonee  des  Fa- 
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synopsis  of  the  genera  of  Myxomycetes.) 

Martin.  Ch.  E.  Contributions  a  la  Flore  mycologique  Genevoise. 
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Clef  dichotomique  des   Myxomycetes  comprenant 

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MeUgcnetU     Celakovsky,  Sitz.  Bohm.  Ges.  1877— Vouk,  Oesterr. 

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Phobochemotaxis     Kusano,  Bot.   Mag.  Tokyo.   1907. 

Physiology  DeBary,  Morph.  u.  Phys.  1866— Zopf,  Pilzthiere.  1885. 
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Pirn,  Greenwood  The  Fungi  of  the  Counties  of  Dublin  and  Wick- 
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Pinoy,  K.  Necessite  de  la  presence  d'une  Bacteric  pour  obtenir  la 
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Raciborski,  M.  Przyczynek  do  Znajomosci  Sluzowcow.  (Myxomy- 
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Sluzowce  Krakowa  i  jego  okolicy.   (Myxomycetes  of 

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Myxomyceten    der    Tatra.      Hedwigia.    24:    168-170. 


1885.  (31  species.  Desscribes  new  species  in  Fuligo  and  Cribraria.) 
Bemerkungen  iiber  einige  in  den  letzten  Jahren  bc- 


schriebene   Myxomyceten.     Hedwigia.   26:    109-111.    1887,      (Brief 
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Ueber  einige  neue  Myxomyceten  Polens.     Hedwigia. 


28:  1 1 5- 1 24.  1889.    (New  species  in  Lamproderma,  Chondrioderma, 
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Ueber  die  javanischen   Schleimpilze.     Hedwigia.  37 : 


50-55.  1898.  (Lists  67  species.  Describes  as  new  Physarum  bogo- 
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Raunkiaer,  C.  Myxomycetes  Daniae  eller  Danmarks  Slimsvampe. "  Bo- 
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1889.)  (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber.  16*:  311.  1890.)  (Includes  descrip- 
tion in  English  of  new  species  in  Enteridium,  Perichaenella,  Didy- 
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Riechling,  G.  A.  Contributions  to  the  recorded  Fungus  and  Slime- 
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Relationships     (See  AfHnities.) 

Renault,  B.  Parasites  des  Ecorces  de  Lepidodendrons.  Le  Natural - 
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Recticularia  DeCandolIe,  Bull.  Soc.  philomat.  1798.  (R). — Debey, 
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Rex,  G.  A.  Siphoptychium  Casparyi,  Rost.  Botanical  Gazette.  9:  176. 
1884. 

The  Myxomycetes,  their  Collection  and  Preserva- 
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The   Banded- Spore   Trichias.     Joum.   of   Mycology. 

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and  "T.  Jackii".) 

Notes  on  the  Development  of  Tubulina  cylindrica  and 


Allied  Species  of  Myxomycetes.     Botanical  Gazette.   15:  315-320. 
1890.  (Just.  Bot.  Jahresber,  18':  201.  1892.) 
A   Remarkable   Variation   of   Stemonitis   Bauerlinii. 


Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Philadelphia.  1890*:  36-37.  1890.  (Describes 
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Trichia  proximella,  Karst.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Phil- 


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1894.)       (Describes    new    species    in    Physarum,    Chondrioderma, 
Stemonitis,     Comatricha,     Cribraria,     Trichia    and     Hemiarcyria. 
Dianema,  nov.  gen.,  described.) 
Hemiarcyria   clavata,   Rost.     Proc.   Acad.    Nat.    Sc. 


Philadelphia,  1891 :  407-408.  1891. 

On  the  (jenus  Lindbladia.      Botanical    Gazette.    17: 


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Diachaea  Thomasii,  a  New  Species  of  Myxomycetes. 


Proc.   Nat.  Acad.  Sc.  Philadelphia.   189a:  329.   1893.     1894:   289. 
1895. 

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Nat.  Sc.  Philadelphia.  1893:  364.  1894.     (Just,  Bot.  Jahresber.  21*: 
191.   1896.)      (New  species  in  Arcyria,  Trichia,   Diachaea,  Chon- 
drioderma, Craterium,  Physarum  and  Badhamia.) 
Notes  on  Cribraria  minutissima  and  Licea  minima. 


Botanical  Gazette.  19:  397-400.  1894. 
Rheotropism     Jonsson,  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  1883. — Zopf,  Pilz- 

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1897.     (See  also  under  General  and  Monographs.) 
Rhumbler,  L.     Zellenmechanik  und  Zellenleben.     Naturw.  Rundschau, 

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422  Colorado  Coixege  Publication. 

Rimmer,  F.     Algen,  Bacillariaceen  und  Pilze  aus  dcr  Umgebung  von 

St.  Pol  ten.     Jahresbcr.  Nicdcrostcrr.  Landes-Lehrer-Scminars   St. 

Polten.  p.  1-22.  1892.     (Lists  4  Myxomycetes.) 
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(Mentions  Aethalium  septicum  on  Begonia  plants.) 

Notizen   aus   Belgien   und   Holland;    Ref.  by    Noack, 

Zeitschr.  f.  Pflankenkrankh.  13:  267-268.  1903.  (Notes  harmful 
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Rocky  Mountains    (Canada)      Cheesman,   Trans.    Brit.    Myc.   Soc. 

1911. 
Rolland,  L.  &  Fautrey,  F.     Especes  nouvelles  de  la  cote  d'Or.     Rev. 

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Ronn,  H.     Die   Myxomyceten  des  nordostlichen    Holsteins.      Schrift. 

Naturwissensch.  Vereins,  Schleswig-Holstein.  15:  20-76.  191 1. 

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19 1 2.)     (Includes  a  study  of  development  and  factors  influencing 

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Rosanoff,  S.     De  Tlnfluence  de  TAttraction  terrestre  sur  la  Direction 

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Cherbourg.  14:  149-172.  i  pi.  1868. 
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Pilze.    Cohn,  Beitr.  f .  Biol.  Pflanzen.  6 :  245.  1892. 

Die  systematische    Stellung  der    Spalt-und    Schlcim- 

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Rostafinski,  J.  Sluzowce  (Mycetozoa)  Monografia.  432  pp.  13  pis 
Paris.  1875.     Supplement.  43  pp.  i  pi.  1876. 

Rostrup,  E.  Fungi  Groenlandiae.  Oversigt  over  Gronlands  Svampe. 
Meddel.  om  Gronland.  3:  579.  1888.  (2  Myxomycetes.)  Id.  (Sup- 
plement) p.  633.  1891.     (4  Myxomycetes.) 

Sygdomme   hos   Landbrugsplanter,    foraarsogcde    of 

Snyltesvampe.  (Diseases  of  Agricultural  plants  caused  by  Fungi.) 
Landhoskrifter  No.  V.  T70  pp.,  illus.,  Copenhagen.  1893.  (Just  Bot. 
Jahresber.  21*:  437.  1896.)      (Includes  5  Myxomycetes.) 

Oest-Gronlands  Svampe.     Meddel.  om.  Gronland.  18: 


43-81.  1896.     (Includes  i   Myxomycete.) 
Myxomycet    paa    Rosenblade.      Gartner-Tidcnde.    8 


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Rothert,     W.      O     mikcomizetach,     naiddenich     blis     goroda     Rigi. 
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(Critical  notes  on  occurrence  and  distribution  of  45  species.) 
Roumeguere,  C.     Cryptogamie  Illustree  ou  Histoire  des  Families  nat- 
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Singuliere  reproduction  d'une  Myxogastree :  Stemonitis 


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A  propos  de  la  Monographic  (Rostafinski)  des  Myx- 


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Myxomycetes.) 

Fungi  Veneti  novi  vel  critici.     Michelia.   i :   7i»  72, 


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Fungorum   Extra-Europaeorum    Pugillus.      Michelia. 


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4^4  Colorado  College  Publication. 


Fungi     Boreali-Americani.      Michelia.    2;    566.    1882. 

(2  Myxomycetes.    Describes  Amaurochaetc  minor,  n.  s,) 

Myxomyceteae ;  in  Sylloge  Fungorum.  10:  83-99.  1892. 


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Saccardo,  P.  A.  &  Paoletti,  G..    Mycetes  Malacenses.     Atti  R.   Istit. 
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Saccardo,  P.  A.  &  D.    Myxomyceteae;  in  Sylloge  Fungorum.  18:  208- 

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Saccardo,  P.  A.  &  Sydow,  P.     Myxomyceteae;  in  Sylloge  Fungorum. 

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scattered  references  to  the  Myxomycetes.) 
Saunders,  J.    The  Mycetozoa  of  South  Beds  and  North  Herts.    Journ. 

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Mycetozoa  of  the  South  Midlands.     Journ.  of  Bot- 
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The  Mycetozoa.     Science  Gossip,  N.  S.  8:  4-6.  Lon- 


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Mycetozoa   of   Switzerland.     Science   (jossip,   N.    S. 


8:   221-222.     London.   1901. 

Mycetozoa  of  Hertfordshire.     Victor.   Hist.   County 


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Distribution   of   the    Mycetozoa   in    the    South    Mid- 


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Saville  Kent    See  Kent. 

Saxony  Schubert,  in  Ficinus,  Flora  Geg.  Dresden.  1823.  (R). — 
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Scandinavia  (See  also  Norway  and  Sweden.)  Retzius,  Flora 
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SchaflFner,  J.  H.  Myxomycetes  of  Clay  County,  Kansas.  Trans.  Kan- 
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BiBUOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MyXOMYCETES.  425 

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Sheldon,  E.  P.  A  Study  of  some  Minnesota  Mycetozoa.  Bull.  Geol. 
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Siberia    Karsten,  Meddel.  F.  &  F.  1884. 

Siphoptycfaium     Rex,  Bot.  Gaz.  1884. 

Smith,  E.  F.  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Plant  Diseases,  Vol.  II.  Wash- 
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W.  G.     (See  Tubeuf,  Diseases  of  Plants.) 

Sommerfelt,  S.  C.     Tre  nye  cryptogame    Planter,    opdagede    og    be- 

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Sorauer,  P.,  Lindau,  G.  &  Reh,  L.  Handbuch  der  Pflanzenkrank- 
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Sorokin,  N.  Observations  on  the  Movements  of  the  Plasmodia  of 
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South  America  (See  also  Argentina,  Bolivia,  etc.)  Hennings, 
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South  Carolina    Saccardo,  Fung.  Extra- Eur.  1882. 

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Strasser,  P.  Nachtrage  iiber  die-  Pilzflora  des  Sonntagberges.  Ver- 
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Sturgis,  W.  C.  On  Two  New  or  Imperfectly  Known  Myxomycetes. 
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Notes  on  some  Type-Specimens  of  Myxomycetes  in 

the  New  York  State  Museum.  Trans.  Connecticut  Acad.  Arts  & 
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The   Myxomycetes   of   Colorado.     Colorado   College 


Publication,  Science  Ser.,  la:  1-43.   1907.     (A  general  account  of 

the  group  and  critical  notes  on  94  species.) 
Sumatra     Fischer,  Mitth.  Naturf.  Ges.  1907. 
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Toumey,  J.  W.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Cause  and  Nature  of  Crown- 
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LANGUAGE  SOOEa-yol.  a 

A  Note  Upon  Dryden's  Heroic  Stanzas  on  the  Death  of  Cromwell. 

Edward  S,  Parsons.  ;  ^ 

Some  Defects  in  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages.— ^S/orr 

WHlard  CutHhg,  Unwersify  of  Chicago.  . 
A  Plea  for  More  Spanish  in  the  Schools  of  C6Iorado.-^£/i;aA 

Clarenci  HUls,  '  ^    ^ 

Th^    Evolution     of     Maeterlinck's     Dramatic     Theory.— EUjUh 

Clarice  Hills.  \ .'  - 

A  Study  ol  English  Blank  Verse,  1558-1632.— PmciV/a  Pletcher. 
Ix>wcirs  Conception  of  Poetry .---JSrfwarrf  ,?.  Pflr^aity. 
The  Church  and  Education;— JSrfa^flfrf  S.  Parsons. 
Literature  as  a  Force  in  Character  Building. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 
Relation  of  the  Home  to  the  Crimirial. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 
.  Jonson  and  Milton  on  Shakespeare. — Edward  S.  Parsons, 
Rousseaa  and  Wordsworth. — Homer  E.  Woodbridge. 
Xhe  Supernatural   in   Hawthorne   and    Poe» — Benjantin,  Mather 

Woodbridge. 
"Much  Ado  about  Nothing"  and  JBen  Jonson's  "The  Case  is 

Altered."— //om^  E.  Woodbridge. 
A  Note  on  "Henry  Y"\^Homer  E.  Woodbridge.  . 

ENGINEERING  SEKIES-VoL  t 

No.    I,    The  Fusibility  and  Fluidity    of    Titaniferous     Silicates. — Zr.  .  C 
'   Lennox  and  C.  N.  Cox,  Jk 
"     2.    The  Design  of  a  Low-Tension  Switch-Board. — Vmwn  T.  Brigkam, 
"     3.    The  Roasting  of  Telluride  Ores.— «.  L.  Mack  and  G.  H.  Scibird./ 
"     4.    Further  Notes  on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado.— £dtt'ar/f  R.  Warren. 
'\     ^r  The  Movcrrient  of  Light  in  Crystals.-^C^or^^ 7.  F inlay, 
"  *  6i    Aaroti  Palraer^s  Computing  Scale. — Florian  Cajori 
^*     I.    John  E.  Fuller's  Circular  Slide  Rule$«— F/arta»  Caiori. 
"     8.    A  Proposed  List  of  Experiments  for  a  Course  in  Electrical  Engi- 
neering Laboratory.— ^/oAn  Mdls.  - 
"    9.  ,  A?i  Outline  of  Mineralogy. — George  /.  Finlay.  ^ 
"    10,    On  the  Invention  of  the  Slide  Rule. — Florian  Cajori. 

^  n.  A  Study  of  the  Advisability  of  Electrification  of  the  Arkansas 
Junction-Basalt  Division  of  the  Colorado  Midland  Railroad. 
Abstract  by  George  B.  Thomas: 

"  12.  Notes  on  a  GrajAical  Method  of  Dealing  with  Water  Supply.— 
William  A\  BartMt  -.    ' 


No. 

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COLORADO  COLLEGE  PUBtBS^ION -) 

GENERAL  SERmS  No*  68     ^ 
SCIENCE  SERIES  VOL.  XH..  No,  12.  Pp:  435  .  454 


No,  12.     The  Myxomycctcs  of  Colorado.     11. 

WdliamC  Stmgis 


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Managing  Editor        -        -         -        -        -      FtoRiAN  Cajow,  Pft- D. 


lo. 


C.  Bnxs,  Ph.  D.,  Litr.  D. 
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M.  HowEt  Ph«  Dm  Secretary. 


SCIENCE  SERIES. . 

Not.  1-29  Science  Beriet ,  1-4  Social  Science  Series  and  1-li  Mingttftfte  Series,  hare  appeared  in 
Qfhrado  CoUeg§  FuhHcation,  Vols.  1-10  inclusive.  Nos.  1-17  dcknce  Series,  1-3  Sbcial  Science  Series 
and  1-9  Langvace  Scries,  are  oot  of  print. 

SCIENCE  SERtES-VoL  XII. 
No.    I.    The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.— PF.  C.  Sturgis. 
"     a.    Stellar  Variability  and  Its  Causes.— F.  H.  Loud. 
*  "     3.    On  the  Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations,  by  Erland  Samuel 

Bring  (1786.^ — Translated  and  annotated  by  Florian  Cajori. 
**     4.    A  Comparison  of  Temperatures  (1906)  Between,  Colorado  Springs 

and  Lake  Moraine- — F.  H.  Loud. 
"     5.    Meteorological  Statistics  for.  1907. — F.  H.  Loud. 
"6.    The  Distribution  of  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  R^^— 

B.  C^  Schneider. 
"     7,    A  History  of  the  Arithmetical  Methods  of  Ai^roximation  to  the 

Roots  of  Numerical  Equations  of  One  Unknown  Quantity. — 

Florian  Cajori. 
"     8.    The  Succession  of  Plant  Life  on  the  Gravel  Slides  in  the  Vicinity 

of  Pike's    Peak. — Edward  C.  Schneider. 
"     9.    The  History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy. — Edward  R.  Warren, 
"  10.    The  Pariasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.— Afawric^  C.  Hall 
^'  11.  A  Guide  to  the  Botanical  Literature  of  the  Myxomycetes  from 

1875   to    1912.— William  C.  Sturgis. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE  SERIES -Vol  U. 

No.     I.    The  Cripple  Creek  Strike,  1893-4.— S.  M.  RastaU. 
"     2.    Tributes  to  the  Late  General  WilKam'J.  Palmer  ^from  his  Fellow 

Citizens  in  Colorado  Springs. — ^Edited  by  Mary  C  Slocum. 
"3.    The  Nation's  Guarantee  of  Personal  Rights.-^resid^nt  W.  F, 
Slocum.  . 


«ARVA«0  CClllGC  imkWi 

CIKC?  IMC 

»UCU>tU  SCMCOL  Cf  WUCATIW 

ESSiA  MtftTITUTE  COlUCTlii 


THE  MYXOMYCETES  OF  COLORADO.    II. 


By  W.  C.  Sturgis. 


The  following  notes  on  Colorado  Myxomycetes  are  the 
result  mainly  of  collecting  trips  made  to  various  portions  of 
the  State  during  the  past  two  summers.  The  work  is  supple- 
mentary to  my  first  paper  on  the  subject,  published  by  the 
Trustees  of  Colorado  College  in  1907,  as  No.  1  of  Vol.  XII, 
in  the  Science  Series.  Hence,  except  in  a  few  instances  where 
further  notes  seemed  advisable,  the  species  herein  recorded 
are  new  to  Colorado.  The  localities  which  have  been  fairly 
thoroughly  explored  are  as  follows.  They  form  together  only 
a  small  fraction  of  the  accessible  area  of  the  State,  but  they 
are  representative  of  most  of  the  conditions  determining  the 
distribution  of  plant-life  in  Colorado,  except  the  arid  plains. 

Colorado  Springs  and  neighborhood  within  a  radius  of 
five  miles,  including  Pike  View  and  Cheyenne  Mt.,  the  former 
presenting  a  sandy  creek-bottom,  with  dominant  vegetation 
of  Populus  angustifolia  and  undergrowth  of  Symphoricarpos 
and  Clematis  ligusticifolia;  alt.  6,000-6,200  ft.  Cheyenne  Mt., 
alt.  9,400  ft.;  dry,  rocky  slopes  with  dominant  vegetation  of 
Pinus  spp.  and  Populm  tremuloides ;  dry  or  moist  ravines  with 
Picea  pungens  and  P,  Engelmannii,  Populus  spp.,  and  under- 
growth of  Rubus  spp.,  Ribes  spp.,  Rosa  spp.,  and  Acer  gla- 
brum. 

Tolland,  Northwest  of  Denver,  on  the  East  slope  of  the 
Continental  Divide,  alt.  9,000  ft.;  a  very  varied  region  with 
dry  Pinus  slopes;  cold,  damp  forests  of  Pseudotsuga,  Picea 
spp.,  and  Abies  lasiocarpa;  and  boggy  hillsides  with  dense 
thickets  of  Alnus  tenuifolia,  etc.  One  of  the  most  favorable 
localities  in  the  State  for  Myxomycetes. 

Pagosa  Springs,  Southwestern  Colorado,  near  the  New 


436  Colorado  College  Publication. 

Mexico  boundary,  alt.  7,000-7,500  ft. ;  dry,  rocky  hills,  rising 
from  the  narrow  valley  of  the  San  Juan  River.  Dominant 
vegetation,  Pittus  spp,,  with  scattered  growths  of  Pseudotsuga, 
Picea  and  Abies.  River-bottom  densely  covered  with  Populus 
spp.  and  Alnus;  soil  sandy,  much  shrubby  undergrowth. 

Wet  Mountain  Valley,  Custer  Co.,  West  of  Pueblo, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range.  The  forests  on 
the  East  slopes  of  the  mountains  (alt.  7,900-11,000  ft.),  af- 
ford an  excellent  field  for  the  collector.  Pinus  scopulorum  and 
P.  flexilis  form  the  dominant  vegation  of  the  lower,  drier 
slopes;  creek  beds  dense  with  Populus  spp.,  Acer  glabrum  and 
Alnus;  at  higher  elevations  dense  forest  of  Pinus  Murrayana, 
Pseudotsuga,  Abies  and  Picea;  intermediate  groves  of  Populus 
tremuloides. 

In  all  of  the  mountainous  localities  there  is  much  fallen, 
decaying  timber  which  affords  an  excellent  substratum  for 
lignicolous  Myxomycetes,  notably  Stemonitaceae,  Physaraceae 
and  Cribrariaceae.  On  the  other  hand  in  the  sandy  creek-bot- 
toms, with  their  dense  cover  of  Symphoricarpos  and  Clematis, 
are  to  be  found  in  abundance  such  foliicolous  species  as  Didy- 
mium  anellus,  D.  Clavus,  D.  nigripes,  Craterium  leucocepha- 
Ittm,  Diachaea  subsessilis,  Perchaena  vermicularis,  etc.  Where- 
ever  the  larger  species  of  Populus  occur,  their  fallen  trunks 
usually  afford  fine  gatherings  of  Badliamia  spp.,  Perichaena 
depressa.  Trie  It  ia  contorta,  Physarum  auriscalpium,  Lycogala 
flavo'fuscum,  etc. 


CERATIOMYXA  PORIOIDES,  {A.  &  S.)  Schroet. 
This  form,  common  throughout  the  rest  of  the  United  States, 
has  not  been  hitherto  reported  from  Colorado.  In  July,  1912,  it 
was  found,  though  not  in  abundance,  in  the  Wet  Mountain 
Valley.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  although  C.  fruticulosa  was 
found  in  great  abundance  in  the  same  locality,  no  intermediate 
forms  were  seen. 

BADHAMIA     UTRICULARIS,     {Bull.)     Berk.    and. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  437 

B.  MAGNA,  {Pk,)List.  These  two  forms  may  properly  be 
considered  together,  both  on  account  of  their  extremely  close 
relationship  and  because  of  their  frequent  occurrence  together 
in  the  same  locality.  It  is  rather  strange  that  there  should  have 
been  heretofore  only  one  record  of  B,  utricularis  from  Colo- 
rado, inasmuch  as  it  is  apparently  not  uncommon,  growing  on 
the  under  side  of  partially  supported  fallen  trunks  of  Populus 
in  damp  localities.  It  was  found,  in  fine  condition,  on  Sep- 
tember 24th,  in  the  Wet  Mountain  Valley.  The  loosely  clus- 
tered spores  vary  in  color  from  pale  to  bright  umber,  are  less 
distinctly  spinulose  than  those  of  European  gatherings,  and 
measure  8-11.5  /*  in  diameter,  when  spherical.  Frequently 
the  spores  are  oval. 

The  form  known  as  B,  magna  is  much  more  abundant 
than  the  typical  B,  utricularis.  During  the  past  two  years  it 
has  been  collected  at  Pike  View  near  Colorado  Springs,  at 
Tolland,  and  in  the  Wet  Mountain  Valley.  All  of  the  speci- 
mens have  been  examined  with  the  utmost  care  and  com- 
pared with  the  type  of  B.  magna  and  with  authentic  material 
of  B.  utricularis  received  from  the  late  Mr.  Arthur  Lister.  So 
far  as  the  form  and  habit  of  the  sporangia  are  concerned, 
the  two  species  present  no  appreciable  differences.  The  capil- 
litium  of  B,  magna  has,  possibly,  a  tendency  to  be  less  calcare- 
ous and  rigid  than  that  of  B,  utricularis.  It  is  only  in  the 
spores  that  any  difference  is  discernible,  those  of  B.  utricularis 
being  usually  very  loosely  clustered  and  of  a  pale  to  bright 
umber  color,  while  in  B.  magna  they  are  always  free  and  vary 
in  color  from  dull  umber  to  purplish  brown.  As  a  rule  too, 
the  spore-markings  are  coarser  in  the  case  of  B,  ultricularis, 
though  the  specimens  from  the  Wet  Mountain  Valley  show 
minutely  spinulose  spores  as  in  the  case  of  typical  B.  magna. 
A  careful  series  of  measurements  shows  the  dimensions  of  the 
spores  to  be  practically  the  same  in  both  species — B,  utricula- 
rius,  8-11.5  fi.;  B,  magna,  8.5-11.7  fi. 

BADHAMIA  DECIPIENS,  (Curt,)  Berk.  This  rare 
species,  hitherto  reported,  in  America,  only  from  the  Eastern 


438  Colorado  College  Publication. 

States,  was  found  on  Cheyenne  Mt.,  in  September,  1908,  and 
again  in  August,  1909.  The  specimens  show  some  noteworthy 
divergences  from  the  normal  form.  They  consist  of  sessile, 
globose  sporangia  or  short  plasmodiocarps,  with  membranous 
walls,  orange  toward  the  base  and  paler  above.  Many  of  the 
sporangia  are  bronze-iridescent  from  the  absence  of  lime;  in 
other  cases  they  are  more  or  less  incrusted  with  yellow- 
stained,  rugose  deposits  of  lime.  The  capillitium  consists  of 
large,  branching,  pale-yellow  lime-knots  with  a  few  connect- 
ing threads.  The  spores  are  purplish  brown,  more  or  less 
ovoid,  minutely  spinulose,  and  measure  8-10  fu  diam.  Some 
years  ago  I  received  precisely  this  same  divergent  form  of 
B.  decipiens  from  Mr.  Hugo  Bilgram  of  Philadelphia. 

BADHAMIA  MACROCARPA,  (Ces.)  Rost.  Professor 
W.  G.  Farlow  of  Harvard  University  has  submitted  to  me  a 
fine  gathering  of  this  species  made  by  Mr.  E.  Bethel  of  Denver, 
in  February,  1910,  on  old  Yuccq  stems  at  Leyden,  Colo.  The 
crowded  sporangia  are  usually  supported  on  short,  pale  yel- 
low, membranous  stalks.  The  spores  are  purplish  brown, 
minutely  and  more  or  less  evenly  spinulose  and  marked  in 
addition  with  the  peculiar  bands  or  ridges  characteristic  of  the 
spores  of  Badhamia  populina;  they  measure  12-14 /*.  diam. 

During  the  summer  of  1912,"  this  species  was  repeatedly 
found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Colorado  Springs,  growing  in- 
conspicuously but  abundantly  on  dead  leaves  and  twigs,  in 
company  with  various  species  of  Didymium  and  Physarum, 
beneath  tangled  masses  of  Clematis.  If  the  Leyden  specimen 
be  taken  as  one  extreme  in  the  series  designated  by  the  name 
Badhamia  macrocarpa,  these  specimens  represent  the  other. 
The  scattered  stipitate  sporangia,  0.5  mm.  in  diameter,  are 
turbinate  or  discoid  and  plane  or  concave  above;  the  blackish 
stalks  measure  0.25  mm.  in  height  and  somewhat  less  in  thick- 
ness; the  white  lime-knots  of  the  capillitium  are  large  and 
angular  and  are  connected  by  short  threads ;  the  spores  are  very 
dark  purplish  brown,  strongly  spinulose  on  one  side,  paler  and 
smoother  on  the  other,  and  measure  12-14.5  /*.  diam.      Were 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  439 

it  not  for  the  dark  spores,  these  specimens  would  unques- 
tionably be  placed  under  Badhamia  orbiculata,  Rex.  In  this 
connection  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  specimen  distributed 
in  Klotzsch,  Herb.  Viv.  MycoL,  No.  1968,  under  the  name 
Physarum  macrocarpon,  Ces,,  appears  to  combine  the  char- 
acters of  Badhamia  macrocarpa  and  B.  orbictdata,  showing 
sporangia  either  sessile  or  borne  on  short,  stout,  dark  brown 
stalks,  and  a  capillitium  consisting  of  stiff,  branching  tubules 
with  few  expansions  and  scanty  lime.  The  spores  however, 
are  dark  purple  brown,  and  measure  11-13/t.  diam. 

PHYSARUM  LEUCOPUS,  Link.  A  single  scanty  gath- 
ering of  this  species  was  made  on  Cheyenne  Mt.,  September 
10th,  1908.    It  appears  to  be  decidedly  rare. 

PHYSARUM  LUTEO- ALBUM,  List.  In  August,  1911, 
a  most  extraordinary  species  of  Physarum  was  foimd  growing 
on  decayed  wood  in  the  Wet  Mountain  Valley.  The  globose 
sporangia,  bronze-iridescent  from  the  absence  of  lime,  are 
borne,  singly  or  in  pairs,  on  thick  stalks  of  a  spongy  texture, 
densely  charged  with  white  lime  stained  with  orange  above. 
Rarely  they  form  plasmodiocarps  seated  upon  a  white  base. 
The  sporangium  wall  is  membranous  and  bright  yellow  or 
orange.  The  capillitium,  rigid  and  persistent,  is  composed  of  a 
network  of  delicate,  anastomosing  tubules,  slightly  expanded  at 
the  angles,  pale  yellow  in  color,  and  with  occasional  angular, 
mellow  lime-knots.  Some  of  the  sporangia  show  a  small,  coni- 
al  columella.  The  spores  are  purplish  brown,  strongly  spinu- 
lose,  and  measure  12-14  /*.  diam. 

These  specimens  were  so  unlike  any  form  of  Physarum 
known  to  me  that  I  submitted  them  to  Miss  G.  Lister,  by  whom 
they  were  determined  as  P.  luteo-album.  This  is  the  first 
record  of  the  species  in  America.  It  differs  from  the  European 
gatherings  only  in  the  absence  of  lime  on  the  sporangia. 

PHYSARUM  VIRIDE,  (Bull.)  Pers.  var.  BETHELIL 
Macbr.  In  August,  1908,  I  collected  on  Cheyenne  Mt.,  near 
Colorado  Springs,  a  form  of  Physarum  characterized  by  a 


440  Colorado  College  Publication. 

rather  robust  habit;  a  peculiar  greenish  yellow  color;  large, 
branching,  pale  yellow  lime-knots,  and  rather  dark,  violet- 
brown,  distinctly  spinulose  spores  measuring  8.5-9.8  fi.  diam. 
Specimens  were  submitted  to  Miss  Lister,  who  determined 
them  as  P.  Bethelii,  Macbr.,  a  species  based  on  a  small  gath- 
ering made  by  Mr.  Bethel,  of  Denver,  and  diflFering  from 
P.  viride  in  the  stouter  habit,  coarser  capillitium  and  some- 
what darker  spores.  Since  that  time  I  have  made  a  number 
of  gatherings  on  Cheyenne  Mt.  and  in  the  Wet  Mt.  Valley, 
which  throw  doubt  on  the  validity  of  P.  Bethelii,  Some  are 
bright  yellow  in  color,  scattered  and  delicate,  or  sessile  and 
aggregated  in  clusters,  with  small  and  fusiform,  or  rod-like 
and  branching  lime-knots,  and  with  rather  dark  violet-brown 
spores.  In  others  the  sporangia  are  greenish  yellow  with 
rather  large  lime-knots,  but  with  paler  violet-brown  spores. 
Others  again,  with  the  darker  spores,  show  small,  fusiform 
lime-knots.  In  fact  the  darker  spores  and  the  coarser  capilli- 
tium do  not  occur  together  in  the  same  gathering  with  sufficient 
frequency,  to  warrant  our  considering  them  as  specific  char- 
acters. P.  Bethelii  appears  to  bear  the  same  relationship  to 
P.  viride,  as  do  the  stouter  varieties  of  several  stipitate  species 
of  Physarum  to  the  species  themselves. 

PHYSARUM  MAYDIS,  (Morg.)  Torrend,  The  larger 
lime-knots  and  the  slender,  reddish  brown,  translucent  stalks, 
may  serve  to  distinguish  this  species  from  forms  of  P.  viride, 
though  the  above  notes  under  that  species  indicate  a  very  close 
relationship.  It  also  approaches  P.  flavicomum,  Berk,  more 
closely  than  is  convenient.  An  authentic  specimen  of  P.  May- 
dis,  received  from  Mr.  Morgan,  shows  rather  large,  angular 
lime-knots,  clear  yellow  in  color,  often  with  darker  centers,  and 
pale,  smoky-brown  spores,  8-10  fi  diam.,  minutely  and  irreg- 
ularly spinulose,  the  spinules  being  more  or  less  grouped  in 
clusters.  With  this,  a  specimen  collected  on  Cheyenne  Mt.  in 
August,  1912,  agrees  in  all  essential  respects. 

PHYSARUM  CARNEUM,  List,  &  Sturgis.    This  spe- 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  441 

cies  was  described  by  Miss  Lister,  (Monograph  of  the  My- 
cetozoa,  p.  63,)  from  specimens  gathered  by  me  on  Cheyenne 
Mt.,  September  10th,  1908.  It  has  not  been  foimd  since  then. 
In  many  of  its  features  it  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  P. 
citrinum,  Schum,,  and  were  it  not  for  the  complete  absence 
of  lime  in  the  stalk,  I  should  have  no  hesitation  in  referring  it 
to  that  species.  It  is  also  related  to  such  forms  as  P. 
citrinellufn,  Pk,  and  Craterium  aureum,  (Schum.)  Rost,,  to  the 
latter  especially  in  the  somewhat  cartilaginous  base  of  the 
sporangium  wall  merging  into  the  translucent,  sulcate,  golden 
yellow  stalk,  (described  by  Miss  Lister  as  "pinkish  flesh- 
coloured").  For  the  present  P.  cameum  may  be  retained  as  a 
distinct  species,  but  it  is  more  than  likely  that  future  gather- 
ings will  prove  its  identity  with  one  of  the  above-mentioned 
species. 

PHYSARUM  BRUNNEOLUM,  (Phill)  Mass.  What 
appears  to  be  this  species  occurred  in  considerable  abundance 
on  the  dead  bark  of  Populus  on  Mt.  Manitou  near  Colorado 
Springs,  in  July,  1912.  The  gregarious  sporangia,  or  short 
plasmodiocarps,  are  dirty  white  or  tawny  in  color,  and  the 
sporangia  occasionally  show  short,  dark  stalks.  The  wall  is 
smooth  externally,  cartilaginous  in  texture  and  ruptures  either 
in  a  circumcissile  manner  or  in  revolute  lobes,  exposing  the 
white,  rugose  inner  surface.  The  capillitium  consists  of  abun- 
dant, large,  rounded  lime-knots,  connected  by  short  threads. 
The  spores  are  dark  purplish  brown,  coarsely  spinulose  and 
measure  10-11  fi.  diam. 

It  may  here  be  noted  that  a  remarkable  gathering  of  this 
species  has  been  submitted  to  me  by  Prof.  Thaxter,  of  Harvard 
University.  The  sporangia  are  very  large,  measuring  as  much 
as  1.5  mm.  in  diameter,  as  compared  with  0.7  mm.  in  the  speci- 
men noted  above;  the  spores  are  somewhat  larger  and  paler. 
This  gathering  was  made  at  Punta  Arenas,  Chili,  in  March, 
1906. 

PHYSARUM  PUSILLUM,  (Burk.  &  Curt.)  List.    This 


442  Colorado  College  Publication. 

species  is  probably  common  throughout  Colorado  but  has  been 
overlooked  owing  to  its  extraordinary  resemblance  in  gross 
characters  to  Didymium  nigripes,  Fr.  It  was  found  in  some 
abundance  at  Pike  View,  Colo.,  in  August,  1912,  growing  on 
dead  twigs  and  leaves  under  tangled  masses  of  Clematis,  in 
company  with  the  var,  eximium  of  the  above-mentioned  Didytn- 
turn.  The  latter  was  found  in  such  quantity  that  it  was  neg- 
lected, and  it  was  only  later  that  the  presence  of  the  Physarum 
was  recognized  in  the  small  amount  of  material  saved. 

PHYSARUM  NUTANS,  Pers,,  subsp.  LEUCO- 
PHAEUM.  (fr.)  List.  A  typical  gathering  of  this  form  was 
made  at  Pike  View  in  August,  1912,  associated  with  the 
Physarum  and  Didymium  above-mentioned.  It  appears  to  be 
fairly  common. 

PHYSARUM  COMPRESSUM,  Alb.  &  Schw.  In  the 
Wet  Mt.  Valley  in  August,  1911,  and  in  August  of  the  follow- 
ing year  at  Tolland,  occurred  a  species  of  Physarum  which,  on 
account  of  its  apparently  sessile  habit,  abundant  rounded  lime- 
knots  and  very  dark  spores,  I  was  inclined  to  place  under 
P.  vemum,  Somm.  A  specimen  was  submitted  to  Miss  Lister 
however,  and  by  her  determined  as  P.  compressum.  The 
sporangia  are  usually  sessile,  but  occasionally  one  is  found 
which  shows  a  tendency  to  form  a  stalk,  though  the  latter  is 
hardly  more  than  the  thickened,  tapering  base  of  a  turbinate 
sporangium.  The  membranous  sporangium-wall  is  purplish 
toward  the  base;  the  capillitium  consists  of  roimded,  tri- 
angular or  polygonal  white  lime-knots,  connected  by  delicate 
threads;  the  spores  are  dark  purplish  brown,  9-10 /*.  diam. 

In  a  previous  publication  (Colo.  College  Publ.,  Sc.  Ser. 
XII,  p.  16)  I  expressed  myself  as  in  favor  of  following 
Macbride  in  adopting  Rostafinski's  designation  nephroideum 
for  this  species.  I  am  still  of  this  opinion,  in  case  P,  com- 
pressum, A.  &  S.  and  P.  connatum  (Peck)  List.,  are  one  and 
the  same  species,  as  Macbride,  following  Rostafinski,  concludes. 
(N.  Amer.  Slime-Moulds,  p.  41).     If  however,  the  former 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  443 

differs  from  the  latter  in  its  more  or  less  compressed  sporangia 
and  more  rounded  lime-knots,  it  may  be  convenient  to  regard 
these  as  specific  differences.  As  to  the  validity  of  the  narrie 
first  given  by  Albertini  and  Schweinitz  to  the  compressed  form, 
it  at  least  represents  now  a  definite  thing  and  hence  seems 
worthy  of  being  retained. 

PHYSARUM  CONTEXTUM,  Pers,  A  peculiar  form 
of  this  common  species  was  found  on  Cheyenne  Mt.  in  August, 
1912.  Externally  it  presents  no  differences  from  the  normal 
form,  except  that  the  color  is  more  pronounced,  being  a  clear 
chrome  yellow.  This  color  however,  is  also  seen  in  the  lime- 
knots,  which  are  bright  canary-yellow  instead  of  white.  The 
form  seems  worthy  of  record,  as  emphasizing  the  relation  be- 
tween this  species  and  P.  alpinum,  List. 

PHYSARUM  VIRESCENS,  Ditm.  A  fine  gathering  of 
this  species  was  made  at  Tolland,  Colo.,  late  in  August,  1912. 
It  occurred  on  the  bark  of  fallen  Abies  and  is  typical  in  every 
respect. 

FULIGO  MEGASPORA,  n,s.  Plasmodium?  Aethalia 
ptdvinate,  15-40  cm,  in  diameter,  covered  with  a  thick  spongy 
incrustation  of  lime,  white,  or  yelloivish  toward  the  base.  Com- 
ponent  sporangia  convoluted,  the  walls  membranous,  brittle, 
charged  throughout  with  round,  white  granules  of  lime  1,5-2 
fi,  in  diameter.  Columella  wanting.  Capillitium  rather 
scanty,  consisting  of  delicate,  colorless,  anastomosing  tubules, 
empty  where  they  arise  from  the  sporangium-walls,  but  to- 
ward the  center  expanded  in  branching  lime-knots  filled  zvith 
large,  white  granules  of  lime.  Spores,  when  fully  mature, 
spherical  or  somewhat  oval,  dark  purplish  brown,  closely  and 
coarsely  tuberculate,  the  tubercles  sometimes  arranged  in 
irregular  lines,  15-20  ft  diam.     (PI.  2,  figs.  1-3.) 

Hab.  on  dead  bark  of  Abies  and  Pinus,  and  on  tzvigs  on 
the  ground.  Cheyenne  Mt,,  Colorado  Springs,  Colo,,  July,  ipii, 
and  August,  1^12. 

This  remarkable  species  has  been  collected  twice  in  more 


444  Colorado  College  Publication. 

or  less  the  same  locality,  the  first  gathering  being  somewhat 
immature.  It  differs  from  F,  septica  in  the  uniformly  white 
color  of  the  lime  throughout  and  in  the  character  of  the  spores. 
From  F.  cinerea  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  spongy  texture 
of  the  cortex,  the  large  lime-granules  and  the  very  large,  dark 
spores.    (Cf.  PI.  2,  figs.  3,4,  &  5.) 

Some  months  ago  I  received  from  Miss  Lister  a  small 
fragment  of  a  Fuligo  collected  by  Dr.  R.  E.  Fries,  of  Upsala, 
at  Lake  Albert  Edward,  Kongo,  Africa.,  together  with  the  sug- 
gestion that  the  specimen  might  be  identical  with  those  found 
in  Colorado.  The  fragment  showed  large  lime-granules  and 
very  dark,  strongly  warted  spores,  12.5-17.5  /*  diam.  Miss  Lis- 
ter's suggestion  has  recently  been  confirmed  by  Dr.  Fries  who, 
after  comparing  his  African  gathering  with  a  specimen  of  my 
Fuligo  megaspora,  writes  me  that  they  are  identical. 

DIDERMA  SPUMARIOIDES,  Fr.  This  very  common 
species  is  referred  to  here  on  account  of  a  large  gathering 
made  in  the  Wet  Mt.  Valley  in  September,  1912,  which  shows 
a  peculiar  feature.  The  threads  of  the  capillitium  frequently 
show  large,  fusiform  expansions  filled  with  white  lime.  These 
lime-knots  are  much  more  prominent  than  in  any  specimen  of 
D.  globosum  that  I  have  seen. 

DIDYMIUM  ANOMALUM,  n,s,  Plasmodium?  Spor- 
angia in  the  form  of  very  thin,  effused,  grey  plasmodiocarps, 
2-10  cm,  long,  i  mm.  or  less  in  thickness.  Wall  single,  mem- 
branous, hyaline  or  yellowish,  with  rather  scanty  deposits  of 
small,  stellately  crystalline  or  amorphous  lime.  Columella  none. 
Capillitium  consisting  entirely  of  straight,  membranous,  tubular 
columns,  extending  from  the  base  to  the  upper  wall  of  the 
plasmodiocarp,  7-22  fx  thick  and  usually  containing  small, 
crystalline  masses  of  lime.  Spores  bright  violet-brozvn,  min- 
utely and  irregularly  spinulose,  10.5-11.5  /a  diam.  (PI.  2, 
figs.^6-8.) 

Hab.  on  the  inner  bark  of  Populus.  Colorado  Springs, 
Colo.,  July,  ipii. 

This  anomalous  form  was  found  in  some  abundance,  un- 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  445 

accompanied  by  any  other.  The  plasmodiocarps  present  the 
appearance  of  small  smears  of  grey  paint  on  the  clean  surface 
of  the  bark,  the  resemblance  being  heightened  by  a  faint,  longi- 
tudinal striation  of  the  upper  surface.  It  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  an  effused  form  of  Badhamia  orbiculata,  especially  iu 
the  character  of  the  capillitium;  but  the  crystalline  lime-de- 
posits seem  to  exclude  it  from  that  genus.  That  it  is  a 
Didymium  I  have  no  doubt,  and  I  have  thought  it  well  to  pub- 
lish the  above  description  as  a  matter  of  record,  pending 
further  gatherings  of  the  same  or  a  similar  form. 

DIDYMIUM  CRUSTACEUM,  Fr.  Although  not  hith- 
erto reported  from  Colorado,  this  species  appears  to  be  fairly 
common.  It  has  been  found  at  Colorado  Springs,  in  the  Wet 
Mt.  Valley  and  at  Tolland.  While  usually  sessile,  the  stipitate 
condition  is  not  uncommon.  The  species  occurs  in  the  same 
localities  as  Mucilago  spongiosa,  from  which  it  presents  hardly 
any  marks  of  differentiation  except  the  habit.  Specimens  are 
before  me  which  might,  with  equal  propriety,  bear  either  name. 

DIDERMA  EFFUSUM,  {Schw.)  Morg,  Although  this 
is  a  very  common  species  throughout  the  Eastern  States  and  is 
reported  as  far  west  as  Nebraska,  it  has  been  found  but  once  in 
Colorado,  and  that  not  abundantly.  The  specimens  were  gath- 
ered in  the  Wet  Mt.  Valley  in  August,  1911,  and  are  in  the 
form  of  flattened,  separate  or  gregarious  sporangia,  resem- 
bling Didymium  difforme. 

DIDERMA  ASTEROIDES,  List.  A  gathering  of  this 
species,  made  on  Cheyenne  Mt.,  Colorado  Springs,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1908,  represents  its  first  recorded  occurrence  in  America. 
As  pointed  out  by  Miss  Lister  (Mon.  Mycet.,  p.  114),  it  closely 
resembles  D,  radiatum,  especially  the  darker  forms  of  that 
species.  The  Colorado  specimens,  which  have  been  authenti- 
cated by  Miss  Lister,  show  sessile,  globose  sporangia  of  a  rich 
chocolate-brown  color,  usually  seated  on  a  thin,  white  hypo- 
thallus. 

DIACHAEA  SUBSESSILIS,  Peck.     This  species  ap- 


446  Colorado  College  Publication. 

pears  to  be  fairly  common  throughout  Colorado.  It  has  been 
collected  at  Pike  View  near  Colorado  Springs,  in  the  Wet  Mt. 
Valley  and  at  Tolland.  The  Pike  View  specimens  are  note- 
worthy in  that  some  of  them  show  a  marked  approach  to  D. 
splendens,  the  spores  being  dark  purplish  brown  and  marked 
with  a  coarse  network  composed  of  blunt  spines.  Others  trom 
the  same  locality  show  the  normally  paler  spores  with  delicate 
reticulation.  All  agree  in  the  globose,  bronze-iridescent  spor- 
angia, and  the  conical,  or  sometimes  obsolete,  columellae. 

DIDYMIUM  QUITENSE,  (Pat.)  Torrend.  In  August, 
1912,  specimens  of  a  Didymium  were  collected  near  Colorado 
Springs  which,  at  first  sight,  were  taken  to  be  D.  difforme. 
The  scattered,  pulvinate,  white  sporangia,  with  shell-like  outer 
wall,  very  fragile  and  separating  easily  from  the  membranous 
inner  wall,  seemed  characteristic  of  that  species.  Closer  exam- 
ination however,  showed  that  these  specimens  could  not  be  so 
referred.  The  small  crystals  of  lime  forming  the  smooth, 
outer  crust  are  more  stellate  than  is  usual  in  D,  difforme;  the 
capillitium  consists  of  an  abundant  network  of  rather  stout, 
dark  threads,  frequently  dark-beaded,  paler  and  slightly  tap- 
ering at  the  extremities,  straight  or  rarely  f lexuose,  and  anas- 
tomosing freely,  thus  resembling  the  capillitium  of  D,  dubium. 
The  spores  however,  are  very  dark  purple-brown,  closely  and 
coarsely  warted,  and  measure  12-18  fi  diam.  PI.  2,  figs. 
13  &  14.) 

The  specimens  seem  referable  only  to  the  species  de- 
scribed by  Patouillard  (Bull.  Soc.  Myc.  Fr.  11:212,  1895) 
as  Chondriodertna  Quitense  and  properly  transferred  by  Tor- 
rend  to  the  genus  Didymium.  The  latter  author  writes  re- 
garding this  species,  "Differe  de  D.  difforme  par  son  capilli- 
tium plus  violace  et  ses  spores  fortement  echinulees  ou 
verruqueuses,  de  13-15  ft."  (Broteria  7. -90,  1908.).  Miss  Lis- 
ter (Mon.  Mycet.,  p.  126),  describes  the  spofe-sculpture  as  an 
imperfect  reticulation  composed  of  warts  and  ridges,  but 
Patouillard  (1.  c.)  merely  writes,  "Sporis  globosis,  13-15  /i 
diam.,  atro-violaceis,  verrucosis."    In  my  specimens  the  spores 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  447 

are  so  dark  that  even  under  an  oil-immersion  lens  and  with 
the  best  illumination  it  is  very  difficult  to  see  the  arrangement 
of  the  warts.  In  the  absence  of  means  of  comparison  other 
than  the  bare  description,  I  refer  my  specimens  as  above. 

DIDYMIUM  CLAVUS,  (Alb.  &  Schw.)  Rost.  This 
species  in  its  normal  form  of  disc-shaped,  stalked  sporangia 
has  been  found,  since  the  publication  of  my  previous  list  of 
Colorado  Myxomycetes,  occurring  abundantly  on  dry  twigs 
and  leaves  under  thickets  of  Sytnphoricarpos  and  Clematis.  A 
strictly  plasmodiocarpic  form,  externally  resembling  Badhamia 
orbiculata,  though  more  spreading  and  irregular  in  shape,  was 
found  on  bark  of  Abies  at  Pagosa  Springs,  in  August,  1911. 

LEPIDODERMA  TIGRINUM,  (Schrad.)  Rost.  This 
species  has  been  found  but  once  in  Colorado.  It  occurred  on 
moss  and  decayed  wood  in  spruce  forest  at  Tolland,  late  in 
August,  1912. 

STEMONITIS  FERRUGINEA,  Ehr.  In  my  previous 
list  of  Colorado  Myxomycetes  some  doubt  was  expressed  as  to 
whether  some  of  the  pale  ferruginous-spored  forms  of  Stem- 
onitis  occurring  so  frequently  throughout  the  United  States  and 
going  under  the  names  5*.  ferruginea,  S.  Smithii,  etc.,  might  not 
in  reality  be  the  European  species  5.  flavogenita,  Jahn,  distin- 
guished from  S.  ferruginea  by  its  yellow  plasmodium.  In  July, 
1912,  several  plasmodia  of  a  clear,  lemon-yellow  color  were 
observed  on  a  fallen  pine  trunk  in  the  Wet  Mt.  Valley.  Two 
days  later  these  had  matured  into  clusters  of  tall,  ferruginous 
sporangia  with  shiny,  black,  filiform  stalks.  They  had  all  the 
appearance  of  "Stemonitis  Smithii/'  but  the  yellow  Plasmo- 
dium was  puzzling.  Microscopic  examination  showed  the 
close,  firm,  small-meshed  net,  and  pale,  ferruginous,  minutely 
spinulose  spores,  5-6  ft  diam.,  characteristic  of  S.  ferruginea, 
as  contrasted  with  the  very  delicate  surface-net  and  ^spores 
measuring  7.5-9  fi  which  are  the  distinctive  features  of  a 
specimen  of  5.  flavogenita  sent  me  by  Miss  Lister.  It  appears 
therefore,  that  the  color  of  the  plasmodium  is  of  minor  diag- 


448  Colorado  College  Publication. 

nostic  value  in  the  case  of  S,  ferruginea,  and  that  it  is  this 
species  that  occurs  so  commonly  in  this  country.  5".  flavogenita 
has  never  been  reported  from  America. 

COMATRICHA  ELEGANS,  (Racib,)  List.  It  is  satis- 
factory to  note  that  in  the  second  edition  of  Lister's  Monograph 
this  form  is  transferred  to  the  genus  Comatricha  and  given  a 
recognized  position.  It  is  not  included  in  Macbride's  North 
American  Slime-Moulds  and  is  doubtless  rare.  I  have  col- 
lected it  twice  in  Colorado — in  the  Wet  Mt.  Valley,  July  26th, 
1912,  and  on  Cheyenne  Mt.,  August  2nd.,  of  the  same  year. 
The  specimens  are  typical,  though  the  first  gathering  is  re- 
markable in  showing  sporangia  with  stalks  2.5  mm.  in  length. 

ENERTHENEMA  SYNCARPON,  ».  s,  Plasmodiumr 
Total  height  0.6-0.8  mm.  Sporangia  scattered,  globose,  stalked, 
0.4-0.5  mm.  diam.,  black,  capped  with  the  expanded  apex  of  the 
columella.  Stalk  black,  cylindrical,  tapering  abruptly  where  it 
merges  into  the  columella,  0.25  mm.  or  less  high,  0.05-0.13  mm. 
thick.  Columella  straight,  slender,  slightly  tapering,  expanding 
at  the  apex  into  a  disc,  0.06-0.1  mm.  diam.  Capillitium  radiating 
from  this  disc;  threads  coarse,  dark,  more  or  less  roughened, 
sparingly  branched  beloiv,  but  giving  rise  at  their  extremities  to 
numerous  short,  irregular  branchlets.  Spores  at  first  nearly 
hyaline;  at  maturity  becoming  dark  smoky  brown,  united  in 
clusters  of  4-8,  blunt  zcedge-shaped,  strongly  spinulose  on  the 
exposed  surface,  becoming  globose  iK'hen  freed,  11-12.5  /* 
diam.    (PI.  2,  figs.  9-12.) 

Hab.  on  decayed  wood  of  Pinus.  Pagosa  Springs,  Colo., 
August  30-31,  igii. 

As  will  readily  be  seen  this  species  is  precisely  like  Ener- 
thenema  papillatum,  (Pers.)  Rost.,  except  in  the  larger,  clus- 
tered spores  and  in  a  few  minor  details.  One  immediately  re- 
calls Berkeley  &  Broome's  description  of  *' Enerthenema  ele- 
gans,  Bowmf  in  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  [Enerthenema 
Berkclyana,  (B.  &  Br.)  Rost.]  In  that  species  the  authors 
stated  that  the  spores  were  "produced  in  little  heads."  After 
an  examination  of  the  type  however.  Lister  wrote  (Monog. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  449 

Mycet.  Ed  1,  p.  124),  "In  what  remains  of  the  type  of 
E,  Berkeleyanum,  Rost,  no  spores  of  an  Enerthenetna  can  be 
detected;  the  specimen  is  beset  with  clusters  of  brown  spores 
or  dividing  cells  of  a  parasitic  fungus."  A  specimen  of  my 
E.  syncarpon  was  recently  submitted  to  Miss  Lister  and  under 
date  of  May  22,  1912,  she  writes,  referring  to  a  pencil  sketch 
by  Berkeley  attached  to  the  original  specimen  of  E,  Berkeleya- 
num in  the  Kew  Herbarium,  "The  spore-clusters  Berkeley  fig- 
ures in  the  best  magnified  drawing  are  extremely  like  those  in 
your  specimens;  but  they  were  all  dispersed  in  the  poor  re- 
mains of  the  S.  Carolina  gathering  when  we  examined  it  in 
1892,  and  only  the  spores  of  a  fungus  (also  clustered)  measur- 
ing d-7  /lA,  remained."  Berkeley's  note  that  he  saw  the  clustered 
spores  in  situ  is  substantiated  by  his  drawing,  a  copy  of  which 
accompanies  Miss  Lister's  letter  referred  to,  as  well  as  by  his 
published  figures  (1,  c.  S.  2,  Vol.  V,  PI.  XI)  which  show  round 
clusters  of  spores  borne  on  unmistakable  fungus-hyphae.  Miss 
Lister's  further  testimony  regarding  the  only  form  of  spores 
associated  with  the  specimen  in  question  at  the  time  she  ex- 
amined it,  seems  to  me  to  involve  the  actual  character  of 
E,  Berkeleyanum  in  so  much  doubt  that  it  would  be  unwise  to 
attach  that  name  to  the  Colorado  specimens  described  above. 

The  question  remains  whether  the  clustered  spores  are 
sufficient  to  separate  £.  syncarpon  from  £.  papillatum.  The 
classification  of  the  Badhamias  presents  a  somewhat  analagous 
case,  but,  in  addition,  the  rougher  capillitium  threads  and  the 
larger  spores,  coarsely  and  unevenly  spinulose,  afford  further 
characters  by  which  E.  syncarpon  may  be  differentiated. 

LAMPRODERMA  SCINTILLANS,  (Berk.  &  Br,) 
Morg,  The  very  rare  occurrence  of  any  species  of  Lampro- 
derma  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  Colorado,  is  quite  un- 
accountable, especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  many  species  of 
Stemonitis  and  Comatricha  are  found  in  abundance.  Scanty 
gatherings  of  L.  scintillans  were  made  twice  in  August,  1912, 
at  Pike  View  near  Colorado  Springs,  and  once  in  the  same 


450  Colorado  College  Publication. 

month  at  Tolland;  a  few  sporangia  were  also  collected  on 
Cheyenne  Mt.,  in  August,  1908. 

CRIBRARIA  PYRIFORMIS,  Schrad.  It  is  satisfactory 
to  find  this  species,  which  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Eastern 
States,  occurring  in  Colorado.  Its  dark  color  and  the  large 
plasmodic  granules  imbedded  in  the  cup  and  in  the  prominent 
nodes  of  the  net,  distinguish  it  from  C.  aurantiaca  on  the  one 
hand  and  from  C.  intricata  on  the  other.  It  was  found  in  the 
Wet  Mt.  Valley  in  July  and  August,  1912.  Both  gatherings 
were  of  the  form  notabilis,  Rex, 

LICEA  FLEXUOSA,  Pers.  This  rare  species  has  been 
found  but  once  in  Colorado,  and  then  in  very  small  quantity. 
A  few  sporangia  were  found  August  8th,  1912,  growing  on  de- 
cayed coniferous  wood  on  Cheyenne  Mt 

TRICHIA  CONTORTA,  (Ditm.)  RosL  Although  'TW- 
chia  inconspicua,  Rost''  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  Myxo- 
mycetes  in  Colorado,  T.  contorta  has  been  found  but  once.  This 
fact  adds  force  to  Macbride's  contention  that  the  two  are  dis- 
tinct species.  However,  they  resemble  each  other  so  closely, 
except  for  the  more  irr^^lar  spirals  on  the  elaters  of 
T.  contorta,  that  I  prefer  to  follow  Lister  in  r^^rding  the 
form  inconspicua  as  merely  a  well-marked  variety.  The  form 
"genuina,"  with  very  long  elaters,  marked  with  irregular, 
prominent  spiral  bands,  was  found  on  the  inner  bark  of 
Populus  at  Tolland  late  in  August,  1912. 

TRICHIA  BOTRYTIS,  Pers,  All  of  the  gatherings 
made  of  this  species  in  Colorado  are  of  the  var,  munda,  with 
rarely  clustered  sporangia  of  a  dull  yellowish  brown  color 
usually  marked  with  paler  lines  of  dehiscence,  and  elaters  with 
neat,  close  spiral  bands.  Wet  Mt.  Valley,  August,  1911 ;  Tol- 
land, August,  1912. 

HEMITRICHIA  VESPARIUM,  (Batsch)  Macbr. 
Though  very  common  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  this 
species  has  been  found  but  once  in  Colorado.    A  somewhat 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  451 

scant)'  and  weathered  gathering  was  made  in  the  Wet  Mt. 
Valley  in  September,  1912. 

HEMITRICHIA  ABIETINA,  }lVigO  List.  What  I  can 
not  but  regard  as  a  noteworthy  form  of  this  species  occurred 
at  Tolland,  August  30th,  1912.  The  capillitium  is  marked  with 
very  prominent  rings  irregularly  dispersed  and  usually  set  at 
right  angles  to  the  thread ;  only  occasionally  does  such  a  ring, 
set  obliquely  and  connecting  groups  of  parallel  rings,  give  any 
indication  of  a  spiral  arrangement. 

HEMITRICHIA  KARSTENII,  (Rost)  List.  Macbride 
(N.  Amer.  Slime-Moulds,  p.  202)  writes  concerning  this  spe- 
cies, "To  be  looked  for  north  and  west."  The  prophecy  is 
correct,  as  the  form  in  question  appears  to  be  not  uncommon 
in  Colorado.  I  have  found  it  on  three  occasions — in  the  Wet 
Mt.  Valley,  August  18th,  1911,  and  again  in  August,  1912,  and 
at  Tolland,  August  30th,  1912.  The  sporangia  resemble  those  of 
Trichia  contorta  and,  like  that  species,  occur  on  the  bark  of 
Populus.  In  my  specimens  the  capillitium  forms  a  loose  net- 
work of  dull,  yellow  threads,  irregular  in  outline  and  marked 
with  four  or  five  irr^^lar  spirals  and  small,  scattered,  spinous 
processes. 

HEMITRICHIA  SERPULA,  (Scop.)  Rost.  Fine  speci- 
mens of  this  species  were  gathered  in  the  Wet  Mt.  Valley  in 
August,  1911.  Macbride  states  that  the  Plasmodium  is  yellow, 
but,  as  I  observed  it,  it  was  milk-white. 

ARCYRIA  FERRUGINEA,  Sauter,  So  striking  a  spe- 
cies as  this  would  hardly  have  been  overlooked  were  it  not  rare. 
Macbride  reports  it  from  Maine  and  New  York  only.  Lister, 
for  the  United  States,  adds  Massachusetts,  South  Carolina  and 
Washington.  In  Colorado  I  have  found  it  only  once,  and  that 
in  small  quantity  growing  on  a  charred  log  on  Cheyenne  Mt., 
August  21st.  1912. 

PERICHAENA  VERMICULARIS,  (Schw.)  Rost.  This 
minute  species  occurs  commonly  in  the  neighborhood  of  Colo- 
rado Springs.    Gatherings  have  been  made  repeatedly  at  Pike 


452  Colorado  College  Publication. 

View  where  it  is  found  growing  on  dead  twigs  beneath  tangles 
of  Clematis,  in  company  with  various  species  of  Physarum 
Didymium  and  Comatricha, 


My  previous  paper  on  the  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado  in- 
cluded 94  species  and  described  two  new  varieties.  Naturally, 
the  species  thus  reported  were,  for  the  greater  part,  new  to 
the  Rocky  Mt.  region  since,  previous  to  1903,  the  few  species 
reported  were  the  result  of  chance  gatherings  by  collectors 
who  had  no  special  interest  in  this  group  of  organisms.  Up  to 
1907  I  had  the  invaluable  assistance  of  Mr.  Ellsworth  Bethel, 
of  Denver,  an  able  and  tireless  collector,  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  all  parts  of  Colorado.  Since  that  date  I  have  been  obliged 
to  do  all  of  the  collecting  myself  in  the  intervals  left  by  more 
important  duties. 

The  present  list  includes  39  species,  of  which  33  are  now 
reported  for  the  first  time  from  Colorado.  Of  the  latter, 
three  are  new  to  America  and  three  are  hitherto  undescribed 
species.  We  thus  have  127  species  of  Myxomycetes  known  to 
occur  in  Colorado  at  an  altitude  of  not  less  than  5000  feet; 
and  since  this  State  is  topographically  and  climatically  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  Rocky  Mt.  area,  the  list  affords  a  fair 
criterion  of  the  richness  of  this  region  of  high  altitudes  and 
rapid  changes  of  temperature,  so  far  as  these  organisms  are 
concerned.  As  a  rule  the  more  ubiquitous  species  retain  even 
their  minute  characteristics  remarkably  well,  even  under  the 
trying  conditions  to  which  their  development  is  subjected. 
Abnormal  forms  are  rare.  Many  species  too,  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  limited  to  much  lower  altitudes,  prove  to  be 
abundant  throughout  Colorado.  Most  interesting  examples  of 
the  adaptibility  and  the  permanency  of  distinctive  features  in 
the  case  of  the  Myxomycetes,  are  seen  in  some  of  these  Colo- 
rado gatherings;  as,  for  example,  Didymium  Quitense,  hith- 
erto reported  only  from  Ecuador,  and  Fuligo  megaspora  which 
proves  to  be  identical  with  a  form  known  only  by  specimens 
collected  in  the  Kongo  region  of  Africa. 


The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.  453 

The  new  varieties  described  in  my  previous  paper  are 
Didymimn  squamulosum,  Fr,  var.  claviforme,  and  Mucihgo 
spoiigiosa,  (Leysser)  Morg.,  var.  solida. 

The  new  species  described  in  the  present  paper  are  Ftdigo 
megaspora,  Didymium  anomalum,  and  Enerthenema  syncarpon. 
In  addition  to  these,  Physarum  luteo-album.  List.,  Diderma 
(isteroideSy  List,,  and  Didymium  Quitense,  (Pat.)  Torrend,  are 
here  reported  for  the  first  time  from  America. 


Explanation  of  Plate, 

Fitligo  mcyaspora,  n.s,,  natural  size. 

The  same.    Capillitiuni  and  spores,    x  475. 

The  same.    Single  spore,  x  990. 

Spore  of  Fuligo  cinerea,  (Schu\)  Morg.    x  990. 

Spore  of  Fuligo  septica,  (L.)  GmeL    x  990. 

Didymium  anomalutn,  n.s.,  x  4. 

The  same.     Columnar  capillitium,  sporangium-wall 

and  spores,    x  475. 
The  same.    Single  spore,    x  990. 
Enerthenema  syncarpon,  n.s.    x  100. 
The  same.    Portions  of  spore-clusters,    x  475. 
The  same.    Spore-cluster  of  eight  spores,    x  475. 
The  same.     Two  spores — that  on  the  left,  drawn 

immediately  after  the  forcible  dissolution  of  the 

cluster ;  that  on  the  right,  still  later,    x  900. 
Fig.  13.     Didymium  Quitcnse  (Pat.)  Torr.     Capillitium  and 

two  spores  of  a  specimen  collected  near  Colorado 

Springs,  August,  1912.    x  475. 
Fig.  14.     The  same.    Single  spore,    x  990. 


Fig. 

1. 

Fig. 

2. 

Fig. 

3. 

Fig. 

4. 

Fig. 

5. 

Fig. 

6. 

Fig. 

7. 

Fig. 

8. 

Fig. 

9. 

Fig. 

10. 

Fig. 

11. 

Fig. 

12. 

PIPkTE  2 


<f^ 


LANGUAGE  SERtES-VoL  U. 

A  Note  Upon  Dryden's  Heroic  Stanzas  on  the  Death  of  CromwelL 

Edward  S.  Parsons, 
Some  Defects  in  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages. — Starr 

WQlardCiitiing^  Univertity  of  Chicago. 
A  Hea  for  More  Spanish,  in  the  Sdiools  of  Colorado.— BK/ofc 

Clarence  HiUs.  , 

The    Evoltrtion    of    Maeterlinck's    Dramatic    Theory.— jB/t/oA 

Clarence  HUls. 
A  Study  of  English  Blank  Verse,  1558-1632.— Pma7/a  Plefcher. 
Lowell's  Conception  of  'Pottry,— Edward  S.  Parsons, 
The  Church  and  Education.— B^ttwrd  5*.  Parsons. 
Literature  as  a^Force  in  Qiafacter  Building.— Hrftword  S.  Parsons. 
Relation  of  the  Homt  to  the  Criminal — Edward  S.  Parsons. 
Jonson  an4  Milton  on  Shakespeare. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 
Rousseau  and  Wordsworth. — Homer  E-Woodbridge. 
The  Supernatural   in   Hawthorne   and    Pot.^-^Benjamm   Mather 

Woodbridge.  ' 

"Much  Ado  rf)out  Nothing*'  and  Ben  Joiison>  "The  Case  is 

Altered." — Homer  E.  Woodbridge.      . 
A  Note  on  "Henry  Y'\—Hdmer  E,  Woodbridge.      ;  . 

Jhe  Pikers  Peak  Region  in  Song  and  Myth.— £K/ViA  Clarence  Hills. 

ENGINEERING  5ElUES-yoL  K 

No.  I.  The  Fusibility  and  Fhiidity  of  Titaniferous  Silicates.— t.  C. 
Lennox  and  C.  N.  Cox,  Jr. 

*y    2:   The  Design  of  a  Low-Tension  Switch-Board. — Vernon  T,  Brigham, 

"     3.    The  Roastii^  of  Telluride  Ores.— i?,  X*  Mart  and  G.  H.  Scibird. 

''     4.    Further  Notes  on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado. — Edward  R.  Warren. 

/'     5;    The  Movement  of  Light  in  Crystals. — George  I.  Pmlay. 

"     6.    Aaron  Fahner's  Computing  Scale.— F/orwft  Ca/on. 

"7,    John  E.  Fuller's  Circular  Slide  Rules. — Florian  Cajori. 

"  8.  A  Proposed  List  of  Experiments  for  a  Course  in  Electrical  Engi- 
neering Laboratory. — John  Mills. 

"    9.  /  An  Outline  of  Mineralogy. — George  I.  Finlay. 

"    la    On  the  Invention  of  the  Slide  ^u\t.— Florian  Cajori.   , 

'^    lU    A  Study  of  the  Advisability  of  Electrification   of  the  Arkansas 
JunctionrBasalt   Division   of  the  Colorado   Midland   Railroad. 
Abstract  by  George  B.  Thomas. 
"  12.    Notes  on  a  Graphical  Method  of  Dealing  With  Water  Supply.— 
^     William  A.  Bartlett.  . 


No, 

15. 

*i 

16. 

«'. 

17- 

u 

18. 

u 

19- 

€t 

20. 

a 

21. 

it 

22. 

ti 

33- 

it 

24. 

U 

25. 

u 

26. 

'    ti 

27. 

ti 

28. 

*t 

29. 

'    -     .  ,  MAY     6  li;23    ■ 

COLORADO  COLLEGE  PUBLICATION 

GENERAL  SERIES  NO.  7^ 
SCIENCE  SERIES,  VOL.  XU,  NO.  13.  \.  Pp.  455-496 


No.  13.    Th«  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colotado.    L 


Charles  £.  H,  Aikfin 

and 
Edward  R,  Warren 


PRICE  FORTY  CENTS 

COLORADO  SPRINGS,  COLORADO 

MAY,  1914 

Publbhed'by  authority  of  the  Board  ol  Trustees  o(  Colorado  College  every  sis  weeks 
'     ■  '  during  the  Academic  Year 

•-■  .      '  '      >' 

EnfaredMiAotiicUclMi  ouAer.  Septeoobtf  23^  1905.  at  tbe  PM  Office  in  Colorado  Sprin«i.  Colorado,  oader 

AetofCoDgftw  of  Julf.  1.904 


Edifor-in-Chief     -.-     -*-     -     -     -     William  F.  Slocum,  LL.  D. 
Managing  Editor     -..^--..-     Flowan  Cajori,  Ph.  D. 


Associate  Editors, 


J  E.  C  Hills,  Ph.  D.^^  Litt.,  D. 

I  E.  C  Schneider,  Ph.  D. 

,  G.  M.  Howe,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary. 


No. 

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SCIENCE  SERIES 

Kokil '29 Sdeoce Series.  l-4SocMl5cicaoeSfaie««iK!  l-HL^fwerSflrie^  Uve  tMmni  k^  Cmioradc  CoUtff 
PubJ0Mtum,V<h.\'\Qiotimi^    IW  t-l7SdcAcaSeriei,  }.3So5ISci«eeS«kl^od  |9lil^^ 

SCIENCE  SERIES^Vol,  XIL 

The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado.— rPF.  C.  Sturgis.     . 

Stellar  Variability  and  Its  Causes. — F.  i/.  Loud. 

On  the  Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations,  by  Eriand  Simuel 

Bring  (1786). — Translated  and  annotated  by  Florian  Cajori. 
A  Comparison  of  Temperatures  (1906)  B«tweeii  Colorado  Springs 

-  and  Lake  Moraine. — ;F.  //.  Loud.  -  " 

Meteorological  Statistics  for  1907. — F.  H.  Loud. 
The  X>istribution  of.  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike!s  Peak  Hegion. — 

E.  C.  Schneider, 

7.  A  History  of  the  Arithmetical  .Methods  oi  Approximation  to  the 
Roots  of  Numerical  Equations  of  One  Unknown  Quantity.— 
Florian  Cajori.  ^ 

8.  The  Succession  of  Plant  iife  on  the  Gravel  Slides  m  the  Vicimly 
of  Pike's  Peak. — Edward  C.  Schneider, 

The  History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy. — Edward  R.  Warren. 

The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.— AfownVi?  C.  Hall, 

A  Guid^  to  the  Botanical  Literature  of  the  Myxomycetes  from 

1875  to  1912.— WUliam'C.  Sturgis. , 
The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado,  H.—W.  C.  Sturgis. 

SOCIAL. SCIENCE  SERIES-Vbl.  ^ 

The  Cripple  Creek  Strike,  1893-4.— 5.  M.  Rastall.        . 
Tributes  to  the  Late  General  WiHiam  J.  Palmer  from  his  Fellow 

Citizens  of  Colorado  Springs. — Edited  by  Mary  ,C.  Slocum. 
J.    The  Nation's  Guarantee  of  Personal  Rights.— Pr^jid^w/  W.  F, 

Slocum  '  '  z 

4.  Phi  Beta  Kappa-Address :  The  Academic  Career. — George  Lincoln 
Hendrickson.  ^ 

5.  ^  Baccalaureate  Sermon. — William  F.  Slocum,  ^ 

6.  Historical  Address :  A  Liberal  Education.— rfFt/Ziwi  T.  Poster. 

7.  Address  at  the  Alumni  Dinner. — David  F.MatchetL 
8.    Thirty-ninth  Annual  Rq)ort  of  the  President  of  Colorado  CoB^^ 

(June  10th,  1913.)   .- 


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No. 


The  Birds 
of 

El  Paso  County 

Colorado 


By 
CHARLES  E.  H.  AIKEN 

and 

EDWARD  R.  WARREN 

Director  of  the  Mu$eum,  Colorado  College 

PART  I 


THE  BIRDS  OF  EL  PASO  COUNTY, 
COLORADO 

AREA  INCLUDED  IN  THIS  LIST. 

The  area  covered  by  this  list  is  the  whole  of  El  Paso 
County,  while  various  notes  are  given  for  points  without  the 
boundaries  of  the  County,  but  adjacent  thereto,  especially  that 
portion  of  the  Pikes  Peak  Region  in  which  are  situated  the 
Seven  Lakes. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

More  than  two-thirds  of  El  Paso  County  is  a  rolling 
prairie  country,  most  of  the  eastern  portion  of  which  is  dry, 
with  few  or  no  permanent  streams,  though  there  are  water- 
courses in  which  water  is  found  at  times,  and  various  springs. 
The  exceptions  to  this  statement  are  Fountain  and  Monument 
Creeks,  the  former  heading  in  the  mountains  above  Ute  Pass, 
and  the  latter  on  the  Divide  at  Palmer  Lake  and  in  the  foot- 
hills west  of  there,  and  emptying  into  the  Fountain  at  Colo- 
rado Springs.  These  streams  flow  in  a  somewhat  southeasterly 
course  along  the  east  base  of  the  foothills.  As  shown  on  the 
map,  the  Fountain  also  receives  other  tributaries  from  the 
west,  which  have  their  sources  in  the  mountains. 

The  extreme  western  portion  of  the  County  is  mountain- 
ous, occupied  by  the  Pikes  Peak  Range,  which  culminates  in 
the  well  known  Pikes  Peak,  once  the  objective  point  of  the  gold 
seekers  of  1859,  now  that  of  the  tourists  of  the  twentieth 
century,  who  may  reach  its  summit,  over  14,000  feet  above 
sea  level,  by  rail.  Part  of  this  range  is  in  El  Paso  County, 
and  part  in  Teller  County,  and  the  boundary  lines  between 
the  two  counties  were  so  drawn  that  it  is  difficult  to  write 
of  that  portion  of  our  area  without,  at  times,  including  a  part 
of  Teller  County. 

This  mountain  region  is  rugged,  and  includes  besides 
Pikes  Peak,  a  number  of  summits  ranging  from  11,000  to 


456  Colorado  College  Pubucation 

above  12,000  feet  elevation,  and  its  eastern  portion  is  cut  by 
canons,  many  of  which  are  renowned  for  their  beauty  or 
grandeur,  such  as  the  Ute  Pass,  Williams  Canon,  Bear  Creek 
Canon,  and  North  and  South  Cheyenne  Canons.  Ute  Pass  is 
the  outlet  through  the  mountains  by  which  the  Fountain,  once 
called  La  Fontaine  Qui  Bouille  by  the  old  French  trappers, 
reaches  the  plains.  The  trappers  called  the  stream  by  this 
name  because  of  the  bubbling  mineral  springs  where  Manitou 
is  now,  and  the  pass  was  so  named  because  it  was  the  high- 
way by  which  the  Ute  Indians  reached  the  plains.  Streams 
are  found  in  all  these  various  canons,  and  high  in  the  moun- 
tains about  Pike's  Peak  are  Lake  Moraine  and  the  Seven  Lakes, 
converted  into  reservoirs  which  belong  to  the  water  supply 
system  of  Colorado  Springs. 

Standing  somewhat  apart  from  the  rest,  at  the  south- 
easterly end  of  the  range,  is  Cheyenne  Mountain,  rising  abrupt- 
ly from  the  plains,  and  though  not  lofty,  but  little  over  9,000 
feet,  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  mountains  we  have, 
many  consider  it  the  most  beautiful. 

Once  the  mountains  were  entirely  covered  with  forest, 
of  pine,  spruce,  and  aspen,  but  forest  fires,  some  of  them 
many  years  ago,  and  some  of  them  of  quite  recent  date,  have 
destroyed  considerable  of  this. 

The  extreme  southwestern  portion  of  the  County  is  a 
somewhat  rolling  region,  with  yellow  pines,  cedars,  and  pifions. 

The  northerly  edge  of  the  County  is  occupied  by  the 
"Divide"  region,  the  watershed  between  the  Arkansas  and 
Platte  Rivers.  This  has  at  Palmer  Lake  an  elevation  of  7,200 
feet,  and  the  summit  of  the  watershed  has  an  easterly  trend. 
It  has  an  undulating  surface,  and  where  not  cleared  is  largely 
covered  by  a  forest  of  yellow  pines. 

About  five  miles  north  of  Colorado  Springs  are  what  are 
known  as  the  Bluffs,  a  range  of  low  sandstone  ridges  pre* 
senting  sufficient  vertical  faces  which,  though  low,  enough  to 
justify  the  name.  These  extend  easterly  from  the  foothills 
for  about  eight  miles  out  into  the  plains.    They  have  a  few 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso   County,   Colorado  457 

yellow  pines  and  cedars  growing  on  them,  and  considerable 
scrub  oak  and  other  shrubbery,  and  are  good  resorts  for  birds. 

The  westerly  part  of  the  County  forms  part  of  the  Pike 
National  Forest. 

LIFE  ZONES. 

Owing  to  its  varied  topography  we  have  within  the  bound- 
aries of  El  Paso  County  no  less  than  five  life  zones,  as  follows : 

Upper  Sonoran,  Transition,  Canadian,  Hudsonian,  and 
Arctic-Alpine;  the  first  named  comprising  the  plains  region 
and  the  very  lowest  foothills ;  the  Transition  the  foothills  and 
the  lower  portions  of  the  mountains,  and  the  other  three  are 
wholly  mountain  zones.  Each  of  these  zones  is  more  or  less 
well  characterized  by  the  presence  of  certain  plants  and  ani- 
mals which  are  either  peculiar  to  or  largely  confined  to  it. 

UPPER  SONORAN  ZONE. 

This  zone,  which  is  agriculturally  the  most  important  in 
the  County,  as  noted  above  covers  the  plains  region.  The 
elevation  of  its  upper  boundary  varies  from  a  little  over  6,000 
to  nearly  7,000  feet,  depending  on  the  steepness  and  exposures 
of  the  slopes  in  the  foohills,  the  limit  naturally  being  higher 
on  slopes  having  a  southern  exposure  than  on  those  with  a 
northern.  The  pinons  and  cedars,  which  are  usually  consid- 
ered as  belonging  to  this  zone,  range  even  higher  at  times, 
but  such  occasions  are  really  overlappings  into  the  Transition. 
There  are  comparatively  few  of  these  trees  in  the  County. 

In  El  Paso  County  the  following  mammals  are  confined 
to  this  zone : 

Bailey's  Wood  Rat,  Neotoma  f,  baileyi,  Pale  Grasshopper 
Mouse,  Onychomys  I.  pallescens,  Yellow  Pocket  Gopher. 
Geomys  lutescens.  Kangaroo  Rat,  Perodipus  m.  richardsoni, 
Baird*s  and  Plains  Pocket  Mice,  Perognathus  flavus  and  P. 
flavescens,  Black-tailed  Jack  Rabbit,  Lepus  c.  melanotis, 
Bailey's  Cottontail,  Sylvilagus  a.  baileyi,  and  possibly  a  few 
others. 


458  Colorado  College  Publication 

The  following  birds  are  practically  restricted  to  the  zone 
in  the  breeding  season : 

Woodhouse*s  Jay,  Bullock's  Oriole,  Canon  Towhee,  West- 
ern Blue  Grosbeak,  Lazuli  Bunting,  Long-tailed  Chat,  Western 
Mockingbird,  Catbird,  Brown  Thrasher,  Baird's  Wren,  and 
Western  Gnatcatcher.  The  following  species  breed  especially 
in  the  cedar  and  pinon  trees :  Ash-throated  Flycatcher,  Pinon 
Jay,  Black-throated  Gray  Warbler,  Gray  Titmouse,  and  Lead- 
colored  Bush-Tit. 

The  following  trees  and  shrubs  are  characteristic  of  the 
Upper  Sonoran  Zone: 

Piiion  Pine,  Pinus  edulis,  two  species  of  cedar.  Juniper  us 
scopulorum  and  /,  monosperma,  Broad-leaved  Cottonwood, 
Populus  occidentalis,  Peach-leaf  or  Almond-leaf  Willow,  Sdix 
amygdaloides,  Gray  Saltbush  or  Bushy  Atriplex,  A,  canescens, 
Western  Clematis,  C.  ligusticifolia,  Flowering  Currant,  Rihes 
iongifolium,  Wild  Plum,  Prunus  americana,  while  six  species 
of  scrub  oaks  are  found  in  this  and  the  lower  part  of  the  Tran- 
sition Zone. 

TRANSITION  ZONE. 

The  Transition  Zone  covers  the  greater  portion  of  the 
foothills  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  mountains  proper,  and  the 
Divide  region  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  County.  The 
former  are  naturally  more  or  less  rough,  and  the  latter  is  an 
undulating  country.  The  upper  limit  of  the  Transition  in  El 
Paso  County  varies  from  8,000  to  9,000  feet,  changing  with 
the  slope  exposures.  The  cedars  and  piiions  seemingly  overlap 
into  this  zone  from  the  zone  below,  and  there  are  some  places 
where  it  is  difficult  to  decide  to  which  zone  that  locality 
belongs. 

In  this  County  there  is  but  one  mammal  which  can  be 
said  to  be  restricted  to  this  zone,  the  Northern  Tuft-eared  or 
PJain-backed  Squirrel,  Sciurus  aberti  ferrcus,  though  the 
Plains  or  Coues's  Pocket  Gopher,  Thomomys  clusius,  Estes 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  459 

Park  Cliff  Mouse,  Peromyscus  nasutus,  and  Gale's  Wood  Rat, 
Neotoma  m.  fallax,  are  quite  characteristic  of  it.  Other  species 
range  into  it  from  the  zones  above  and  below. 

The  following  birds  are  quite  characteristic  of  this  zone 
in  the  breeding  season : 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  White-throated  Swift,  Wright's 
Flycatcher,  Long-crested  Jay,  Mountain  Towhee,  Green-tailed 
•Ibwhee,  Plumbeous  Vireo,  MacGillivray's  Warbler,  Rocky 
Mountain  Nuthatch,  Pgymy  Nuthatch,  Chestnut-backed  Blue- 
bird. 

The  following  trees  and  shrubs  are  characteristic  of  this 
zone : 

Yellow  Pine,  P.  scopulorum,  Red  or  Douglas's  Fir, 
Pseudotsuga  mucronata,  Willow,  5.  irrorata,  Rocky  Mountain 
Birch,  Betula  fontinalis,  Alder,  Alnus  tenuifolia.  Beaked  Ha- 
zel-nut, Corylus  rostrata,  one  species  of  Gooseberry,  Ribes 
ieptanthum,  two  species  of  Ninebark,  Physocarpus  intermedins 
and  P.  monygnus,  Meadow  Sweet,  Holodiscus  dumosa  and  H, 
australis,  and  Rocky  Mountain  Maple,  Acer  glabrum. 

CANADIAN  ZONE. 

The  Canadian  and  the  two  following  zones  are  strictly 
mountain  regions,  this  one  covering  the  ground  from  the 
upper  limits  of  the  Transition  to  between  10,000  and  11,000 
feet,  and  is  the  most  extensive  in  area  of  the  three  Boreal 
zones.  It  may  be  characterized  as  normally  a  well  forested 
zone,  though  none  of  the  trees  are  exclusively  confined  to  it. 

In  El  Paso  County  no  species  of  mammal  appears  to  be 
confined  to  the  Canadian  Zone,  though  there  are  a  number 
common  to  it  and  the  Hudsonian,  to  say  nothing  of  others 
which  are  also  found  in  the  Transition.  The  following  mam- 
mals are  characteristic  of  the  two  lower  Boreal  zones : 

Fremont's  Squirrel,  5.  fremonti,  Woodchuck,  Marmota 
sp.,  Colorado  or  Rocky  Mountain  Red-backed  Mouse,  Evo- 
tomys  g.  galei,  Colorado  or  Mountain  Pocket  Gopher,  Thomo- 


460  CoLoKADo  College  Publication 

mys  fossor,  Western  Red  Fox,  Vulpes  macrourus,  Shrews, 
Sorex  V.  dobsoni,  S.  personatus,  and  5".  obscurus,  and  Water 
Shrew,  Neosorex  navigator. 

The  following  birds  have  their  center  of  abundance  in 
the  breeding  season  in  the  Canadian  Zone : 

Dusky  Grouse,  Alpine  Three-toed  Woodpecker,  Red- 
naped  Sapsucker,  Williamson's  Sapsucker,  Olive-sided  Fly- 
catcher, Cassin's  Finch,  Crossbill,  Gray-headed  Junco,  Audu- 
bon's Warbler,  Red-breasted  Nuthatch,  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet, 
Townsend's  Solitaire,  and  Audubon's  Hermit  Thrush. 

Though  found  also  in  the  Hudsonian  the  heaviest  portions 
of  the  forests  of  Limber  or  Rocky  Mountain  White  Pine, 
Pinus  flexilis,  and  Engelmann's  Spruce,  Picea  engeltnanni, 
are  in  the  Canadian  Zone.  The  Aspen,  Populus  tremuloides, 
has  its  center  of  abundance  in  the  Canadian  and  ranges  but 
little  above  it.  The  following  willows  are  common  to  it  and 
the  Hudsonian:  Nuttall's  or  Black  Willow,  5*.  nuttalli,  Bog 
Willow,  S.  glaucops,  and  Green-leaved  Willow,  S,  chlorophylla, 

HUDSONIAN  ZONE. 

This  is  the  zone  immediately  below  timberline,  above  the 
Canadian ;  it  is  intermediate  in  character  between  that  and  the 
Arctic-Alpine  Zone,  not  having  any  very  strongly  marked 
characters  of  its  own,  but  in  its  lower  limits  having  much  in 
common  with  the  Canadian,  and  in  the  upper  portions  sharing 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Arctic-Alpine.  Its  upper 
limit  varies  in  altitude  from  11,500  to  12,500  feet. 

As  stated  above  under  the  Canadian  Zone,  a  number  of 
species  of  mammals  are  common  to  these  two  zones,  or  rather 
characteristic  of  the  two  together.  Of  these  the  Woodchuck 
is  more  abundant  toward  timberline,  and  ranges  into  the  zone 
above,  and  two  additional  species,  the  Cony,  Ochotona  saxa- 
tilts,  and  Mountain  Sheep,  are  more  especially  characteristic 
of  this  and  the  zone  above,  the  former  being  found,  in  the 
Pike's  Peak  Region,  mostly  from  a  little  below  timberline  up 
to  the  summits  of  the  mountains. 


t  |i"5 


Plate  I. 


Fig.  I, 

Dusky  Grouse. 

Gunnison   County,   Colo. 


E.  R.  Warren,  Photo. 


Fig.  2.  L.  L.  Shazv,  Photo. 

Young  Shakp-Shinned  Hawks,  a  Few  Days  Old. 
Crystal  Park,  Colo. 


Plate  11. 


Fig.  3.  E,  R.  IV.,  Photo. 

Young  Sharp-Shinned  Hawks,  About  Three  Weeks  Old. 


Fig.  4.  L.  L.  Shaiv,  Photo. 

Young  Sharp-Shinned  Hawks,  About  Four  Weeks  Old. 
Crystal  Park. 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso   County,   Colorado  461 

Of  birds,  the  Rocky  Mountain  Jay,  Rocky  Mountain  Pine 
Grosbeak,  and  Rocky  Mountain  Creeper  probably  breed  prin- 
cipally within  the  limits  of  the  Hudsonian,  though  there  are  a 
number  of  other  breeders  in  common  with  other  zones. 

The  only  tree  which  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  Hudsonian 
is  the  Foxtail  Pine,  Pinus  aristata,  which  grows  from  10,250 
f<et  up  to  timberline.  This  zone  also  includes  the  upper  por- 
tion- f  f  the  Engelmann's  Sprtice  and  White  Pine  forests,  and 
in  it  arc  also  found  the  willows  mentioned  under  the  Canadian 
as  common  to  both. 

ARCTIC-ALPINE  ZONE. 

The  Arctic-Alpine  Zone  is  the  region  above  timberline, 
characterized  by  slopes  devoid  of  trees  and  with  but  four 
species  of  woody  plants  growing  thereon,  though  a  number 
of  flowering  plants  are  characteristic  of  it,  or  nearly  so. 

No  species  of  mammals  is  restricted  to  this  zone,  but  it 
shares  a  number  of  species  with  the  zone  below,  some  of  which 
live  here  the  year  round,  and  others,  like  the  Mountain  Sheep, 
Fox,  Coyote,  and  Black  Bear,  range  into  it  from  below.  Some 
of  the  species  living  in  this  zone  the  year  round  are  the  Wood- 
chuck,  Cony,  Rocky  Mountain  Field  Mouse,  and  Colorado 
Pocket  Gopher. 

One  species  of  bird  is  restricted  to  this  zone  in  the  breed- 
ing season,  the  Brown-capped  Rosy  Finch,  and  the  Pipit  is 
practically  so,  and  the  Desert  Horned  Lark  also  breeds  in  the 
bare  spaces,  while  the  White-crowned  Sparrow  and  Pileolated 
Warbler  breed  in  the  willow  thickets  for  five  hundred  feet 
above  timberline.  The  Sparrow  has  been  known  elsewhere 
in  the  State  to  raise  a  brood  at  a  lower  elevation  early  in  the 
season,  and  then  to  move  above  timberline  and  raise  a  second 
family,  but  we  have  no  information  as  to  whether  it  does 
this  here.  A  few  other  birds  range  intermittently  above  tim- 
berline. 

But  four  species  of  woody  plants  grow  above  timberline, 
the  Dwarf  Willow,  Salix  saxitnontana,  and  another  willow,  5. 


462  Colorado  College  Publication 

brachycarpa,  which  are  found  from  9,000  up  to  14,000  feet, 
Shrubby  Cinque  foil,  Dasiphora  fruticosa,  6,500  to  12.400  feet, 
and  the  White  Mountain  Avens,  Dryas  octopetala,  11,500  to 
14,000  feet. 

The  following  plants  are  characteristic  of  this  zone: 
Catchfly  or  Campion,  Silene  acaulis,  three  species  of  Saxifrage, 
Saxifraga  debUis,  austromontana,  and  rhomboidca,  Stonecrop, 
Sedum  int eg ri folium,  Alpine  Mertensia,  Mertcnsia  cUpina,  For- 
getmenot,  Myosotis  alpestris,  Lousewort,  Pedicularis  parryi, 
Polemonium,  Polemonium  confertum,  Knotweed,  Polygonum 
viviparum,  Gentian,  Swertia  palustris,  Mountain  Avens,  Siet'er- 
sia  turbinata,  Phlox,  Phlox  condensata,  Figwort,  Synthyris 
alpina,  Clover,  Trifolium  nanum,  Colorado  Candytuft,  Thlaspi 
coloradense, 

CLIMATE. 

In  general  the  climate  of  El  Paso  County  may  be  described 
as  temperate,  usually  without  great  extremes  of  heat  or  cold, 
though  the  thermometer  does  on  rare  occasions  in  summer 
go  above  ninety  in  the  shade,  and  similarly  in  winter  fall  to 
thirty  below  zero.  But  usually  the  temperatures  are  moderate, 
and  neither  of  the  extremes  are  so  hard  to  bear  as  in  many 
other  places.  The  plains  region  has  the  higher  temperature  in 
summer,  while  there  is  no  g^eat  difference  in  the  minimum 
winter  temperatures  over  the  whole  county,  though  the  daily 
mean  temperature  is  greater  on  the  plains  than  in  the  moun- 
tains. 

The  rainfall  is  greatest  in  the  mountains,  and  least  on 
the  plains  toward  the  eastern  edge  of  the  County.  The  win- 
ter snowfall  is  light,  comparatively  so  in  the  mountains,  where 
it  is  probably  not  more  than  half  that  on  the  Continental  Divide 
and  the  other  ranges  to  the  west  of  us.  The  snowstorm  early 
in  December,  1913,  when  about  two  feet  of  snow  fell  in  Colo- 
rado Springs  and  much  more  in  the  mountains,  was  a  very 
exceptional  storm,  the  like  of  which  had  not  been  known  for 
more  than  thirty  years,  and  as  a  rule  the  deepest  snowfalls 
^re  in  spring,  when  the  snow  does  not  last  long. 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso   County,   Colorado  463 

The  number  of  hours  of  sunshine  are  unusually  ^reat,  a 
day  when  the  sun  does  not  shine  at  all  being  extremely  rare. 
The  heavy  rain  and  hail  storms  which  occasionally  occur  dur- 
ing the  breeding  season  are  sometimes  destructive  to  nesting 
birds,  their  eggs  and  young,  and  a  late  cold  storm  in  the  spring 
sometimes  does  much  harm  to  migrants  and  late  arrivals  of 
summer  birds.  In  winter  an  unusually  heavy  snowfall  may 
prevent  seed-eating  birds  from  obtaining  food  for  a  short 
time,  but  the  snow  rarely  lays  on  the  ground  more  than  a 
few  days. 

As  a  whole  the  climate  of  the  County  may  be  described  as 
favorable  to  bird  life. 

WORKERS  IN  THE  REGION. 

The  first  ornithologist  to  visit  El  Paso  County  was  Dr.  J. 
A.  Allen,  who  came  here  with  an  expedition  sent  out  by  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Harvard  College,  early  in 
August,  1871,  and  collected  along  the  east  base  of  the  foothills 
from  Palmer  Lake  to  Colorado  City.  His  report  was  pub- 
lished in  July,  1872,  the  first  list  of  Colorado  birds. 

C.  E.  Aiken,  the  senior  author  of  the  present  paper,  came 
to  Colorado  Springs,  October  26,  1871,  not  long  after  the 
founding  of  the  town,  and  thenceforward  spent  much  time 
in  collecting  in  the  vicinity,  his  work  for  the  first  two  years 
being  nearly  all  done  at  his  ranch  on  Turkey  Creek,  fifteen 
miles  southwesterly  from  Colorado  Springs.  The  first  re- 
sults of  his  work  were  edited  by  Dr.  T.  M.  Brewer  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,  December,  1872. 

H.  D.  Minot  of  Boston  spent  some  time  in  the  County  in 
the  summer  of  1879,  and  the  results  of  his  observations  were 
published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Nuttall  Ornithological  Club. 

In  March,  April,  and  May,  1882,  Dr.  J.  A.  Allen  and 
William  Brewster  were  in  Colorado  Springs,  and  did  much  col- 
lecting in  the  vicinity,  publishing  their  list  in  1883,  Bulletin 
of  the  Nuttall  Ornithological  Club.     Bendire's  Thrasher  and 


464  CouMLADo  College  Publication 

the  Fforida  Gallinule  were  added  to  the  list  of  Colorado  Birds 
by  these  distinguished  ornithologists. 

W.  C.  Ferrill  and  Horace  G.  Smith  did  a  certain  amount 
of  collecting  in  the  County  while  doing  work  for  the  State 
Historical  and  Natural  History  Society,  making  some  addi- 
tions to  our  list. 

E.  R.  Warren,  the  junior  author  of  this  paper,  came  to 
Colorado  Springs  the  fall  of  1881,  but  did  no  bird  work  until 
the  next  winter,  and  then  did  considerable  collecting  during 
the  winters  of  1882-83  and  1883-84.  This  was  dropped  for 
several  years,  partly  owing  to  absence  from  the  city,  and  not 
taken  up  again  here  until  some  dozen  or  so  years  ago,  since 
which  time  he  has  been  making  observations  and  collecting 
somewhat  steadily. 

William  Lutley  Sclater  came  to  Colorado  Springs  in  the 
autumn  of  1906  to  take  the  position  of  Director  of  the  Museum 
of  Colorado  College,  retaining^  this  office  until  the  spring  of 
1909,  and  spending:  most  of  the  College  year  in  Colorado 
Springs,  but  his  summers  at  his  home  in  England.  Though 
Mr.  Sclater  did  but  little  field  work  while  here,  it  was  through 
Ins  influence  that  the  Aiken  Collection  of  Birds  was  pur- 
chased for  Colorado  College,  and  it  was  during  his  residence 
here  that  "The  History  of  the  Birds  of  Colorado"  was  writ- 
ten, a  work  which,  though  by  one  who  had  been  in  the  state 
but  comparatively  little,  shows  a  great  comprehension  of  the 
avifauna  of  Colorado,  and  represents  a  great  amount  of  labor 
on  his  part  in  not  only  going  over  all  the  specimens  at  his 
command,  but  also  in  looking  up  all  the  records  and  literature 
bearing  on  the  subject.  Colorado  bird  students  owe  Mr. 
Sclater  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  the  excellent  work  he  has  done. 

A  number  of  others  have  made  brief  stays  in  the  region 
and  published  popular  articles  or  books  on  our  birds,  while 
there  are  some  local  observers,  who,  while  taking:  much  inter- 
est in  observing  our  birds,  have  published  little  or  nothing 
about  them. 


The  BtBDS  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  465 

SURVEY  OF  BIRD  LIFE. 

The  bird  life  of  El  Paso  County  is  of  a  very  varied  char- 
acter, nearly  all  the  groups  of  birds  found  in  the  State  being 
represented,  while  the  number  of  species  is  a  goodly  one,  276 
all  told.  The  fact  that  within  our  limits  all  the  life  zones  of 
the  State  are  represented  has  naturally  much  to  do  with  this. 

That  th«  various  species  of  water  birds  are  not  specially 
abundant  is  due  to  the  lack  of  suitable  localities  to  attract 
them,  and  any  increase  in  the  number  of  artificial  reservoirs 
along  the  base  of  the  mountains  or  on  the  plains  will  surely  be 
followed  by  an  increase  in  the  number  of  waterfowl  coming 
to  the  region  and  stopping  for  a  short  time  at  least. 

Among  the  grouse  we  note  the  absence  of  the  Ptarmigan, 
of  whose  occurrence  in  the  County  there  is  no  authentic  rec- 
ord. This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Pike's  Peak  Range  is  an 
isolated  one,  not  connected  with  the  other  high  ranges  of  the 
State,  or  rather  not  by  any  mountains  sufficiently  high  to  afford 
a  continuous  habitat  for  this  Alpine  bird,  and  moreover  the 
area  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Range  which  would  be  attractive  to  it 
is  very  limited,  so  that  it  is  not  strange  it  has  not  gained  a 
foothold  here. 

Two  of  our  Gallinaceous  birds  have  been  exterminated 
within  the  last  forty  years,  the  Sharp-tailed  Grouse  and  Wild 
Turkey. 

Birds  of  prey  are  well  represented,  both  in  species  and 
individuals,  and  the  type  locality  of  one  subspecies,  Aiken's 
Screech  Owl,  is  within  the  limits  of  the  County.  The  Wood- 
peckers have  a  good  number  of  species.  The  Poor-will  and 
Nighthawk  and  one  or  more  Hummingbirds  are  common. 
Flycatchers  of  various  species  are  numerous,  the  Magpie  ana 
several  jays  are  noticeable,  and  the  Icteridce  are  represented 
by  blackbirds,  the  Meadowlark,  and  Bullock's  Oriole. 

Sparrows  of  course  show  many  species,  a  tanager  is  com- 
mon, about  all  the  swallows  of  temperate  North  America  are 
here,  and  a  couple  of  vireos.    The  list  of  Warblers  is  fairly 


466  G)LotADo  College  Publication 

long,  we  have  the  Pipit,  Water  Ousel,  and  several  of  the 
Mifftida,  wrens,  nuthatches,  several  of  the  Paridcc,  two  king- 
lets, a  gnatcatcher,  Solitaire,  several  thrushes,  Robin,  and  three 
bluebirds. 

This  brief  resume  shows  what  a  field  for  bird  study  the 
County  affords.  It  has  given  several  original  records  to  the 
Colorado  list,  and  a  considerable  number  of  the  rarer  species 
have  been  reported  from  here. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  BIRD  FAUNA. 

We  have  divided  the  birds  of  the  County  into  the  eight 
following  categories,  the  first  six  of  which  are  identical  with 
those  of  Sclater  in  his  History  of  the  Birds  of  Colorado. 

A — Resident  throughout  the  year. 

B — Summer  residents,  migrating  south  in  winter. 

C — Birds  which  breed  within  the  County,  and  occasionally 
winter,  though  usually  going  further  south. 

D — Birds  not  known  to  breed  within  the  County,  but  found 
more  or  less  commonly  in  winter. 

E — Birds  not  known  to  breed  within  the  County,  but  more 
or  less  regular  transients  through  in  spring  and  autumn. 

F — Birds  not  known  to  breed  in  the  County,  which  have  been 
taken  or  seen  on  from  one  to  half  a  dozen  occasions. 

C — Species  which  formerly  occurred  in  the  County  but  now 
exterminated  or  not  seen  for  many  years. 

H — Introduced  species. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  in  which  category  some 
of  the  species  should  be  placed,  but  we  believe  the  following 
lists  are  as  near  correct  as  they  can  be  made  with  the  informa- 
tion at  hand. 

A — Resident  throughout  the  year,  46  species.  Virginia 
Rail,  Scaled  Quail,  Dusky  Grouse,  Ferruginous  Roughleg, 
Golden  Eagle,  Long-eared  Owl,  Aiken's  Screech  Owl,  Western 
Horned  Owl,  Acadian  Owl,  Rocky  Mountain  Pygmy  Owl, 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  G)Unty,  Colorado  467 

Road  Runner,  Rocky  Mountain  Hairy  Woodpecker,  Batcheld- 
er's  Woodpecker,  Alpine  Three-toed  Woodpecker,  Red-shafted 
Flicker,  Desert  Horned  Lark,  Magpie,  Long-crested  Jay, 
Woodhouse's  Jay,  Rocky  Mountain  Jay,  Raven,  Clarke's  Nut- 
cracker, Pifion  Jay,  Western  Evening  Grosbeak,  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Pine  Grosbeak,  Cassin's  Finch,  Crossbill,  Mexican  Cross- 
bill, Brown-capped  Rosy  Finch,  Goldfinch,  Pale  Goldfinch, 
Pine  Siskin,  Gray-headed  Junco,  Mountain  Song  Sparrow, 
Canon  Towhee,  Water  Ousel,  Canon  Wren,  Rocky  Mountain 
Creeper,  Rocky  Mountain  Nuthatch,  Red-Breasted  Nuthatch, 
Pygmy  Nuthatch,  Gray  Titmouse,  Long-tailed  Chickadee, 
Mountain  Chickadee,  Lead-colored  Bush-Tit,  Townsend's  Soli- 
taire. 

B — Summer  residents,  migrating  south  in  winter,  84 
species.  Sora,  Killdeer,  Mountain  Plover,  Western  Mourning 
Dove,  Turkey  Vulture,  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  Cooper's  Hawk, 
Krider's  Hawk,  Western  Redtail,  Swainson's  Hawk,  Prairie 
Falcon,  Duck  Hawk,  Sparrow  Hawk,  Burrowing  Owl,  Belted 
Kingfisher,  Red-naped  Sapsucker,  Williamson's  Sapsucker, 
Red-headed  Woodpecker,  Poor-will,  Western  Nighthawk, 
White-throated  Swift,  Broad-tailed  Hummingbird,  Rufous 
Hummingbird,  Kingbird,  Arkansas  Kingbird,  Cassin's  King- 
bird, Ash-throated  Flycatcher,  Say's  Phoebe,  Olive-sided  Fly- 
catcher, Western  Wood  Peewee,  Western  Flycatcher,  Traill's 
Flycatcher,  Least  Flycatcher,  Hammond's  Flycatcher,  Wright's 
Flycatcher,  Cowbird,  Yellow-headed  Blackbird,  Thick-billed 
Redwing,  Bullock's  Oriole,  Brewer's  Blackbird,  Bronzed 
Grackle,  Arkansas  Goldfinch,  Arizona  Goldfinch,  Mexican 
Goldfinch,  Western  Vesper  Sparrow,  Western  Savannah 
Sparrow,  Western  Lark  Sparrow,  White-crowned  Sparrow, 
Western  Chipping  Sparrow,  Brewer's  Sparrow,  Lincoln's 
Sparrow,  Green-tailed  Towhee,  Black-headed  Grosbeak, 
Western  Blue  Grosbeak,  Lazuli  Bunting,  Lark  Bunting,  West- 
ern Tanager,  Cliff  Swallow,  Barn  Swallow,  Tree  Swallow, 
Violet-green  Swallow,  Rough-winged  Swallow,  White-rumped 
Shrike,  Western  Warbling  Vireo,  Plumbeous  Vireo,  Virginia's 
Warbler,  Orange-crowned  .Warbler,  Yellow  Warbler,  Audu- 


468  Colorado  College  f*uBLicATiO>f 

bon's  Warbler,  Black-throated  Gray  Warbler,  MacGillivray's 
Warbler,  Western  Yellow-throat,  Long-tailed  Chat,  Pileo- 
lated  Warbler,  Redstart,  Pipit,  Mockingbird,  Catbird,  Brown 
Thrasher,  Rock  Wren,  Western  House  Wren,  Ruby-crowned 
Kinglet,  Audubon's  Hermit  Thrush,  Chestnut-backed  Bluebird. 

C — Birds  which  breed  within  the  County,  and  occa- 
sionally winter,  though  usually  going  further  south,  7  species. 
Spotted  Sandpiper,  Marsh  Hawk,  Lewis's  Woodpecker,  West- 
ern Meadowlark,  Mountain  Towhee,  Western  Robin,  Moun- 
tain Bluebird. 

D — Birds  not  known  to  breed  within  the  County,  but 
found  more  or  less  commonly  in  winter,  28  species.  Wilson's 
Snipe,  Goshawk,  Western  Goshawk,  Rough-legged  Hawk, 
Bald  Eagle,  Pigeon  Hawk,  Richardson's  Pigeon  Hawk,  Shon- 
cared  Owl,  Rocky  Mountain  Screech  Owl,  Gray-crowned  Rosy 
Finch,  Hepburn's  Rosy  Finch,  Black  Rosy  Finch,  Redpoll, 
Alaska  Longspur,  Chestnut-collared  Longspur,  McCown's 
Longspur,  Western  Tree  Sparrow,  White-winged  Junco,  Slate- 
colored  Junco,  Intermediate  Junco,  Shufeldt's  Junco,  Mon- 
tana Junco,  Pink-sided  Junco,  Arctic  Towhee,  Bohemian  Wax- 
wing,  Northern  Shrike,  Prairie  Marsh  Wren,  Western  Golden- 
crowned  Kinglet. 

E — Birds  not  known  to  breed  within  the  County,  but 
more  or  less  regular  transients  passing  through  in  spring  and 
autumn,  52  species.  Eared  Grebe,  Pied-billed  Grebe,  Loon, 
Black-throated  Loon,  Ring-billed  Gull,  Forster's  Tern,  Black 
Tern,  White  Pelican,  Merganser,  Mallard,  Gadwall,  Baldpate, 
Green-winged  Teal,  Blue-winged  Teal,  Cinnamon  Teal, 
Spoonbill,  Pintail,  Redhead,  Canvas-back,  Lesser  Scaup,  Gold- 
en-eye, Buffle-head,  Ruddy  Duck,  Bittern,  Great  Blue  Heron, 
Snowy  Egret,  Black-crowned  Night  Heron,  Little  Brown 
Crane,  Coot,  Northern  Phalarope,  Wilson's  Phalarope,  Long- 
billed  Dowitcher,  Baird's  Sandpiper,  Least  Sandpiper,  Semi- 
palmated  Sandpiper,  Greater  Yellow-legs,  Yellow-legs,  West- 
ern Solitary  Sandpiper,  Western  Willet,  Long-billed  Curlew, 
Black-bellied  Plover,  Baird's  Sparrow,  Western  Grasshopper 


Plate  III. 


r-- 

-n 

.»» 

"-^^-   ^4:    ^^BH 

*i  i.ii 

Hft^Bt**"^^^^ 

fi 

Fifir.  5.  £.  i?.  W.,  Photo. 

Young  Western  Horned  Owl. 
Delta  County,  Colo. 


* 

# 
i 

r  •••■- 

if'    ' 

Fi^.  6. 
Young  Aiken's  Screech   Owls. 
Colorado  Springs. 


li.  R.  W.,  Photo. 


Plate  IV. 


The  Birds  op  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  469 

Sparrow,  Gambers  Sparrow,  Clay-colored  Sparrow,  Cassin's 
Vireo,  Tennessee  Warbler,  Myrtle  Warbler,  Black-poll  Warb- 
ler, Willow  Thrush,  Olive-backed  Thrush,  Alaska  Hermit 
Thrush. 

F — Birds  not  known  to  breed  in  the  County,  which  have 
been  taken  or  seen  on  from  one  to  half  a  dozen  occasions,  51 
species.  Bonaparte's  Gull,  Double-crested  Cormorant, 
Hoqded  Merganser,  Ring-necked  Duck,  White-winged  Scoter, 
Snow  Goose,  Greater  Snow  Goose,  Canada  Goose,  Hutchins's 
Goose,  Whistling  Swan,  Least  Bittern,  Egret,  Reddish  Egret, 
Sandhill  Crane,  Florida  Gallinule,  Stilt  Sandpiper,  White- 
rumped  Sandpiper,  Upland  Plover,  Golden  Plover,  Band-tailed 
Pigeon,  Swallow-tailed  Kite,  Mississippi  Kite,  Osprey,  Spotted 
Owl,  Flammulated  Owl,  Arctic  Homed  Owl,  Bhick-billed 
Cuckoo,  Red-bellied  Woodpecker,  Black-chinned  Humming- 
bird, Calliope  Hummingbird,  Gray  Flycatcher,  Blue  Jay,  Crow, 
Bobolink,  Rusty  Blackbird,  Snow  Bunting,  Harris's  Sparrow, 
Dakota  Song  Sparrow,  Swamp  Sparrow,  Indigo  Bunting, 
Dickcissel,  Scarlet  Tanager,  Bank  Swallow,  Cedar  Waxwing, 
Prothonotary  Warbler,  Northern  Parula  Warbler,  Oven-bird, 
Sage  Thrasher,  Baird's  Wren,  Western  Gnatcatcher,  Bluebird. 

G — Species  formerly  occurring  in  the  County,  but  no\\' 
exterminated  or  not  seen  for  many  years,  3  species.  Colum- 
bian Sharp-tailed  Grouse,  Merriam's  Turkey,  White-necked 
Raven. 

H — Introduced  species,  4.  Bob-white,  California  Quail. 
Ring-necked  Pheasant,  House  Sparrow. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

We  wish  to  acknowledge  help  or  notes  from  the  following : 
The  Bureau  of  the  Biological  Survey,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  through  its  Chief,  Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw,  and 
Assistant  Ornithologist,  Mr.  H.  C.  Oberholser,  has  identified 
various  specimens  for  us,  mention  of  which  is  usually  specifi- 
cally made  in  the  text. 

Mr.  William  Brewster  has  kindly  examined  his  notes  made 


470  G)LORADo  College  Publicatioi</ 

in  1882,  looking  up  certain  points  for  us.  Mr.  Alex.  Wet- 
more  sent  a  manuscript  list  of  the  birds  observed  by  himself 
and  R.  B.  Rockwell  at  Palmer  Lake,  September  S  and  6,  1909, 
with  permission  to  make  any  use  we  desired  of  it.  Dr. 
Edward  C.  Schneider  of  Colorado  Coollege  was  good  enough 
to  read  over  the  account  of  the  life  zones  and  give  suggestions 
as  to  the  characteristic  plants,  while  much  information  was 
gathered  from  his  "Distribution  of  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's 
Peak  Region."  Mr.  Lloyd  L.  Shaw  has  permitted  the  use  of 
manuscript  notes  made  about  Colorado  Springs  and  in  Crystal 
Park  as  well  as  the  photographs  of  the  young  Sharp-shinned 
Hawks.  Mr.  Clark  Mellen  of  New  York  has  kindly  given 
information  as  to  the  introduction  of  game  birds  at  Glen  Eyrie. 
The  cuts  of  the  Long-eared  Owl,  Horned  Owl,  Burrowing 
Owl's  Nest,  Three-toed  Woodpeckers,  Nighthawk  on  the 
ground,  the  two  of  the  young  Magpies  and  the  Magpie's  nest, 
and  the  two  cuts  of  Cliff  Swallow's  nests,  were  loaned  by  the 
**Condor,"  published  by  the  Cooper  Ornithological  Club  of 
California. 

EXPLANATION. 

The  nomenclature  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union 
has  been  strictly  adhered  to  in  this  list,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
Juncos,  where  it  was  departed  from  for  reasons  there  stated. 

It  should  be  stated  that  Monument  Valley  Park,  fre- 
quently mentioned  herein,  refers  to  the  park  of  that  name  in 
the  city  of  Colorado  Springs,  and  not  to  Monument  Park,  some 
six  miles  north  of  the  city,  and  the  location  of  the  Woodmen's 
Sanatorium. 

Whenever  the  Aiken  Collection  is  mentioned,  the  collec- 
tion of  birds  purchased  from  C.  E.  Aiken  by  General  William 
J  Palmer  and  presented  to  Colorado  College  is  referred  to.  It 
comprises  the  results  of  Aiken's  collecting  from  his  arrival  in 
1871  until  1907. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Aiken,  C.  E.,  and  C.  N.  Holden,  Jr.     Notes  on  the  Birds  of 


Th€  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  G)lorado  471 

Wyoming  and  Colorado  Territories.  Proc.  Boston  Soc. 
Nat.  Hist.,  XV.,  1872,  pp.  193-210.  .This  was  edited  by 
Dr.  T.  M.  Brewer,  and  only  the  notes  signed  "C.  E.  A.," 
contributed  by  Aiken,  refer  to  Colorado.  They  are  the 
results  of  the  field  work  of  his  first  winter  and  spring  in 
Colorado  (1871-72),  and  which  was  practically  all  done  at 
his  ranch  on  Turkey  Creek,  southwest  of  Colorado 
Springs.  59  species  are  credited  to  the  State,  in  addition 
to  those  hitherto  known  to  occur  here. 
Aiken,  C.  E.  A  Glimpse  at  Colorado  and  its  Birds.  Amer. 
Nat.,  VII,  1873,  p.  13.  Notes  on  birds  seen  on  an  October 
day  on  Beaver  Creek. 

Aiken,  C.  E.  A  New  Species  of  Sparrow.  Amer.  Nat.,  VII, 
1873,  pp.  236-7.  Centronyx  ochrocephalus  described  from 
type  taken  on  plains  14  miles  east  of  Fountain,  about 
October  5,  1872.  This  proved  to  be  identical  with  Cen- 
tronyx (now  Ammodramus)  bairdi,  and  was  practically  a 
rediscovery  of  that  species. 

Aiken,  C.  E.  The  Nidification  of  the  Blue  Crow  [Pifion  Jay] 
and  the  Gray-headed  Snowbird.  Amer.  Sport.  V.  1875, 
p.  370.  The  first  account  of  the  nests  and  eggs  of  these 
two  species. 

Aiken,  C.  E.  Seven  New  Birds  for  Colorado.  Auk,  XVII, 
1900,  p.  298.  Adds  as  new  to  the  state  fauna  Gavia  arctica, 
from  Colorado  Springs;  Ardea  egretta,  5  miles  south  of 
Colorado  Springs ;  Syrnium  nebulosum,  Holyoke ;  Astra- 
tjdlinus  tristis  pallidus,  Colorado  Springs;  Geothlypis 
agilis,  Lake,  Lincoln  Co. ;  Geothlypis  trichas,  Colorado 
Springs  (this  specimen  is  now  referred  to  G.  t,  occiden- 
talis)  ;  IV ilsonia  canadensis,  Lake,  Lincoln  Co. 

Allen,  J.  A.  Notes  of  an  Ornithological  Reconnaisance  of 
portions  of  Kansas,  Colorado,  Wyoming  and  Utah.  V. 
List  of  Birds  observed  at  the  Eastern  Base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  Colorado  Territory,  between  Colorado  City 
and  Denver,  in  July  and  August,  1871 ;  with  Annotations. 
Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  Ill,  1872,  pp.  113-183.    A  very 


472  CoLotADo  College  Publication        • 

important  paper  for  Colorado  Ornithology,  and  the  first 
list  pertaining  tp  our  region  as  there  are  many  notes  about 
Palmer  Lake  and  Colorado  City. 

Allen,  J.  A.  Ornithological  Notes  from  the  West.  II. 
Notes  on  the  Birds  of  Colorado.  Amer.  Nat.,  VI,  pp. 
342-351. 

Allen,  J.  A.,  and  W.  Brewster.  List  of  Birds  observed  in 
the  Vicinity  of  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado,  during  March, 
April,  and  May,  1882.  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  VIII,  1883, 
pp.  51-161,  and  189-198.  A  very  important  paper  for  our 
region.  Bendire's  Thrasher  and  Florida  Gallinule  first 
recorded  for  Colorado. 

Arnold,  W.  W.  Bird  Enemies  of  the  Chinese  Cotton  Scale. 
Auk,  XXIX,  1912,  p.  113.  Redpolls  and  Pine  Siskins  ob- 
served to  eat  the  cottony  scale  on  maple  trees  in  Colorado 
Springs.  T.  D.  A.  Cockerell  on  page  400  of  the  same 
volume  corrects  the  name  of  the  insect,  and  states  that  it  is 
Pulvinaria  innumerabilis,  and  that  it  is  a  species  native  to 
America. 

Bailey,  F.  M.  Handbook  of  the  Birds  of  the  Western  United 
States,  including  the  Great  Plains,  Great  Basin,  Pacific 
Slope,  and  Lower  Rio  Grande  Valley.  Boston  and  New 
York.  First  edition  1902.  Several  others  published  since. 
Descriptions  of  the  species,  distribution,  etc.     12mo. 

Brewster,  W.  Recent  Occurrence  of  the  Flammulated  Owl 
in  Colorado.  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn.  Club,  VIII,  1883,  p.  123. 
Letter  from  C.  E.  Aiken  in  regard  to  the  occurrence  of  this 
species  near  Colorado  Springs. 

Chapman,  F.  M.  The  Warblers  of  North  America.  New 
York,  1907.    8vo.    Certain  El  Paso  County  references. 

Cooke,  W.  W.  Ten  New  Birds  from  Colorado.  Auk,  XI, 
1894,  pp.  182-3.  Ardetta  exilis  first  recorded  for  Colorado 
from  specimen  taken  near  Colorado  Springs. 

Cooke,  W.  W.  The  Birds  of  Colorado.  Bull.  No.  37,  State 
Agricultural  College,  Fort  Collins,  Colo.,  1897,  pp.  1-144. 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  473 

Further  Notes  on  the  Birds  of  Colorado.  Bull.  No. 
4,  1898,  pp.  145-176. 

The  Birds  of  Colorado.  Second  Appendix  to  Bulletin 
No.  37.  Bull.  No.  56,  1900,  pp.  177-239.  The  most  com- 
plete list  of  Colorado  birds  up  to  time  of  publication,  and 
containing  many  El  Paso  County  records. 

CooKE,  W.  W.  A  New  Bird  for  Colorado.  Oregon  Natural- 
ist, IV,  1897-8,  p.  165.  Stelluta  calliope  taken  at  Colorado 
Springs. 

Felger,  a.  H.  The  Prothonotary  Warbler  in  Colorado.  Auk, 
XXIV,  1907,  p.  342;  also  Condor,  IX,  1907,  p.  110.  Re- 
ports capture  of  three  specimens  by  B.  G.  Voight,  one  of 
which  was  taken  between  Palmer  Lake  and  Monument. 

Henshaw,  H.  W.  Report  upon  Ornithological  Specimens 
collected  in  the  Years  1871,  1872  and  1873,  in  Geograph- 
ical and  Geological  Explorations  and  Surveys  West  of  the 
One  Hundredth  Meridian.  First  Lieutenant  George  M. 
Wheeler,  Corps  of  Engineers,  in  charge.  Washington, 
1874.  Pp.  133-507,  pis.  I-XV.  Some  El  Paso  County 
notes  by  Aiken  and  Henshaw. 

Keyser,  L.  S.  Birds  of  the  Rockies.  Chicago,  1902.  8vo. 
A  popular  work  and  containing  some  El  Paso  County 
notes. 

Miller,  O.  T.     A  Bird  Lover  in  the  West.    Boston  and  New 
York,  1894.    16mo.    Popular  book;  contains  observations 
made  near  Colorado  Springs. 

MiNOT,  H.  D.  Notes  on  Colorado  Birds.  Bull.  Nutt.  Orn. 
Club,  V,  1880,  pp.  181-2,  and  223-232.  Contains  notes 
made  near  Manitou  and  Seven  Lakes. 

Oberholser,  H.  C.  The  North  American  Forms  of  Astra- 
galinus  psaltria  (Sag).  Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  XVI, 
pp.  113-116,  September  30,  1903.  Reviews  status  of  A.  p. 
psaltria,  A.  p.  arizonce,  and  A.  p.  mexicanus,  concludes 
variations  in  color  are  due  to  age,  and  cite's  a  series  of 
specimens  taken  at  Colorado  Springs  in  the  breeding  sea- 
son and  containing  all  three  forms. 


474  Colorado  College  Publication 

Pike,  Z.  M.  An  Account  of  Expedition  to  the  Sources  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  through  the  Western  Parts  of  Louis- 
iana to  the  Sources  of  the  Arkansaw,  Kans.,  I^  Platte 
and  Pierre  Juan  Rivers,  performed  by  the  order  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  during  the  years  1805, 
1806,  and  1807,  etc.,  etc.  Philadelphia,  1810,  8vo.  The 
portion  relating  to  the  attempted  ascent  of  Pike's  Peak  has 
allusion  to  the  Pheasant,  i.  e.,  Dusky  Grouse. 

RiDGWAV,  R.  On  Some  New  Forms  of  North  American 
Birds.    Amer.  Nat.  VII,  1873,  pp.  603-615. 

Contains  description  of  Junco  liyemalis  aikeni  from 
type  taken  by  Aiken  in  El  Paso  County. 

RiDGWAY,  R..  On  Buteo  Itarlani  (Aud.)  and  B.  cooperi 
(Cass.),  Auk,  II,  1885,  p.  165. 

Note  on  a  specimen  from  El  Paso  County  in  the 
Aiken  Collection.  (This  specimen  did  not  come  from 
El  Paso  County,  nor  is  the  locality  from  which  it  did 
come  known.    It  is  not  now  in  the  collection.) 

RiDGWAV,  R.  The  Birds  of  North  and  Middle  America. 
(Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  No.  50.)  Parts  1,  1901 ;  2,  1902; 
3,  1904;  4,  1907;  5,  1911.     (Incomplete.) 

.ScLATER,  W.  L.  Winter  Birds  of  Colorado.  Ibis,  1908,  pp. 
443-450.    Notes  on  birds  about  Colorado  Springs. 

ScLATER,  W.  L.  A  History  of  the  Birds  of  Colorado.  Lon- 
don, 1912.    With  17  plates  and  a  map.    Sq.  demy  8vo. 

The  only  work  on  Colorado  birds  giving  descriptions, 
habits,  with  references  to  all  records  and  literature.  Many 
El  Paso  County  notes  and  records. 

Smith,  H.  G.  Another  Scarlet  Tanager  for  Colorado.  Auk, 
XIX,  1903,  p.  290.  Record  of  one  taken  by  Ferrill  at 
Palmer  Lake. 

Sturgis,  Carolyn.      The  Meadow-Lark*s  Manual  of  Melody. 


The   Birds  of   El   Paso   County,   Colorado  475 

No  date  (published  in  1912).    No  place  of  publication  or 
publisher. 

Descriptions  of  songs  of  Meadowlarks  as  heard  near 
Colorado  Springs,  with  songs  of  various  individual  birds 
set  to  music. 

Warren,  E.  R.  Horned  Larks  in  Colorado  Springs,  Colo- 
rado.   Bird-Lore,  VI,  1904,  p.  6.    With  4  photographs. 

Account  of  the  birds  in  the  city,  winter  of  1902-3. 

Warren,  E.  R.  A  Hummingbird  that  wanted  light.  Bird- 
Lore,  IX,  1907,  p.  81.     1  photo. 

Account   of   a   Broad-tailed   Hummingbird   building 
nest  on  an  electric  light  fixture  on  porch  in  Colorado 
Springs. 

Warren,  E.  R.  Photographing  Magpies.  Condor,  IX,  1907, 
pp.  5-9.  Photographs  of  nests  from  about  Colorado 
Springs  shown. 

Warren,  E.  R.  Some  Central  Colorado  Bird  Notes.  Con- 
dor, XII,  1910,  pp.  23-39. 

Has  some  El  Paso  County  notes. 

Warren,  E.  R.     Some  North  Central  Colorado  Bird  Notes. 
Condor,  XIV,  May,  1912,  pp.  81-104. 
Has  some  El  Paso  County  notes. 


476  Gh^oraoo  College  Publicatiok 

THE  BIRDS  OF  EL  PASO  COUNTY,  COLORADO. 

Colymbiu   nigricollit   cafifomicus.      Eared    Grebe.      ''Hell 
Diver." 

A  regular  migrant  in  spring  and  fall,  arriving  in  spring 
about  May  1.  The  autumn  migration  begins  in  September  and 
continues  for  a  couple  of  xnonths,  the  latest  date  we  have 
being  October  27,  1906. 

As  there  are  not  many  bodies  of  water  suitable  for  aquatic 
birds  in  the  County  the  opportunity  for  obtaining  notes  on 
these  forms  has  not  been  as  good  as  might  be  desired,  and 
especially  has  this' been  the  case  in  the  past.  Various  reser- 
voirs have  been  constructed  for  irrigation  purposes  during  the 
last  few  years  which  are  attracting  more  birds  during  migra- 
tion. This  explanation  will  account  to  some  extent  for  the 
paucity  of  notes  on  this  and  the  following  species  of  aquatic 
birds. 

The  grebes  would  no  doubt  breed  in  the  County  if  there 
were  any  suitable  places,  as  they  breed  in  many  localities  in 
Colorado. 

In  the  early  days  of  Colorado  Springs  there  were  a  couple 
of  reservoirs  on  East  Boulder  Street,  on  ground  now  well 
settled.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Warren  killed  an  Eared 
Grebe  on  one  of  these  reservoirs,  October  23,  1882. 

PodUymbiu  podiceps.     Pied-billed  Grebe.     ''Hell  Diver.'' 

A  regular  migrant,  but  not  as  common  as  the  ELared 
Grebe. 

Gavia  immer.     Loon. 

Rare  migrant.  Aiken  has  had  several  adults  brought  to 
him,  one  of  them  in  spring.  It  has  been  seen  on  Prospect 
Lake. 

Gavia  arctica.     Black-throated  Loon. 

A  not  uncommon  migrant,  mainly  in  autumn.     All  that 


Plate  V. 


m 

^^^ 

L^^A^ 

j^^  ^ri^^i 

0^ 

m 

Ff^.  5.  E.  R.  W.,  Photo, 

Long-Eared  Owl,  Young  Just  From  Nest. 
Hooper,  Colo. 


Fig.  g.  E.  R.  IV.,  Photo. 

Young  Alpine  Three- Toed  Woodpeckers. 


Plate  VI. 


Fig.  10. 

Western  Nichthawk. 

North  Park,  Colo. 


E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 


Fig.  II.  E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 

*'J^EST''    AND    ECGS    OF    WESTERN    NlGHTHAWK. 

North  Park,  Colo. 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,   Colorado  477 

have  been  examined  were  immature  birds.  Aiken  has  had  a 
good  number  brought  to  him  during  recent  years.  Three 
were  killed  on  Prospect  Lake,  Colorado  Springs,  in  November, 
1898.  There  is  a  mounted  specimen  in  the  Aiken  Collection, 
Colorado  College  Museum,  which  was  sent  in  the  flesh  from 
Monument,  May  11,  1901,  and  presumably  killed  near  that 
place. 

Lanu  delawarensis.     Ring-billed  Gull. 

A  common  migrant,  usually  appearing  in  April.  It  has 
been  taken  from  March  10  to  May  16  in  spring,  and  from 
September  7  to  November  6  in  autumn.  There  are  three 
specimens  in  the  Aiken  Collection,  two  taken  near  Colorado 
Springs,  the  other  labeled  as  from  El  Paso  County.  C.  E. 
Eldredge  brought  one  to  Aiken,  January  2,  1890,  recently 
taken  at  his  ranch  in  Chico  Basin.    An  unusual  date. 

Lanu  Philadelphia.     Bonaparte's  Gull. 

Rare ;  but  few  have  been  taken  in  the  County. 

Sterna  forsterL     Forster's  Tern. 

Rare.  "Taken  at  intervals,  according  to  Mr.  Aiken." 
Allen  and  Brewster.  The  preceding  note,  published  in  1883, 
holds  good  today.    We  have  no  recent  records  for  the  County. 

Hydrochefidon  nigra  surinamentis.     Black  Tern. 

A  not  uncommon  migrant.    Aiken  saw  two  at  a  reservoir 

near  Skinner's,  southeast  of  Colorado  Springs,  July  30,  1907, 
and  there  is  a  mounted  specimen  in  the  Aiken  Collection  taken 
at  Fountain,  August  7,  1908. 

Phalacn>corax  auritus  auritut.     Double-crested  Cormorant. 

Rare.  Has  been  taken  occasionally  near  Colorado  Springs 
in  migration.  One  was  shot  near  Fountain,  October  21,  1901, 
by  George  Wright. 

Pelecanut  enrthrorhynchot.     White  Pelican. 

A  not  uncommon  migrant,  spring  dates  range  from  April 


478  Colorado  College  Publication 

27  to  June  10,  and  autumn  dates  from  September  18  to 
October  13.  A  flock  of  18  came  to  Prospect  Lake,  May  22, 
1898,  and  9  were  killed.  A  large  flock  was  reported  to  Aiken 
on  the  Johnson  Reservoir,  southeast  of  Colorado  Springs,  in 
first  week  in  June,  1907,  which  remained  there  several  days. 

Mergvs  americanut.     American  Merganser.     Sheldrake. 

A  not  uncommon  migrant;  most  of  Aiken's  records  are 
in  the  autumn,  one  as  late  as  November  27.  1905. 

Lophodytes  cucullatus.     Hooded  Merganser. 

An  immature  bird  of  this  species  was  brought  to  Aiken 
several  years  ago,  which  had  been  killed  near  Colorado 
Springs.  This  is  the  only  record  we  have  of  its  occurrence  in 
the  County,  but  it  occurs  occasionally  over  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State. 

Anas  platjrrhynchot.     Mallard. 

A  common  migrant,  occasionally  winters  where  there 
is  open  water.  Seven  were  seen  on  a  pond  in  Monument  Valley 
Park  April  9,  1913. 

In  February,  1895,  Aiken  visited  Clear  Lake,  near  Deserct, 
Utah,  before  the  marshes  had  thawed.  Towards  evening 
ducks  flying  high  and  coming  from  different  directions  at  in- 
tervals were  observed  to  drop  down  to  a  certain  part  of  a 
frozen  marshy  meadow.  He  approached  cautiously  to  in- 
vestigate when  twenty  Mallard  drakes  suddenly  raised  theii* 
heads  from  above  the  grass  and  leaped  into  the  air.  They 
had  apparently  come  to  this  spot  to  sleep  and  were  huddled 
a?  closely  together  as  possible. 

Chaulelatmnt  strepems*     Gad  wall.     Gray  Duck. 

Migrant,  one  of  the  most  common  ducks  in  spring  and 
putumn,  beginning  to  fly  north  the  middle  or  latter  part  of 
March,  and  to  come  south  again  in  late  September.  There  is 
pne  in  the  Aiken  Collection,  taken  near  Falcon,  May  3,  1907. 


The   Birds  of   El   Paso   County,   Colorado  479 

and  Aiken  saw  one  near  Calhan  in  June,  which  was  probably 
breeding. 

Mareca  americana.     Baldpate.     Widgeon. 

A  common  migrant,  at  about  the  same  dates  as  the  Gad- 
wall. 

Nettion  carolinense.     Green-winged  Teal. 

A  common  migrant,  coming  the  last  of  March  in  spring, 
and  mid-September  in  autumn. 

October  26,  1882,  I  killed  one  in  the  Colorado  Springs 
City  irrigating  ditch,  where  it  ran  along  the  west  side  of 
what  is  now  the  D.  Russ  Wood  Addition,  and  entirely  built 
over,  then  there  was  not  a  house  within  several  hundred 
yards.     (E.  R.  W.) 

It  has  recently  been  seen  on  the  reservoir  in  Moni^meit 
Valley  Park.  As  of  course  no  shooting  is  allowed  in  the  park 
the  ponds  there  should  become  a  refuge  for  water  fowl. 

Querqiiedula  discors.     Blue-winged  Teal. 

A  common  migrant.  Aiken  found  a  nest,  without  eggs, 
June  4th,  1898,  on  Big  Sand/  Creek,  near  Ramah,  on  the 
plains,  forty  miles  northeasterly  from  Colorado  Springs.  A 
pair  were  seen  on  the  Monument  Valley  Park  reservoir,  May 
10,  12,  14  and  23,  1913,  giving  rise  to  the  hope  that  they 
might  be  nesting  somewhere  near,  which  was  never  verified, 
however.  The  species  has  also  been  seen  at  the  same  place 
in  autumn. 

Querquedula  cyanoptera.     Cinnamon  Teal. 

Formerly  common  migrant,  now  rare.  Aiken  docs  rot 
see  as  many  specimens  now  as  once,  but  possibly  this  is  be- 
cause of  the  closing  of  spring  shooting,  most  of  the  birds  for 
mounting  having  been  brought  in  in  the  spring.  Aiken*s  last 
records  are  April  25,  1886,  and  March  26,  1887. 

Spatula  clypeata.     Shoveller.     Spoonbill. 

Rather  a  common  migrant.  Has  been  taken  as  late  as 
October  30. 


480  CoLOkAoo  College  Publication 

Dafila  acuta.     Pintail. 

A  common  migrant,  and  about  the  first  of  the  ducks  lo 
appear  in  spring,  often  arriving  early  in  February.  O^nies 
south  in  October.  A  male  seen  on  Monument  Valley  Park 
reservoir,  May  6,  1913. 

Marila  americaiuu     Redhead. 
A  rather  common  migrant. 

Marila  valiaineria.     Canvas-back. 
Migrant;  not  common. 

Marila  affinis.     Lesser  Scaup  Duck.     Little  Blue-bill 

Common  migrant.  One  seen  on  Monument  Vallev  Paik 
reservoir  April  20,  1913,  and  two  October  12,  1913. 

Marila  coUaris.     Ring-necked  Duck. 

Rare  migrant.    A  few  have  been  brought  to  Aiken. 

Clangula  dangula  american^     Golden-eye. 

A  casual  migrant.  Aiken  had  specimens  brought  to  him 
taken  March  3,  1900,  and  December  14,  1906. 

CharitoneUa  albeola.     Buffle-head. 
A  common  winter  visitor. 

Oidemia  deglandl     White-winged  Scoter. 

There  is  but  one  record  of  the  occurrence  of  this  species 
in  the  County,  a  specimen  which  was  killed  on  the  Johnson 
reservoir  near  Skinner's,  October  16th,  1907,  and  mounted 
by  Aiken. 

Erismatura  jamaicentis.     Ruddy  Duck. 

A  rather  common  migrant,  arriving  late  in  spring.  One 
was  killed  on  Prospect  Lake  in  the  spring  of  1912.  Two 
males  seen  on  Monument  Valley  Park  reservoir,  April  17,  1913. 


The  Birds  op  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  481 

Chen  hyperboreus  hjrperborens.     Snow  Goose. 

Occasional.  Aiken  has  a  mounted  specimen  killed  at  the 
Pebbles  Ranch  on  3quirrel  Creek,  25  miles  east  of  Colorado 
Springs,  October  27,  1885. 

Chen  hjrperboreus  nivalis.     Greater  Snow  Goose. 

October  16,  1913,  a  flock  of  9  or  10  geese  came  to  the 
reservoir  on  the  Stevenson  ranch,  12  miles  south  of  Colorado 
Springs,  and  two  of  them  were  shot  by  C.  F.  Anderson  and 
Alex.  Meredith  of  Colorado  Springs.  A  third  which  was 
crippled  on  the  16th  was  secured  by  R.  A.  Barton  on  the 
19th.  This  last  bird  is  mounted  and  has  been  examined  by 
Warren,  as  also  the  mounted  head  of  one  of  the  other  two. 
The  mounted  bird  and  one  of  the  others  were  measured  when 
killed,  their  lengths  being  28  and  30  inches  respectively.  The 
lengths  of  the  bills  of  the  two  specimens  seen,  with  the  length 
of  the  wing  of  the  mounted  bird,  together  with  the  total 
lengths  above  given,  indicate  that  the  birds  were  Greater 
Snow  Geese,  and  they  constitute  a  third  record  of  the  species 
for  Colorado,  the  other  two  being  a  bird  taken  by  President 
Z.  X.  Snyder  east  of  Greeley,  March  20,  1895,  and  one  killed 
by  John  F.  Campion  near  Loveland,  April  9,  1899.  All  three 
of  the  birds  lately  taken  seem  to  be  immature,  having  con- 
siderable yellowish  on  the  feathers  of  the  head  and  anterior 
portions  of  the  body. 

Branta  canadensis  canadensis.     Canada  Goose. 

Reported  by  hunters  who  distinguish  this  form  from  the 
following. 

Branta  canadensis  hutchinsL     Hutchins's  Goose. 

Occasionally  killed  by  hunters  who  report  it  as  more 
common  than  the  Canada  Goose.  Aiken  killed  one  from  a 
flock  at  Chico  Basin,  December  3,  1871. 

Olor  coltnnbianiis.     Whistling  Swan. 

Occasional  migrant.     An  immature  bird  was  killed  on 


482  Colorado  College  Publication 

Prospect  Lake,  November,  1910.     It  is  now  mounted  and  in 
the  Aiken  Collection  at  Colorado  College. 

Plegadb  guaraiuu     White-faced  Glossy  Ibis. 

Rare;  two  killed  by  Charles  Eldredge  at  his  ranch  in 
Chico  Basin  southeast  of  Colorado  Springs,  October  10,  1890. 

Myderia  americaiuu     Wood  Ibis. 

Rare;  Aiken  has  three  specimens  in  his  private  collec- 
tion, all  immature  birds  shot  near  Colorado  Springs  in  August 
about  25  years  ago. 

Botaurus  lentiginosut.     Bittern. 

Rather  uncommon  from  lack  of  suitable  conditions.  Ar- 
rives in  April,  leaves  in  September  and  October. 

Ixobrychus  ezilis.     Least  Bittern. 

Rare,  but  two  specimens  being  recorded  from  the  County. 
One  of  these  was  taken  near  Colorado  Springs  somewhere 
about  1886;  this  was  the  first  specimen  of  the  species  to  be 
recorded  from  Colorado.  The  other  was  taken  at  Colorado 
Springs,  June  18,  1907.  This  bird  was  found  in  a  yard, 
alive,  but  injured,  probably  from  having  flown  against  a  tele- 
graph or  telephone  wire.  Both  specimens  are  mounted  and 
in  the  Aiken  Collection. 

Ardea  herodias  herodiat.    Great  Blue  Heron. 

Migrant,  rather  common,  arriving  early  in  April;  the 
earliest  date  is  April  2,  1889.  No  breeding  colonies  have  ever 
been  known  in  the  County.  November  27,  1897,  a  young  bird 
was  sent  Aiken  from  Divide  Station,  on  the  Colorado  Mid- 
landn  Railway,  9,200  feet  altitude.  An  unusually  late  record 
for  the  species.  This  locality  is  in  Teller  County.  The  latest 
El  Paso  County  date  is  November  2. 

Herodias  egretta.     Egret. 

The  first  instance  known  of  the  occurrence  of  this  species 


The  Birds  of  £l  Paso  County,  Colorado  483 

hi  the  County,  as  well  as  in  Colorado,  is  a  single  bird  seen 
May  12,  1899,  by  Messrs.  A.  Gruber  and  F.  Cikanck,  taxi- 
dermists then  in  the  employ  of  Mr.  Aiken,  in  a  cottonwood 
tree  five  miles  south  of  Colorado  Springs.  As  they  were  fa- 
miliar with  the  species  as  well  as  with  the  more  common  E, 
candidissima,  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  their  identifi- 
cation. 

Charles  O'Connor  saw  three  birds  near  a  pond  on  the 
prairie  14  miles  east  of  Colorado  Springs,  September  25,  1912, 
which  seem  to  have  been  this  species  rather  than  the  smaller 
Snowy  Heron. 

Egretta  candidissiina.     Snowy  Egret. 

A  not  uncommon  migrant,  occurring  irregularly  in  spring. 
The  earhest  date  is  May  2,  1899,  and  six  birds  of  this  species 
are  known  to  have  been  killed  in  the  vicinity  of  Colorado 
Springs  that  spring.  Aiken  has  received  a  number  of  speci- 
mens from  the  mountains,  indicating  that  it  ranges  as  high 
as  10,000  feet. 

Dichromanassa  rufescens.     Reddish  Egret. 

Accidental.  There  is  a  single  record  of  the  capture  of  this 
j^pecies  in  the  County  and  in  Colorado.  This  is  a  juvenile  or 
immature  bird  which  was  brought  to  Aiken  in  the  flesh,  about 
August,  1875,  and  which  had  been  killed  near  Colorado  Springs. 

Nycticorax  nycticorax  naevhis.     Black-crowned  Night  Heron. 

A  not  uncommon  spring  migrant.  A  Black-crowned  Night 
Heron  with  a  broken  wing  was  seen  in  a  tree  in  Monument 
Valley  Park,  April  16,  1911.  One  was  seen  in  the  same  park, 
April  9,  one  April  27,  and  two  more  May  10,  1913. 

Gnn  canadensis.     Little  Brown  Crane. 

Taken  occasionally  near  Colorado  Springs.  A  flock  of 
15  was  seen  near  Fountain  by  Dr.  Heiple,  about  September 
29th,  1913,  one  of  which  was  killed  and  brought  to  Aiken. 


484  Colorado  Coixege  Pubmcatton 

One  was  killed  at  Curr's  ranch  south  of  Colorado  Springs, 
March  27,  1900,  and  another  near  tiie  city  the  following  day. 

Grus  mexkanju     Sandhill  Crane. 

Rare.  One  specimen  which  was  killed  near  Colorado 
Springs  early  in  1885  was  mounted  by  Aiken.  Hunters  claim 
that  they  have  distinguished  this  species  from  the  Little  Brown 
Crane  in  the  County. 

Ralhis  virginiannt.     Virginia  Rail. 

A  rather  uncommon  resident,  winters  about  sloughs  along 
Fountain  Creek.  Several  seen  and  one  secured  near  Skin- 
ner's ranch,  January  15,  1908,  by  Aiken.  This  was  the  morn- 
ing after  a  severe  snowstorm,  with  temperature  10  below  zero 
There  is  also  a  male  specimen  in  the  Aiken  Collection  shot 
February  16,  1899,  in  severe  stormy  weather.  These  birds 
were  among  rushes  weighted  with  snow  but  near  springholes 
with  open  water.  He  obtained  a  male  with  its  nest  and  7 
eggs  near  Fountain,  June  4,  1872. 

PonaBa  caroliiuu     Sora. 

Conunon  summer  resident  in  suitable  localities.  Has  been 
seen  near  Peyton  by  Aiken,  July  17,  1897. 

Gallinqla  galatea.     Florida  Gallinule. 

The  only  record  for  the  County  and  the  State  is  the  one 
mentioned  by  Allen  and  Brewster,  who  say:  **Saw  one  in 
the  flesh,  taken  May  9,  [1882]."  Presumably  taken  iu  El 
Paso  County,  though  the  precise  locality  is  not  indicated. 

Fulica  americaiuu     Coot.     Mud-hen. 

Common  migrant,  possibly  breedihg  in  suitable  localitiey. 

Lobipes  lobatus.     Northern  Phalarope. 

Rare  migrant  in  spring,  specimens  taken  May  14th  and 
29th,  are  in  the  Aiken  Collection. 

Steganopos  tricolor.     Wilson's  Phalarope. 

Formerly  not  uncommon.    Aiken  found  them  near  Foim- 


Plate  VII. 


Fig.  12. 
Broad-Tailed   Hummingbird   on   Nest  on 

ON  Porch. 
Colorado  Springs. 


E.  R.  IV..  Photo. 
Electric   Light  Fixture 


fig.  13- 

Young  Western  Nightiiawks. 

Gunnison  County,  Colo. 


E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 


Plate  VIII. 


Fig.  14- 

YoiNG  Kingbird. 

Colorado  Springs. 


E,  R.  W.,  Photo. 


Fig.  15. 
Young  Say's  Phcebe. 
Colorado   Springs. 


E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  485 

tain  in  1873,  and  specimens  were  occasionally  brought  to  him 
in  Colorado  Springs  in  the  eighties,  but  none  since  July  17, 
1888.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  in  some  sections  of  Colo- 
rado, and  breeds  in  various  places  in  the  State. 

May  19,  1911,  Warren  saw  25  or  30  Wilson's  Phalarooes 
on  a  small  pond  or  reservoir  at  a  ranch  about  twelve  mi-es 
southwest  of  Elbert.  This  possibly  may  have  been  in  Elbert 
County ;  at  all  events  it  was  very  close  to  the  line. 

Recurvirostra  americaiuu     Avocet. 

Migrant ;  not  uncommon. 

Aiken  witnessed  a  curious  performance  of  Avocets  in 
Utah.  In  September,  1893,  he  visited  the  mouth  of  Bear 
River  where  hundreds  of  acres  of  mud  flats  and  shallow 
water  offer  an  attractive  resort  for  various  water  fowl.  In  a 
submerged  grove  where  patches  of  mud  appeared  above  rhc 
water  hundreds  of  Avocets  were  congregated.  One  little  mud 
island  that  differed  from  others  in  that  it  was  quite  rounri 
seemed  to  have  a  fascination  for  the  birds,  and  they  were 
packed  together  upon  it  in  a  mass  which  covered  the  islind 
to  the  water's  edge.  As  the  island  was  about  12  feet  in  cir- 
cumference the  number  of  birds  probably  approximated  150. 
This  mass  of  birds  continued  to  revolve  about  from  left  to 
right,  and  being  so  crowded  the  movement  was  rather  slow 
and  their  steps  short  and  measured,  so  that  the  impression  was 
that  they  were  all  marking  time  in  the  marching.  Birds  on 
the  rim  of  the  circle  avoided  walking  off  in  the  water  and 
crowded  inward  against  the  mass.  Every  moment  or  two 
birds  would  leave  the  milling  body  and  fly  to  a  neighboring 
mud  island,  and  as  many  from  near  by  would  fly  to  take  their 
places  and  join  the  dance.  Aiken  advanced  quietly  to  within 
20  yards  and  viewed  them  for  half  an  hour,  but  they  con- 
tinued undisturbed  by  his  presence  and  he  left  them  so.  It 
appeared  to  be  a  diversion  of  the  birds. 

The  flesh  of  Avocets  is  not  esteemed  in  places  of  their 
abundance.     Most  of  them  are  infested  with  worms  which 


ASS  CoLOBADo  College  I'ublicatioi^ 

are  found  not  only  in  the  digestive  tract  but  in  the  abdominal 
cavity  and  the  eye  sockets.    The  flavor  is  rather  fishy. 

Phflokek  minor.     Woodcock. 

August  16,  1898,  Aiken  flushed  a  bird  in  oak  brush  on  the 
Starr  Ranch  on  the  slope  of  Cheyenne  Mountain  which  he  be- 
lieves to  have  been  a  Woodcock.  He  was  also  informed  that 
two  men  hunting  on  Rock  Creek  killed  two  Woodcock.  The 
Woodcock  is  known  to  occur  rarely  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State.  Cooke  mentions  five  records  from  the  neighborhood 
of  Denver. 

Edward  H.  Eyre  says  that  while  trout  fishing  in  Manitou 
I*ark  about  September  first  some  years  ago  he  plainly  saw  a  pair 
of  Woodcock  on  the  ground  among  willows  bordering  the 
stream.  This  was  about  30  miles  west  of  Colorado  Springs  in 
Teller  County. 

Gallinago  deHcata.     Wilson's  Snipe.    Jack  Snipe. 

Common  migrant  and  winter  resident. 

Wilson's  Snipe  is  known  to  breed  in  favored  localities 
throughout  the  State  on  the  plains  and  up  to  9,500  feet  in  the 
mountains,  but  there  are  no  very  suitable  breeding  grounds  for 
it  in  El  Paso  County.  They  begin  to  make  their  appearance  the 
last  of  August  or  first  of  September  at  the  first  autumn  storm 
and  become  plentiful  in  October.  Many  go  further  south  by 
the  first  of  November  but  a  great  many  remain  through  the 
most  severe  winters,  some  until  the  first  of  May. 

Fountain  Creek  rarely  freezes  over  entirely  below  its  exit 
from  the  mountains,  and  along  its  banks  there  are  many 
places  where  water  that  runs  through  the  sand  comes  to  the 
surface  and  forms  springy  holes  and  marshy  meadows  which 
are  warmer  than  surface  water.  These  become  the  winter 
feeding  grounds  for  the  Snipe  and  one  or  a  pair  often  content 
themselves  with  a  very  small  area  of  muck.  But  at  times  of 
severe  cold  many  of  the  smaller  holes  freeze  and  then  the 
Snipe  concentrate  at  places  where  a  larger  flow  of  water  keeps 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  487 

the  holes  open.  On  January  15,  1908,  with  six  inches  of  snow 
on  the  ground  and  below  zero  weather  Aiken  visited  a  small 
beaver  pond  on  the  Skinner  ranch  six  miles  south  of  Colorado 
Springs.  A  bit  of  marsh  above  the  pond  and  a  short  stretch 
of  ooze  along  the  outlet  below  remained  open,  and  in  this 
small  area  of  one-fourth  of  an  acre  were  25  to  30  Snipe. 
Some  years  ago  a  Snipe  was  found  running  upon  the  ice  when 
everything  in  the  vicinity  was  frozen  solid.  A  few  Snipe 
winter  along  banks  of  streams  in  the  mountains. 

That  Snipe  know  enough  to  protect  themselves  from 
storms  may  be  illustrated  by  narrating  here  one  of  Aiken's 
experiences  in  Utah  about  20  years  ago.  He  was  beating 
a  snipe  marsh  near  one  edge  of  which  extended  a  narrow 
arroyo  or  gully  in  which  were  some  trees  and  bushes.  The 
weather  had  been  fair  until  without  warning  a  heavy  snow 
storm  set  in.  At  once  Snipe  began  to  rise  wildly  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  marsh  and  one  after  another  directed  their 
flight  toward  the  same  point  in  the  arroyo  and  dove  between 
its  banks.  Upon  investigation  8  or  10  Snipe  were  found 
together  in  a  little  cave  in  the  side  of  the  arroyo  that  was 
partly  hidden  by  bushes  so  that  they  were  well  protected  from 
any  storm.  We  conclude  this  was  not  the  first  time  the  Snipe 
had  resorted  to  this  friendly  shelter  since  they  knew  so  well 
where  to  go. 

Macrorhamphus  griseus  scolopaceut.  Long-billed  Dowitcher. 
Migrant,  not  common. 

Rficropalma  himantopos.     Stilt  Sandpiper. 

The  only  record  for  the  County  is  a  female  in  the  Aiken 
Collection,  taken  near  Colorado  Springs,  May  14,  1884. 

Pisobia  fusdcoUis.     White-rumped  Sandpiper. 

A  single  record  for  the  County,  one  taken  by  Aiken  at 
Colorado  Springs,  and  identified  by  Ridgway. 

PiMbia  bairdL     Baird's  Sandpiper. 

Common  migrant.    It  makes  its  appearance  in  the  autumn 


488  Colorado  College  PublicaHom 

migration  late  in  July,  there  being  a  mounted  bird  in  the  Aiken 
Collection,  taken  at  Skinner's  ranch,  July  29,  1907. 

Pisobia  mimitilh.     Least  Sandpiper. 
Rather  common  migrant. 

Ereunetes  pmOliit.     Semipalmated  Sandpiper. 

Uncommon  migrant.  Allen  and  Brewster  mention  see- 
ing a  fresh  specimen  at  Aiken's,  taken  May  1,  1882. 

Totanns  melanoleiiciit.     Greater  Yellow-legs. 

Rare.  One  noted  by  Aiken  April  10,  1908,  near  Colorado 
Springs. 

Totuas  flavqies.     Yellow-legs. 

Not  uncommon  migrant.  Allen  mentions  taking  a  single 
specimen  each  of  this  and  the  preceding  species  at  Palmer 
Lake,  August  5,  1871,  and  states  that  they  were  the  only  indi- 
viduals seen  of  either  species,  a  rather  strange  coincidence. 

Helodromas    solitarius    dnnamomeas.      Western    Solitary 
Sandpiper. 

Rather  common  spring  migrant.  It  was  seen  in  Monu- 
nient  Valley  Park,  May  26  and  August  10,  1913,  a  single  bird 
on  each  occasion.  Aiken's  earliest  spring  date  is  May  4,  1900, 
and  earliest  summer  date  July  23,  1899. 

Catoptrophorus  temipalmatus  inomatut.     Western  Willet. 
Common  migrant  in  spring. 

Bartramia    longicauda.      Bartramian    Sandpiper.     Upland 
Plover. 

The  title  of  the  Upland  Plover  to  a  place  in  this  list  rests 
on  the  record  of  Allen  and  Brewster  which  says  "Large  num- 
bers were  brought  in  by  gunners  April  28,  [1882]."  Aiken 
has  no  personal  knowledge  of  its  occurrence  here  nor  has  he 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso  County,   G)lorado  489 

met  with  it  in  his  explorations  on  the  plains  to  the  eastward, 
it  has,  however,  been  reported  by  Hersey  and  Rockwell  at 
LJarr,  near  Denver,  about  ninety  miles  north.  Aiken  found 
it  common  in  South  Park,  Park  County,  in  1872,  at  the  Salt 
Works  in  July,  and  along  the  road  from  Fairplay  to  Hartsel 
in  August. 

Actitis  macularias.     Spotted  Sandpiper. 

A  common  summer  resident  along  the  streams,  arriving 
about  May  first.  Aiken  stated  in  1872:  "Common  summer 
resident,  a  few  remain  during  the  winter,"  There  is  no  other 
winter  record  than  this,  but  it  is  no  doubt  correct.  There  are 
no  actual  breeding  records  for  the  County,  but  it  undoubtedly 
does  breed.  First  appeared  in  Monument  Valley  Park  in 
1913,  May  4,  and  seen  regularly  after  that  whenever  the  park 
was  visited,  the  latest  date  when  they  were  seen  being  Septem- 
ber 10.  Two  were  seen  at  Lake  Moraine,  10,250  feet,  Sep- 
tember 2,  1905,  by  Warren,  and  Aiken  saw  a  pair  there  July 
10,  1899. 

Nmnenios  americanot.     Long-billed  Curlew. 

Formerly  a  common  summer  resident,  breeding  on  open 
prairies,  now  a  rare  migrant  near  Colorado  Springs.  Aiken 
noted  one  on  the  Broadmoor  ranch  May  4,  1899.  Sclater's 
reference  of  the  Hudsonian  Curlew  to  El  Paso  County  is 
erroneous,  the  specimen  in  question  proving  to  be  an  imma- 
ture bird  of  the^present  species. 

Squatarola  squatarola.     Black-bellied  Plover. 

A  rare  migrant,  taken  but  a  few  times,  once  by  Aiken  in 
1884  or  1885,  and  one  or  two  others  have  been  brought  to 
him  to  be  mounted. 

Charadrins  dominicas  dominiciis.     Golden  Plover. 

But  one  known  occurrence  in  the  County,  one  or  two  taken 
by  Aiken  near  the  Boulder  Street  reservoir,  Colorado  Springs, 
about  1875,  in  the  late  autumn. 


490  Colorado  G)llece  Publication 

Ozyechas  vodferus.     Killdeer. 

A  common  summer  resident,  arriving  sometime  in  March, 
and  mainly  leaving  in  the  fall  by  October  first,  but  a  few  remain 
much  later.  An  early  record  is 'February  17,  1909,  at  Pinon, 
Pueblo  County,  just  south  of  our  boundary.  Most  common  at 
low  elevations. 

Podasocys  montanot*     Mountain  Plover. 

Formerly  a  common  summer  resident. 

In  the  early  eighties  a  number  of  pairs  nested  on  the 
prairie  land  just  north  of  Colorado  Springs  that  is  now  built 
over  by  the  growing  city.  None  have  been  reported  near  the 
city  for  twenty  years  but  there  are  a  few  breeding  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  County.  Aiken  saw  a  female  bird  and  newly 
hatched  young  at  Ramah,  June  7,  1898,  and  O'Connor  says 
one  or  two  pairs  bred  near  his  ranch  10  miles  east  of  Fountain 
in  1913.  Aiken  found  a  nest  with  three  fresh  eggs  30  miles 
east  of  Colorado  Springs  May  25,  1878,  which  his  notes  state 
**was  discovered  beside  the  road  through  the  anxiety  displayed 
by  the  parent  bird.  The  eggs  were  laid  upon  several  soft 
leaves  of  the  prairie  thistle  with  no  other  semblance  of  a  nest 
save  the  slight  depression  in  the  ground." 

The  Mountain  Picker  differs  greatly  in  habits  and  char- 
acteristics from  its  near  relative  the  Killdeer.  It  shows  no 
preference  for  wet  ground  but  on  the  contrary  frequents 
mesas  or  high  rolling  prairie  land,  often  remote  from  water. 
Their  manner  is  quiet ;  they  have  no  wailing  cry :  they  run 
rapidly  a  short  distance  and  stand  silent  and  motionless  with 
the  head  sunk  low  on  the  shoulders.  Their  unspotted  plumage 
blends  with  the  color  of  the  dry  grass  and  parched  ground  and 
makes  them  difficult  to  discover. 

But  in  August,  when  the  young  birds  shift  for  them- 
selves, they  gather  in  flocks  and  repair  to  the  vicinity  of 
water  holes  and  flooded  fields.  Cooke  cites  the  fact  that  Cap- 
tain Thorne  shot  126  in  one  day  at  this  season  as  evidence  of 
the  abundance  of  this  species,  but  that  is  not  a  fair  basis  for 


The  Birds  of   El  Paso   County,   G)Lorado  491 

such  a  conclusion.    A  flock  from  which  many  may  be  killed 
at  a  single  shot  represents  birds  bred  over  an  extended  area. 

The  name  of  "plover"  places  this  species  in  the  class  of 
game  birds  which  may  be  shot  in  the  open  season.  As  a  game 
bird  in  spring  it  compares  with  the  horned  lark  but  has  some 
advantage  as  to  size,  and  presents  an  attractive  mark  to  the 
amateur  shooter. 

Colinas  virginianas  virginianot*     Bob-white. 

Not  a  native  species  but  has  been  introduced  at  various 
times.  General  Palmer  turned  out  a  number  from  Glen 
Kyrie,  bringing  them  from  Kansas  and  Oklahoma.  Mr.  Clark 
Mellen  writes  us  that  a  good  many  broods  were  seen  about 
the  place  the  first  year  but  only  a  few  the  second.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  what  became  of  them,  they  may  have  died  from 
lack  of  food,  exposure  in  winter,  or  been  killed  by  lawless 
hunters.  E.  A.  Touzalin  liberated  some  about  25  years  ago 
at  his  ranch  on  Cheyenne  Mountain,  and  these  seem  to  have 
scattered  about  considerably.  Ten  years  ago  there  were  some 
on  the  Bates  ranch  south  of  Colorado  Springs,  on  Fountain 
Creek,  also  about  15  years  ago  there  were  some  on  a  ranch 
farther  south,  about  45  being  seen  there  one  day  in  January, 
1898.  One  was  heard  near  Buttes,  July  9,  1907,  and  one  May 
lO,  1908,  and  there  are  still  a  few  in  that  region.  These  are 
descended  from  birds  liberated  about  1888  by  R.  R.  Taylor  of 
Colorado  Springs.  A  pair  of  Texan  Bob-whites  from  Texas 
were  liberated  near  Colorado  Springs  in  1898  by  George 
Bonbright,  but  it  is  not  believed  that  they  survived. 

There  is  not  a  great  deal  of  cover  for  the  birds  and  it  is 
easy  for  hunters  who  have  no  regard  for  the  law  to  kill  them. 
Horned  Owls  are  also  partly  responsible  for  their  extermina- 
tion. Dead  Quail  have  been  found  in  Owls'  nests  on  Fountain 
Creek. 

Bob-whites  are  plentiful  in  western  Kansas  and  in  recent 
years  have  spread  westward  over  the  Colorado  line  at  several 
points  where  there  is  sufficient  cover  in  this  State  to  afford 


492  Colorado  College  Publication 

them  protection.  They  have  become  plentiful  along  the  Ar- 
kansas Valley  since  its  settlement  and  cultivation  as  far  west  as 
least  as  La  Junta  where  Aiken  saw  many  in  June,  1908.  They 
very  probably  may  have  extended  as  far  west  as  Pueblo  as 
conditions  are  favorable  for  them  all  along  that  valley,  but  it 
is  not  believed  that  any  of  the  birds  in  El  Paso  County  have 
come  from  that  source. 

CallipepU    sguamata    sguamata.      Scaled    Quail.      ''Blue 

Quail.''     ''Mexican  Quail.'' 

Locally  common ;  resident. 

Until  recent  years  the  Scaled  Quail  has  been  generally 
known  as  restricted  to  the  southern  and  central  portions  of 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  western  Texas,  yet  as  long  ago 
as  May,  1876,  Aiken  learned  of  it  as  a  common  resident  along 
the  Purgatoire  River  north  of  Trinidad  in  Colorado.  It  was 
not  recorded  from  the  State,  however,  until  1895  when  W.  P. 
Lowe  noted  in  the  Auk,  Xll,  p.  298,  his  finding  one  in  the 
Wet  Mountains  southwest  of  Pueblo.  Previous  to  this,  in  1884, 
T.  S.  Brigham  of  Colorado  Springs  liberated  several  pairs  on 
his  ranch  west  of  Fountain,  but  it  is  not  known  that  any  of 
these  survived  as  they  soon  disappeared  from  the  premises. 

With  the  settlement  and  cultivation  of  the  land  along  the 
Arkansas  River  east  of  Pueblo  this  quail  coming  in  from  the 
I^urgatoire  valley  and  the  cedar  hills  east  of  it  increased  and 
spread  rapidly.  For  twenty  years  they  have  been  plentiful  in 
the  region  of  Rocky  Ford  and  La  Junta,  later  extending  up 
the  valley  to  Canon  City,  and  spreading  northward.  In  the 
spring  of  1908  Scaled  Quail  made  their  appearance  in  El  Paso 
County  in  several  localities.  May  8  Aiken  found  a  pair  at  the 
mouth  of  Bear  Creek  (later  their  nest  with  18  eggs  was  found). 
A  few  days  after  this  Sclater  saw  several  near  Glen  Eyrie,  and 
in  June  Scheutze  learned  that  two  or  three  had  been  shot  along 
the  mesa  west  of  Colorado  Springs. 

Charles  O'Connor  reported  that  42  had  wintered  at  the 
Franceville  coal  banks,  taking  shelter  at  night  in  a  aeserted 
coal  shaft.     A  surprising  appearance  was  that  of  a  pair  at 


The  Biros  of   El   Paso  County,   Colorado  493 

the  signal  station  on  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak  on  June 
second.  The  female  was  shot  at  the  time,  and  the  male  lin- 
gering near  was  killed  six  days  later.  It  is  strangely  at  vari- 
ance with  the  known  habits  of  this  bird  that  it  should  penetrate 
so  far  into  the  mountains,  but  this  is  not  the' only  instance  we 
have  of  its  occurrence  at  high  altitudes.  In  June,  1911,  T.  S. 
Brigham  saw  a  covey  near  a  ranch  at  Lake  George,  over  30 
miles  northwesterly  from  Colorado  Springs,  in  the  heart  of 
the  mountains,  at  8,085  feet  altitude.  The  ranchman  told  him 
they  were  reared  there  by  a  pair  which  came  there  the  year 
before. 

From  the  first  appearance  of  these  birds  in  El  Paso 
County  they  multiplied  rapidly.  In  the  late  autumn  of  1911 
packs  of  one  or  two  hundred  were  reported  near  Fountain  and 
Buttes.  In  defiance  of  the  game  law  which  then  protected  them 
until  1915,  and  which  protection  has  since  been  extended  to 
1924,  many  were  shot.  Later  in  the  winter  snows  which  cov- 
ered the  ground  for  a  week  or  two  at  a  time  deprived  them  of 
food.  Whether  they  migrated  or  perished  is  uncertain,  but 
there  were  few  remaining  the  next  year  and  they  have  not 
since  been  plentiful. 

The  Scaled  Quail  does  not  usually  hide  for  protection  but 
depends  on  its  fleetness  of  foot  to  escape.  On  barren  land 
lo  the  southward  where  little  vegetation  grows  besides  the 
tree  cactus  they  find  a  friendly  shelter  beneath  the  sharp-spined 
branches  from  the  attacks  of  hawks.  That  many  do  fall  vic- 
tims to  birds  of  prey  is  certain.  A  Goshawk  from  Pueblo 
County  brought  to  Aiken  February  IS,  1909,  contained  in  its 
crop  one  freshly  eaten  Scaled  Quail,  and  in  its  stomach  the 
remains  of  another. 

As  noted  by  Aiken  the  call  note  of  this  quail  is  kuk  chung 
often  repeated. 

Lophortyx  califomica.     California  Quail. 

An  introduced  species.  E.  A.  Touzalin  liberated  some  at 
lis  ranch  on  Cheyenne  Mountain  a  number  of  years  ago,  and 


494  Colorado  College  Publication 

General  Palmer  also  turned  some  out  at  Glen  Eyrie. 

It  is  not  known  to  which  subspecies  these  birds  belonged 
"California  Quail"  have  for  years  been  reported  to  occur  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Turkey  and  Little  Fountain  Creeks  but 
none  have  been  critically  examined.  They  are  no  doubt  the 
Scaled  Quail  as  this  is  often  called  "California  Quail"  col- 
loquially. 

Dendragapus  obtcarns  obtcnrnt.     Dusky  Grouse. 

Resident  in  the  mountains ;  not  common. 

The  Dusky  Grouse  was  probably  never  as  abundant  in  El 
Paso  County  as  it  is  or  has  been  in  the  mountains  farther 
west.  It  is  usually  found  above  8,000  feet.  It  winters  in  the 
green  pine  and  spruce  timber  at  the  higher  altitudes,  but 
probably  most  of  the  broods  are  raised  somewhat  lower  down. 
This  species  was  no  doubt  killed  by  Pike  when  he  made  his 
attempt  to  get  to  the  Peak.  In  his  account  he  speaks  of  it  as 
the  "Pheasant." 

Pedkecetes  phasianeUut  cohunbianut.     Columbian  Sharp- 
tailed  Grouse. 

This  species  is  not  now  known  to  exist  in  El  Paso  County, 
though  it  was  formerly  common  on  Monument  and  Kettle 
Creeks  and  along  the  Divide.  Allen  states  that  it  was  said  to 
be  abundant,  especially  near  Palmer  Lake.  This  was  in  1871. 
In  1875  they  were  still  comparatively  common  in  certain 
localities,  and  in  September  of  that  year  Aiken  found  numerous 
tracks  at  Sand  Creek,  east  of  Colorado  Springs,  but  failed  to 
see  any  birds,  though  it  had  been  reported  that  they  were 
there.  From  Sand  Creek  he  proceeded  northward  until  he 
struck  the  headwaters  of  Kettle  Creek,  and  there  found  a 
covey  of  seven  or  eight  birds,  from  which  one  or  two  were 
secured.  The  farthest  point  south  that  the  species  has  been 
seen  about  here  is  a  bird  flushed  by  Aiken  near  the  Bates 
ranch  40  years  ago. 


The  Birds  of   El  Paso  County,  Colorado  495 

Meleagris  gaUopavo  merriamL     Merriam's  Turkey.     Wild 
Turkey. 

Formerly  common  in  the  foothills,  now  exterminated. 

When  Aiken  located  on  his  ranch  in  the  Turkey  Creek  val- 
ley in  November,  1871,  he  was  told  that  Jeff  Steel,  the  pre- 
vious owner  of  the  ranch,  had  killed  one  or  more  Wild  Turkeys 
there  the  year  previous.  Years  before  that  time  the  creek  had 
received  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  Turkeys  there.  In 
December,  1871,  Aiken  found  evidence  of  the  roosting  place  of 
a  Turkey  on  the  edge  of  Barnes's  Canon  two  miles  east  of 
the  ranch.  In  the  spring  of  1873  his  mother,  Mrs.  J.  E. 
Aiken,  while  riding  horseback  a  short  distance  north  of  the 
ranch  saw  a  Wild  Turkey  run  across  the  road  a  few  rods  aheaa 
of  her.  This  is  believed  to  have  been  the  last  survivor  of  the 
species  in  the  County. 

Of  the  host  of  Wild  Turkeys  which  once  inhabited  the 
Front  Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado  none  now 
remain  except  a  few  along  the  southern  border  of  the  State. 
Only  one  specimen  from  the  devastated  area  remains,  a 
mounted  bird  in  the  Colorado  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Denver,  which  was  killed  in  South  Park,  in  January,  1878. 
This  specimen  and  existing  birds  of  the  southern  border  have 
been  identified  as  Merriam's  Turkey,  and  beyond  a  reasonable 
doubt  all  the  Turkeys  indigenous  to  the  mountains  intervening 
between  these  points  were  of  the  same  form. 

Phasianus  torquatus.     Ring-necked  Pheasant.       Mongolian 
Pheasant. 

An  introduced  species.  General  Palmer  brought  a  num- 
ber to  Glen  Eyrie,  which  after  being  kept  confined  for  some 
time  were  liberated.  A  good  number  of  young  broods  were 
seen  about  the  first  season,  only  a  few  the  second,  and  event- 
ually ihey  about  all  disappeared.  There  are  two  or  more  in 
Monument  Valley  Park  which  have  been  there  three  or  four 
years.  In  the  fall  of  1912  one  was  brought  to  Aiken  which  was 
Idlled  near  Palmer  Lake.    It  seems  quite  certain  that  this  in- 


496  CoumADo  College  Publication 

dividual  may  have  wandered  down  from  the  north,  as  many 
have  been  liberated  in  the  vicinity  of  Denver,  where  they  have 
done  fairly  well  and  spread  over  considerable  territory. 

Cohmiba  fesdata  fasciata.     Band-tailed  Pigeon. 

No  specimens  of  this  bird  have  been  taken  in  El  Paso 
County  and  its  possible  occurrence  rests  upon  the  following 
reports :  A  flock  was  reported  to  Aiken  as  having  been  seen 
in  Queen's  Canon,  about  1880;  a  couple  were  described  as 
having  been  seen  just  west  of  Colorado  Springs  in  the  spring 
of  1905.  The  first  specimen  taken  in  the  State  was  killed  by 
Aiken  at  Del  Norte,  September  26,  1874.  Three  were  seen 
and  one  reported  killed  by  Sam  Keaton  on  Little  Fountain 
Creek  in  the  autumn  of  1910. 

Zenaidnra  macroura  marginella.     Western  Mourning  Dove. 

A  common  summer  resident,  arriving  early  in  April  and 
departing  early  in  October.  Found  practically  over  the  county 
in  the  more  open  country.  Nests  both  on  the  ground  and  in 
trees.  Keyser  found  a  nest  near  Ramah  in  the  same  tree  with 
nests  of  Eastern  and  Arkansas  Kingbirds. 


-   LANGUAGE  SERlES^Vol  IL 

No,  15.    A  Note  Upon  Dryden's  Herpic  Stanzas  on  the  Death  of  Cromwell. 
-    -^Edward  S:  Parsons. 
"   l€t.\  Some  Defects  in  the  Teachmg  of  Modern'Langu^^es^-r^S'torr  WO^ 

lar4  CtUfing^  University  of  Chicago. 
"   17.    A  Plea  for  More  Spatush  m  the  Schools  of  Colorado*— JE/i/oA 

Clarence  HQls.  *  -   / .      '  " 

'*   18..  Th^  Evoitrtion  of  Maeterlinck's  Dramatic  Theory.— ^JB/f/a&  Ctar- 

ence Hills.      /    '     ''   ' 
'*   19*    A  Sttt^of  EngKsh  Bfenk  Verse,  1558-1632.— Ffiyn7/a  F/^/rAi^^^ 
"  20.    LaweHfe  Conception  of  Poetry^— £(fward  S.  Parsans^  '    ^ 

"   2L    The  Church  and  Education:— Edward  S,  ParJons. 
**  2i,    Literature  as-a  Force  in  Character  Building. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 
**   23.    Relation  of  the  Home  to  the  Criminal-^£rfw(mJ  S,  Parsons. 
**   24*  ^  Jpnspn  and  MiUon  on  Shakespeare.— fidward  S,  Parsons^  ^ 
'  **-25.    Rousseau  and  Wordsworlh.-^i?ow^r  jB.  JToadftrid^^/ 
"   26.    The  Supernatural  in  Hawthorne  and  Poe. — Benjafnin  Mniher 

IVoodbridge,  »         /  ,  .    " 

'•  27.    "Much  Ado  About  Nothing"  ^nd  Ben  Jonson's  "The  Casfe  Is 

AittTtd.'*~HofHerE.Woodbrfdge. 
^   ^.    A}Joteon''limTyVJ'—Honief£.lVoodM^ 
*'  29.    The  Pike's  Peak  RegiQn  iu  Song  and  Uytii.^Etijah  Clarence  Hills. 

ENCINEERING  SERIES-Vokl. 

No.    1.    The  Fusa)ilil^  and  Fluidity  of  Titaniferous  Silicates. — L.  C.  Len- 
.nojtandC.N.Cox,Jr. 

"     2.    The    Des^    of    a    Low-Tension   ^itch-Board.— F^non  T, 
Brtgfumi.         ' 
.  The  Roastmg  of  TellUride  Ores.— J?.  L.  Mack  and  G.  H.  Scibird. 
Further  Notes  on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado.-^JSdtc/ard  R.  Warren. 
The  Movement  of  Light  in  Crystals. — G^eorge  I.  PirUay. 
Aaron  Palnier's  Computing  Scale. — Florian  Cajori. 
John  E.  Puller's  Grcular  Slide  Rttles.^—Ffonan  Cajdri. 
A  Proposed  List  of  Experiments  for  ^  Course  in  Electrical  Engi-* 

xjeering  L-aboratory.- /i?fc»  Aff/iy, 
An  Outjihe  of  Mineraldgy.— G^^r^tf  I.Pinlay. 
On  the  Invention  of  the  Slide  Rvle.-^Plorian  Cajori. 

11.  A  Study  of  the  Advisability  of  El^trif ication  of  the  Arkansas 
Junction-Basalt  Division  of  the  Colorado  Midlatid  Railroad.— 
Ahstr^tbj  George  B.Thomas. 

12.  Notes  on  a  Graphical  M^bod  of  Dealmg  with  Water  Supply.-^ 
WUKam  A.  Barttett 


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10. 

COLORADO  COLLEGE  PUBLICATION 

GENERAL  SERflES  NO.  75  •nd  76 
SC3ENCE  SERIES.  VOL.  Xlf.  NO.  13»  H  Pp,  497-603 


No.  i  3«    Tke  Birds  of  EI  Paso  County,  Colorado^    11. 


Charles  E.  H.  Aik^ 

and 
Edward  R.  Warren 


PRICE  S£VENTY.nVE  CENTS 
COLCMlADp  St>RINGS,  COLORADO 
JUNE-SEFIEMBER.  1914 

PublMhedlJy  authority  of  the  Board  of  Tnistee*  of  Colorado  Ccllei^e  every  six  weeks 
durlniT  tho  Academie  Year 

EskMiMieooiKl-dMi  m«llcr.  Seplenibcr  25,  1905.  »!  ifac  BmI  Office  io  Colorado  Spriiftt.  CoIookIo.  ittd«r 
.       •      .      AdofCoore-  olWr.1904  -^ 


Editor-in-Chief     -.-..-.     William  F.  Slocum,  LL.  D. 
Managing  Editor     -...-*-•      Florian  CAjori/Ph.  D. 

/  E.  C  Hills,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.,  D. 
Associate  Editors,   j  E.  C.  Schneider,  Ph.  D. 

\  G.  M.  Howe,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary. 


pnstt  , 


SCIENCE  SERIES 

\  .angiitr  Sann.  *rc  o«t  of  ' 


Not.  I-29SdenttSerici.  MSocMlSoiett««Saierui4  t*14  LaafoiicSflritt,  hare  Mipeu«d  n  C^lormdo  CtUUg* 
Puhluai$on,\/<^iAOiod>mr%.    Not.  1-1 7  Sdeoce  Scrk*.  U3  Social  SdMoeSgna  and  1-^  Uap         ^    ' 


SaENCfi  SERlES-VoL  XIL 

No.  1.  The  Myxoinycetes  of  Colprado.— -W^.  C  Sturgis. 
**  2.  Stellar  Variability  and  Its  Causes.— F.  //.  Zo«d. 
"     3.    On  the  Transformation  of  Algebrtiic  Equations,  by  Erland  Samud 

Bring  (1786). — Translated  and  annotated  by  Mari4m  Cajori. 
"     4,    A  Comparison  of  Temperatures  (1906)  Between  Colorado  Springs 

and  Lake  Moraine. — F.  H.  Loud, 
"     5.     Meteorological  Statistics  for  1907.— F.  //.  Loud.  . ,  .. 

"     6.    The  Distribution  of  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Ptek  Region.^ 

£.  C.  Schneider,  .  :  . 

"     7.    A  History  of  the  Arithmetical  Metliods  of  Approximation  to  the  , 

Roots  of  Numerical  Equations  of  One  Unknown  Quantity. — 

Florian  Cajori, 
"    -8.    The  Succession  of  Plant  Life  on  the  Gravel  Slides  in  the  Vicinity 

of  Pike's  Peak.— -Edward  C.  Schneider. 
"     9.    The  History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy.— JEdzc/ard  H.  Warren^ 
"    10.    The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.— Mawrurtf  C.  HaU. 
**    11.    A  Guide  to  the  Botanical  Literature  of  the  Myxomycetes  from 

1875  to  l912.'^WiUiam  C.  Sturgis. 
"    12.    The  Myxomycetes  of  Cx)lorado,  IL—fF.  C.  5^«r^£*. . 

SOCIAL  SqENCE  SERIES— V^, 

No..    L    The  Cripple  Creek  Strike.  1893-4.— B.  M.  Rastall.  . 
"     2.    Tributes  to  the  Late  General  William  J.  Palmer  from  his  Fellow 

Citizens  of  Colorado  Springs.— Edited  by  Mary  G.  Siocum. 
"     3.    The  nation's  Guarantee  of -Personal  Rights,— President  If^.  F. 

Slocum.  ^     ,  '   ' 

*'     4.    Phi  Beta  Kappa  Address :  The  Academic  Cdir^T.— George  Lincoln 

,  ^  Hendrickson. 

"     S.    Baccalaureate  Sermon. — IVUUam  F.  Slocum.    ' 
*'     6.    Historical  Address :  A  Liberal  Education. — WiUiam  T.  Foster. 
"     7.    Address  at  the  Alumni  Dinner.— Daz'td  F.  Mafckett. 
"     8.    Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  President  of  Colorado  College. 
'  (June  10th,  1913.) 


The  Birds 
of 

El  Paso  County 

Colorado 


CHARLES  E.  H.  AIKEN 
EDWARD  R.  WARREN 

Dinchr  of  the  Miutum,  Colorado  College 

PART  U 


THE  BIRDS  OF  EL  PASO  COUNTY, 
COLORADO 

Cathartes  aura  septenlrioiialis.      Turkey  Vulture.    Turkey 

Buzzard. 

Summer  resident;  not  common.  Arrives  early  in  April 
and  departs  late  in  October. 

Turkey  Buzzards  are  not  as  numerous  in  Colorado  as  40 
years  ago,  but  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  one  soaring  aloft 
near  Colorado  Springs  in  early  spring  and  summer.  They  are 
not  lyiown  to  breed  within  the  County,  but  there  is  a  roost  just 
beyond  our  lines  at  the  Glendale  crossing  of  Beaver  Creek 
from  whence  our  soaring  birds  probably  come.  This  Glendale 
roost  is  very  old;  Aiken's  notes  state  that  he  found  20  birds 
there  in  May,  1872.  A  specimen  in  the  Aiken  Collection  was 
taken  near  Colorado  Springs,  April  12,  1911. 

Elanoides  forficatas.     Swallow-tailed  Kite. 

Rare.  The  only  known  examples  taken  in  the  region  were 
captured  in  August.  In  that  month  in  1877  two  were  brought 
in  the  flesh  to  Aiken,  one  of  which  had  been  shot  at  Colorado 
Springs,  and  the  other  at  Manitou  Park,  Teller  County. 

Ictinia  mitiittippiepsb.     Mississippi  Kite. 

Rare ;  the  only  record  is  one  seen  by  Aiken,  in  Deadman's 
Canon,  southwest  of  Colorado  Springs,  during  the  summer  of 
1873. 

Circus  hudtoniut.     Marsh  Hawk. 

Summer  resident;  common.  A  few  remain  through  the 
winter.  Arrives  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  February,  and 
leaves  in  October.  Rockwell  and  Wetmore,  September  6,  1909 
saw  at  Palmer  Lake  Marsh  Hawks  all  day  long,  migrating, 
flying  toward  the  southeast,  sometimes  singly,  sometimes  two 
or  three  together.  Found  on  the  plains  and  the  more  open 
spaces  in  the  mountains.  One  was  seen  hunting  on  some 
vacant  lots  in  the  northerly  part  of  Colorado  Springs,  Septem- 


4<M  G)LOBAoo  College  Publication 

ber  28, 1913.    Forty  years  ago  birds  in  the  mature  blue  plumage 
were  frequently  noted,  now  they  are  rarely  seen. 

Acdpiter  veUm.     Sharp-shinned  Hawk. 

Summer  resident ;  not  common.  Arrives  the  first  week  in 
March,  leaves  some  time  in  October.  One  was  brought  to 
Aiken  December  21,  1913.  This  destructive  little  hawk  is 
found  about  the  trees  and  thickets  along  the  streams,  in  the 
foothills,  and  the  more  open  woods  in  the  mountains  up  to 
above  8,000  feet. 

A  nest  observed  by  Lloyd  Shaw  in  Crystal  Park  con- 
tained, July  10,  1912,  3  young  and  one  unhatched  ^;g,  the 
young  having  been  hatched  a  few  days  previously.  The  nest 
was  in  a  Douglass's  fir  tree  about  ten  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  was  an  old  magpie's  nest  the  roof  of  which  had  been  torn 
oflF,  and  the  cup  built  up  with  small  sticks  until  it  was  very 
shallow,  not  much  more  than  a  platform.  The  fourth  egg, 
mentioned  above,  hatched  after  July  10,  the  young  bird  lived 
two  days,  and  then  disappeared.  August  first  the  three  sur- 
viving young  were  of  as  many  different  sizes ;  they  were  still 
largely  in  the  down,  but  the  quills  and  retrices  were  about 
half  out  of  their  sheaths,  and  the  breast  markings  showed  quite 
distinctly  on  the  largest  bird.  When  disturbed  at  the  nest 
they  fluttered  down  toward  the  ground,  but  had  no  control 
over  their  flight,  nor  could  they  perch  unaided,  though  they 
could  sit  upright  on  a  perch  when  placed  thereon. 

The  well-picked  leg  of  an  Audubon's  Hermit  Thrush  was 
found  in  the  nest  on  that  date,  and  Shaw  had  previously  found 
the  feathers  of  a  flicker  below  the  nest.  The  disapperance  of 
a  young  Three-toed  Woodpecker  from  its  nest  not  far  away 
was  also  charged  against  the  hawks. 

August  25  and  September  1,  1912,  a  male  Sharp-shinned 
Hawk  was  seen  in  the  Monument  Valley  Park.  On  the  first 
date  it  was  seen  chasing  a  Brewer's  Blackbird.  On  the  latter 
date  it  was  being  mobbed  by  various  small  birds.    Two  Flick- 


The  Birds  op  El   Paso  County,   Colorado  499 

ers  were  there  also  and  seemed  as  much  afraid  of  the  hawk  as 
any  of  the  others,  though  so  near  its  own  size.  A  number  have 
been  noted  in  the  park  and  nearby  the  last  year  or  two,  espe- 
cially in  spring  and  autumn. 

Acdpiter  cooperL     Cooper's  Hawk. 

Summer  resident,  not  common,  arriving  in  April.  An 
early  date  is  March  21,  1900. 

Astur  atricapillttf  alricapilliis.     Goshawk. 

Winter  resident,  rather  common. 

Three  specimens  in  the  Aiken  Collection,  from  Monument, 
near  Colorado  Springs,  and  El  Paso  County,  respectively,  are 
labeled  as  belonging  to  the  typical  form.  How  destructive  this 
species  can  be  to  game  and  small  birds  is  shown  by  the  food 
of  one  killed  near  Pinon,  February,  1909.  The  crop  con- 
tained a  freshly  eaten  Scaled  Quail,  and  the  stomach  the  partly 
digested  remains  of  a  Blackbird  and  another  Scaled  Quail. 

Astur  alricapilltM  striatalus.     Western  Goshawk. 

Winter  resident,  rather  common. 

Four  specimens  in  the  Aiken  Collection,  two  from  Turkey 
Creek  and  two  from  near  Colorado  Springs  are  labeled  as  be- 
longing to  this  subspecies. 

Buteo  borealU  kriderL     Krider's  Hawk. 

Summer  resident,  rare. 

There  are  two  Redtails  in  the  Aiken  Collection  which  have 
been  referred  to  this  subspecies,  one  taken  near  Colorado 
Springs,  September  27,  1902,  the  other  at  Manitou  Park,  Teller 
County,  August  29,  1906. 

Buteo  borealis  cahirus.     Western  Redtail. 

Summer  resident,  common.    Arrives  the  first  of  March, 


500  Colorado  G>llege  Publication 

departs  the  last  of  October  (one  specimen  in  the  Aiken  Col 
lection  taken  October  28,  1872).     Occasionally  winters:  one 
noted  by  Aiken,  February  2,  1899. 

One  of  our  most  common  hawks,  found  everywhere  dur- 
ing migration,  but  breeds  in  the  mountains  from  the  foothills 
upward.  A  very  valuable  bird  economically  as  its  food  is 
largely  mice  and  ground  squirrels,  and  in  spite  of  its  common 
name  of  "Hen  Hawk"  it  attacks  poultry  but  little.  It  will  kill 
animals  as  large  as  cottontails,  arid  one  was  seen  by  Shaw  near 
Crystal  Park  carrying  a  rabbit  in  its  talons. 

Boteo  twainsonL     Swainson's  Hawk. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  in  March  and  de- 
parts in  August  and  September. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  birds  of  the  arid 
plains;  a  few  go  into  the  mountains,  and  there  are  several 
records  of  its  breeding  at  high  altitudes  in  various  parts  of  the 
State,  but  we  have  no  such  records  for  El  Paso  County,  as 
the  portion  of  the  range  within  our  limits  presents  no  open 
park-like  areas  such  as  they  would  likely  prefer.  They  build 
their  nests  in  the  cottonwood  trees  bordering  prairie  streams 
or  dry  sand  creeks.  The  nests  are  of  moderate  size,  con- 
structed mostly  of  coarse  dead  twigs  and  placed  usually  12  to 
15  feet  above  the  ground;  however,  Aiken  found  one  nest  in 
1878  on  Horse  Creek  at  an  elevation  of  only  six  feet.  On  this 
occasion  8  or  10  nests  were  found  in  which  laying  had  com- 
menced in  only  three  by  May  17th.  He  found  a  newly  fin- 
ished nest  without  eggs  June  4,  1898,  near  Calhan,  and  one 
May  15,  1904,  at  Ramah,  which  already  held  the  full  com- 
plement of  three  eggs.  We  may  therefore  state  that  laying 
takes  place  between  May  10  and  June  10. 

Swainson's  Hawk  has  the  rather  singular  habit  of  placing 
two  or  three  green  cottonwood  twigs  with  green  leaves  across 
the  nest.    These  are  placed  in  newly  finished  nests  before  any 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso  County,   G>lorado  501 

eggs  are  laid,  and  also  over  newly  laid  eggs.  The  object  of  this 
gives  rise  to  some  speculation,  but  we  conclude  thgt  it  is  for 
the  purpose  of  disguise  or  concealment.  One  thing  that  sup- 
ports this  view  is  that  the  leaves  are  found  quite  fresh  as 
though  the  bird  had  plucked  the  twigs  on  sighting  the  in- 
truder. 

Young  birds  are  plentiful  the  latter  half  of  July,  but  soon 
disappear  with  the  adults.  Nearly  all  Colorado  breeding  birds 
are  of  normal  coloration  but  Aiken  found  a  pair  in  the  melanis- 
tic  phase  breeding  at  Resolis,  Elbert  County,  May  26,  1899, 
described  in  his  notes  as  "a  dark  chocolate  colored  pair,  one 
darker  than  its  mate."  He  saw  one  believed  to  be  a  migrant 
near  Calhan  August  30,  1907.  A  notable  flight  of  melanistic 
hawks  of  this  species  took  place  in  1901.  Following  fair  mild 
weather  during  February  snowstorms  prevailed  durmg  the 
forepart  of  March.  On  the  morning  of  the  eleventh  of  that 
month  snow  was  quietly  falling  and  the  sun  was  obscured  by  a 
snow  cloud.  Word  came  to  Aiken  that  ten  dark-colored  hawks 
were  in  the  shade  trees  on  Cascade  Avenue  near  St.  Vrain 
Street,  and  that  a  boy  was  shooting  at  them  with  a  flobert 
rifle.  Hastening  to  the  locality  indicated  four  hawks  were  seen 
perching  in  trees  and  five  which  had  been  killed  by  the  young 
shooter  were  secured  for  preservation.  They  varied  in  general 
coloration  from  umber  brown  to  umber  black  according  to  age 
and  sex.  Two  of  these  specimens  now  in  the  Aiken  Collection 
at  Colorado  College  may  be  more  particularly  described : 

No.  4507  (Orig.  No.).  Male.  Above  dark  umber;  below- 
gray  umber  shaded  with  umber  brown.  Under  wing  coverts 
dark  rufous.  Under  tail  coverts  rufous  barred  with  paler  and 
whitish.  Length  18.5  ins.;  Extent  46  ins.;  Wing  14.5  ins.; 
Tail  7.8  ins. 

^  No.  4508  (Orig.  No.).  Female.  Umber  black  above  and 
below.  Under  wing  coverts  paler,  spotted  with  white.  Under 
tail  coverts  white,  barred  with  brown;  rufous  shades  almost 


502  COLOkAUO  COLLBGE  PUBUCATION 

entirely  absent.    Lenth  20.8  ins.;  Extent  53.5  ins.;  Wing  15.5 
ins. ;  Tail  8.8  ins.    Weight  40  ounces. 

It  was  noted  that  the  stomachs  in  all  the  specimens  were 
quite  empty.  . 

A  larger  flock  of  melanistic  hawks  was  seen  in  1912  by 
Charles  O'Connor  who  brought  to  Aiken  a  beautiful  example 
shot  by  him  a  short  distance  east  of  Prospect  Lake.  He 
counted  at  that  place  36  hawks  within  a  limited  area,  all  of 
the  same  form.  This  was  on  April  20,  a  bright  sunny  day 
succeeding  a  period  of  stormy  weather.  The  hawks  were 
sitting  about  on  the  open  prairie  and  were  engaged  in  catch- 
ing grasshopper  larvae.  He  could  also  discern  another  flock 
similarly  engaged  so  far  away  that  he  could  not  determine 
the  variety.  The  specimen  secured  is  a  female  similar  in 
coloration  to  the  one  described  above,  and  weighed  two  ounces 
more. 

Archibnteo  lagopui  sancti-joliaiiiiit.     Rough-legged  Hawk. 

Winter  resident,  common.  Arrives  about  November  1, 
and  departs  early  in  April. 

A  bird  in  the  normal  plumage  was  seen  in  Monument  Val- 
ley Park,  January  10  and  12,  1913. 

Archibuteo  ferrugineiw.     Ferruginous  Rough-leg.     Squirrel 
Hawk. 

Resident,  common ;  much  more  abundant  in  summer  than 
in  winter. 

This  hawk  is  a  bird  of  the  plains  rather  than  of  the  moun- 
tains, living  mainly  on  mice,  ground  squirrels,  gophers,  rabbits 
and  prairie  dogs,  and  is  an  exceedingly  useful  bird,  rarely  if 
ever  attacking  poultry  or  wild  birds.  While  a  number  spend 
the  winter  with  us,  there  are  more  about  in  summer,  and  it  is 
quite  possible  that  our  summer  birds  leave  in  the  auttunn  and 
that  the  winter  residents  come  from  farther  north. 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso  County,   G>lorado  503 

The  breeding  range  of  this  species  is  coincident  with  that 
of  Swainson's  Hawk  but  incubation  begins  about  two  weeks 
earlier,  eggs  being  found  as  early  as  April  15. 

Aiken  has  had  a  number  of  specimens  in  the  melanistic 
plumage,  and  there  is  a  fine  mounted  example  of  this  in  the 
Aiken  Collection  at  Colorado  College. 

AqaQa  chrjrsaetot.     Golden  Eagle. 

Resident,  not  uncommon,  especially  in  winter. 

These  winter  eagles  come  from  the  north  and  the  moun- 
tains, and  range  out  over  the  plains  hunting  jack  rabbits  and 
prairie  dogs,  while  dead  cattle  and  horses  are  not  disdained. 

A  pair  breed  in  North  Cheyenne  Cafion ;  they  are  said  to 
have  .two  eyries,  one  on  either  side  of  the  canon,  and  to  breed 
in  each  in  alternate  years.  About  1875  Aiken  had  Golden 
Eagle  eggs  brought  to  him  which  were  obtained  at  the  bluffs 
north  of  Colorado  Springs. 

The  Golden  Eagle  is  reported  to  be  one  of  the  worst 
enemies  of  the  mountain  sheep,  killing  many  of  their  lambs. 
A  Mr.  Waldron  told  Aiken  that  many  years  ago  when  driving 
on  the  plains  with  several  others  he  saw  an  eagle  of  this 
species  attack  and  kill  an  antelope.  The  bird  pursued  a  bunch 
of  the  animals,  singling  out  one,  and  when  close  enough  struck 
it  on  the  back  with  its  talons,  and  while  clinging  there  and 
tearing  with  claws  and  beak  it  at  the  same  time  beat  its  prey's 
sides  with  its  wings.  The  men  drove  close  enough  to  shoo; 
the  eagle,  and  found  the  antelope  to  be  dead  with  its  back 
badly  torn  by  the  bird.  Aiken  was  also  told  that  an  eagle  was 
seen  to  pounce  upon  a  two-year-old  calf  near  Hartsel  but  was 
driven  away  before  any  harm  was  done.  Rather  large  prey 
for  the  bird  to  tackle. 

Haliaetus  leucocephaluf  leucocephaluf.    Bald  Eagle. 
Formerly  quite  common,  but  have  been  killed  off. 


504  Colorado  College  Publication 

All  immature  bird  was  brought  to  Aiken,  which  was  killed 
at  Buttes,  January  10,  1910.  The  last  full  plumaged  birds 
which  were  killed  in  the  County  were  killed  in  1904  and  1905, 
at  the  base  of  Cheyenne  Mountain.  Both  were  shot  from 
the  same  tree  by  the  same  man,  who  had  observed  in  the  first 
mentioned  year  that  the  bird  was  in  the  habit  of  perching  every 
day  in  the  same  pine  tree.  He  had  a  blind  nearly,  went  there 
before  daylight,  and  killed  the  bird  when  it  came.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  secured  the  second  bird  in  the  same  way,  from 
the  same  tree. 

Falco  mexicaniis.        Prairie     Falcon.        ''Bullet     Hawk/' 
"Swift." 

Summer  resident,  common.    Arrives  in  April. 

« 

Breeds  about  rocky  places,  and  a  pair  was  known  by  Aiken 
to  have  nested  in  the  rocks  of  the  Garden  of  the  Gods  in  1874. 
Young  birds  are  common  in  July  and  August.  Seems  to  be 
confined  to  the  plains  region. 

Falco  peregriniu  anatum.     Duck  Hawk. 

Rare  summer  resident,  and  not  common  even  in  migration. 

This  hawk  has  been  known  to  breed  in  the  rocks  at  the 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  where  Allen  noted  it  in  1871.  Aiken's 
attention  was  called  to  their  presence  in  the  place  by  Minot, 
in  1879,  and  he  secured  a  specimen  there  shortly  afterward, 
and  also  collected  one  there  in  1884.  One  killed  near  Peyton 
ill  July,  1912,  is  now  in  the  Aiken  Collection  at  Colorado  Col- 
lege, as  are  also  the  two  specimens  previously  mentioned. 

Falco  cohnnbariuf  colmnbariiis.     Pigeon  Hawk. 

Winter  resident,  not  uncommon.  Has  been  seen  as  earlv 
as  September  21,  and  as  late  as  May  7. 

Pigeon  Hawks  sometimes  come  right  into  the  heart  of 
Colorado  Springs,  possibly  attracted  by  an  abundant   food 


The   Birds  of   El   Paso   County,  Colorado  505 

supply  in  the  shape  of  English  Sparrows,  which  hardly  an/one 
will  begrudge  them.  December  22,  IQll,  one  was  seen  on 
Tejon  Street,  between  Bijou  and  Kiowa  Streets,  in  the  business 
district,  and  they  are  frequently  seen  farther  away  from  that 
part  of  the  city.  All  records  are  from  the  neighborhood 
of  the  foothills. 

Falco  columbariitt  richardsonL     Richardson's  Pigeon  Hawk. 

Winter  resident,  not  as  common  as  the  preceding. 

Richardson's  Hawk  is  a  bird  of  similar  habits  to  the  com- 
mon Pigeon  Hawk,  and  frequents  the  same  localities,  living  on 
the  same  sort  of  food,  small  mammals  and  small  birds.  A 
specimen  killed  near  Colorado  Springs  was  brought  to  Aiken 
in  October,  1913. 

Falco  sparverius  sparverhis     Sparrow  Hawk. 

Summer  resident,  common.  Arrives  the  last  of  March, 
and  leaves  in  October. 

This  species  is  hardly  as  common  as  it  was  years  ago,  be- 
fore a  bounty  was  placed  on  hawks,  and  which  was  in  force 
for  several  years.  This  bounty  law  resulted  in  the  decimation 
of  this  useful  species.  Since  its  repeal  the  birds  have  in- 
creased, but  have  hardly  reached  their  former  abundance. 
Still  the  Sparrow  Hawk  is  a  common  summer  bird  throughout 
the  County,  seen  along  the  roadsides  perched  on  telephone  poles 
and  fence  posts.  Living  as  it  does,  very  largely  on  mice  and 
grasshoppers,  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful  birds  we  have,  and 
of  great  value  to  the  farmer.  It  nests  in  hollow  trees,  old 
woodpeckers'  holes,  magpies'  nests,  and  natural  rock  cavities. 
Breeds  on  the  plains  wherever  trees  are  found  but  is  most 
numerous  in  the  lower  foothills,  breeding  indifferently  in 
pines  or  cottonwoods.  In  the  mountains  it  occurs  less  com- 
monly to  above  9,000  feet. 

Pandion  haKaetus  carolinenris.     Osprey.       Fish  Hawk. 

Rather  uncommon  and  irregular  in  migration ;  not  known 


506  Colorado  College  Publication 

to  breed  in  the  County.    Two  adults  were  brought  to  Aiken 
in  the  autumn  of  1912.    Frequents  both  mountains  and  plains. 

Alttco  prarincoUi.     Barn  Owl. 

The  only  record  of  this  species  for  El  Paso  County  is  a 
specimen  taken  by  Charles  O'Connor,  September  16,  1911,  14 
miles  easterly  from  Colorado  Springs,  which  was  secured  for 
the  College  Collection. 

Asio  wiltonianw.     Long-eared  Owl. 
Resident,  quite  common. 

Asio  flmmmeiis.     Short-eared  Owl. 

Winter  visitor.  Very  common  migrant,  and  many  remain 
tor  the  winter  on  the  prairies.  There  is  one  in  the  Aiken  Col- 
lection taken  by  E.  P.  Scheutze  a  few  miles  from  Peyton, 
November  20,  1909.  Two  were  seen  at  Ramah  by  Aiken, 
February  24,  1899. 

Sirix  oGcidentalis  occideiitalis*     Spotted  Owl. 

Rare.  A  specimen  killed  near  Colorado  Springs  was 
brought  to  Aiken  about  1875.  Probably  breeds  as  Aiken  saw 
one  alive  in  Deadman*s  Canon,  in  June  or  July,  1873. 

CryptogUuz  acadica  acadica.     Saw- whet  OwL 

Winter  visitor,  rare.  There  are  not  many  records  of  this 
little  owl  in  El  Paso  County ;  Aikeit  has  had  several  brought 
in  to  he  mounted,  and  there  is  a  mounted  specimen  in  the 
Aiken  Collection  taken  at  Buttes,  January  24,  1908.  One  was 
seen  in  April  or  May,  1902,  at  the  corner  of  Cascade  avenue 
and  Kiowa  Street,  Colorado  Springs. 

OltM  asio  maxwdlue.     Rocky  Mountain  Screech  Owl. 

Winter  resident;  rare.  But  two  or  three  typical  birds 
have  been  taken  in  the  County,  but  there  are  a  good  many 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  S07 

birds  taken  in  winter  which  are  lighter  than  typical  aikeni, 
and  which  possibly  may  be  a  color  phase  or  intergrades. 

Otus  asio  aikenL     Aiken's  Screech  Owl. 

Resident,  common.  Aiken  has  never  found  it  anywhere 
except  in  cottonwood  trees  along  the  streams.  It  breeds  com- 
monly along  Fountain  Creek,  and  has  been  known  to  breed 
in  Monument  Valley^  Park.  A  pair  bred  in  1913  in  a  flicker's 
hole  in  a  tree  on  St.  Vrain  Street,  Colorado  Springs,  beside 
the  home  of  Dr.  W.  W.  Arnold,  raising  four  young.  The 
owls  drove  away  the  flickers  which  had  bred  in  the  hole  the 
year  before,  taking  possession  for  themselves.  One  was  found 
dead  in  the  vault  of  the  cemetery  at  Colorado  Springs,  January 
1,1900. 

Aiken  once  found  the  feathers  of  a  Pink-sided  Junco  in 
the  stomach  of  a  Screech  Owl  which  was  killed  in  winter,  but 
the  species  no  doubt  kills  many  more  mice  and  such  small 
mammals  than  it  does  birds,  and  is  a  very  useful  bird  for  that 
reason. 

January  9,  1904,  a  Screech  Owl  in  the  red  phase  was  taken 
near  Colorado  Springs,  the  skin  of  which  is  now  in  the  Aiken 
Collection.  This  skin  was  examined  by  Mr.  William  Brewster, 
who  pronounced  it  to  be  typical  Olus  asio  asio.  Later  Mr.  H. 
C.  Oberholser  also  examined  it,  and  considers  it  to  be  the  red 
phase  of  aikeni,  and  tells  us  that  he  has  seen  several  other 
specimens  of  the  red  phase  of  this  subspecies,  and  that  while 
very  close  to  the  red  phase  of  typical  asio  they  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  being  slightly  paler  in  color.  At  the  time  of 
Mr.  Brewster's  examination  this  was  the  only  red  example 
of  this  subspecies  known. 

The  following  account  of  a  pet  Screech  Owl  may  be  of  in- 
terest to  our  readers.  The  bird  was  captured  after  leaving  its 
nest  by  a  boy  and  brought  to  me  alive  and  uninjured  about 
June  25th,  1905.    It  was  in  the  nestling  or  downy  plumage, 


508  G)LORADo  College  Publicatiok 

the  remiges  nearly  fully  developed,  and  was  able  to  fly.  It  was 
named  "Jimmie,"  though  subsequently  ascertained  to  be  a 
female,  and  became  a  great  pet.  It  was  allowed  the  freedom 
of  the  shop  and  the  store,  and  later  was  allowed  to  fly  out  of 
doors  evenings.  She  answered  my  call,  alighted  upon  my 
wrist  to  be  fed,  and  followed  me  about  in  the  shop  and  out 
of  doors.  It  began  to  moult  about  July  25th,  and  finished 
September  10  to  15,  renewing  all  feathers  except  those  of  the 
wings  and  tail,  which  it  did  not  shed. 

Its  baby  or  birdling  call  was  like  the  smothered  mew  of 
a  kitten;  this  was  frequently  uttered  as  a  call  for  food  or  in 
answer  to  its  name,  or  as  a  call  to  me  for  notice.  After  com- 
pleting its  moult  this  cry  was  not  often  uttered  unless  she  was 
hungry  and  demanding  attention.  A  note  that  was  uttered 
when  excited  was  a  short  wow,  wow,  repeated  several  times, 
reminding  me  of  a  puppy's  bark.  This  was  uttered  at  times 
when  very  hungry  and  demanding  immediate  notice,  and  was 
also  uttered  as  notice  of  the  presence  of  a  dog — very  vehe- 
mently when  a  dog  came  into  the  shop.  A  note  like  tr-r-oo-oo' 
00-00-00-00  uttered  gently  and  so  low  as  to  be  heard  only  a  few 
yards  away  was  seemingly  a  love  note  and  was  an  affectionate 
greeting  to  me  as  it  would  be  to  her  mate.  Then  another  note 
similar,  possibly  the  same  under  other  conditions  was  like  the 
whistling  of  ducks'  wings  in  overhead  flight  at  night. 

(C.  E.  A.) 

Otus  flammeoliis.     Flammulated  Screech  Owl. 

Rare.  The  range  of  this  species  was  extended  to  include 
Colorado  by  Aiken  on  his  finding  the  bird  and  eggs  June  15, 
1875  in  Copper  Gulch,  in  southern  Fremont  County:  But  two 
specimens  of  this  rare  owl  are  recorded  from  El  Paso  County ; 
one  in  nestling  plumage  was  caught  alive  about  the  middle  of 
September,  1883,  on  Fountain  Creek  at  the  mouth  of  Red  Rock 
Canon ;  the  other  was  found  dead  along  the  same  stream  just 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  509 

south  of  Colorado  Springs,  May  9,  1898.  Both  these  birds  were 
in  Cottonwood  groves  on  edge  of  plains,  but  other  records  from 
the  State  are  from  the  mountains  from  the  foothills  up  to 
over  8,000  feet. 

Bubo  virginiantM  pallescens.     Western  Homed  Owl. 
Resident,  common. 

Horned  Owls  are  common  in  El  Paso  County,  more  es- 
pecially of  course  where  there  are  trees,  arid  range  in  the 
niountains  as  high  as  there  is  timber.  It  even  finds  its  way  into 
the  city  occasionally,  for  Lloyd  Shaw  saw  one  on  North  Ne- 
vada Avenue,  Colorado  Springs,  June  1,  1911. 

Nesting  in  hollow  trees,  using  old  Magpies'  nests  or  build- 
ing their  own,  and  on  ledges  or  in  cavities  in  rocks  or  earth 
banks,  the  eggs  are  laid  in  March  and  the  young  hatched  early 
in  April.  They  are  rather  destructive  birds  and  apt  to  attack 
poultry,  though  they  also  kill  many  mice,  ground  squirrels  and 
gophers.  April  10,  1899,  one  was  brought  to  Aiken  killed  on 
the  nest,  which  latter  contained  newly  hatched  young,  and  a 
rabbit  and  quail,  the  latter  not  torn  or  eaten. 

Mr.  Waldron,  living  at  a  ranch  west  of  Pring,  had  a  large 
number  of  domestic  pigeons,  which  were  preyed  upon  by  the 
Horned  Owls,  One  bird  got  into  the  habit  of  coming  every 
day  and  killing  a  pigeon.  Its  method  of  attack  was  to  swoop 
down  on  the  birds  as  they  rested  on  the  roof  of  the  barn  and 
frighten  them  into  flying.  Then  singling  out  some  particular 
bird  it  would  pursue  that  until  it  sought  safety  by  returning 
to  the  bam,  and  the  owl  would  so  time  its  pursuit  as  to  seize 
the  pigeon  just  as  it  alighted,  and  carry  it  off. 

Some  years  ago  trout  breeding  was  carried  on  at  Manitou 
Park.  It  was  discovered  that  something  was  taking  fish  from 
one  of  the  ponds,  and  after  some  time  it  was  found  that 
Homed  Owls  were  the  culprits.     Posts  were  set  about  the 


SlO  Colorado  College  Publication 

pond,  steel  traps  set  on  top  of  these,  and  several  owls  were 
captured.    After  that  the  fish  ceased  to  disappear. 

William  Unruh,  an  old-timer  who  lived  in  the  County 
many  years  ago,  had  a  curious  experience  with  a  Horned  Owl 
about  1875.  He  was  camped  in  the  mountains  near  Colorado 
Springs  in  the  winter,  and  lounging  by  his  campfire  in  the  even- 
ing he  made  some  movements  of  his  head  which  caused  his 
heavy  beard  to  move  about,  and  to  his  great  surprise  a  Horned 
Owl  suddenly  pounced  down  upon  his  beard  and  seized  it. 
Unruh  grasped  the  bird  by  its  legs  and  killed  it,  and  brought 
it  to  town  to  Aiken. 

There  seem  to  be  two  forms  of  the  Horned  Owls  in  the 
County,  a  lighter  colored  bird  which  lives  and  breeds  on  the 
plains,  following  the  streams  a  short  distance  into  the  moun- 
tains, living  in  the  cottonwoods,  and  a  darker  bird  which  lives 
in  the  heavy  timber  of  the  mountains  to  timberline.  While 
the  female  of  these  mountain  birds  is  as  large  as  the  female 
of  the  plains  form,  the  male  is  proportionately  much  smaller. 

Bubo  virginianut  subarcticiu.     Arctic  Horned  Owl. 

Rare  winter  visitor. 

Four  or  five  owls  of  this  form  have  come  into  Aiken's 
hands  during  the  past  forty  years.  One  submitted  to  Ridgway 
was  referred  to  this  subspecies. 

Nyctea  nyctea.     Snowy  Owl. 

Winter  visitor ;  rare.  Two  El  Paso  County  specimens 
have  been  brought  to  Aiken,  one  killed  somewhere  on  the 
Divide  about  1875-77,  the  other  near  Ramah,  about  1883.  Be- 
sides these  one  was  taken  at  or  near  Calhan  in  1898,  and  one 
was  described  to  him  as  killed  on  the  Bates  Ranch  between 
March  20  and  28,  1899.  Two  years  ago  a  man  named  Light- 
ner  spent  part  of  the  winter  at  the  Half- Way  House  on  the 
Fike's  Peak  Railway,  and  saw  a  Snowy  Owl  near  there  sev- 
eral times,  though  he  did  not  shoot  it. 


Plate  IX. 


^ 

1                                                                                                                                                  K 

-            -^•..AJ 

■^ 

/•'f^.  i6. 
A  Single  Bird. 


£.  R.  W.,  Photo, 


Fig.  17.  E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 

Deseft  Horned  Lark. 
A  Flock  feeding  in  Alamo  Park.  Colorado  Springs,  February,  1903. 


Plate   X. 


Fig.  i8.  E.  R.  \y..  Photo. 

Interior  of  Magpif/s  Nest.  Showing  Eggs. 
Near  Colorado  Springs. 


fig.  n^. 

YorxG  Magpie  Jist   I^'rom    Nest. 

Gnnnis<^n    County.    Colo. 


/•:.  A'.  Jf'..  riwto. 


The  Bikos  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  511 

Speotsrto  cuniciiiaria  hjrpogKa.     Burrowing  Owl.     ''Prairie 
Dog  Owl." 

Common  locally  about  prairie  dog  towns.  Apparently  a 
summer  resident  only  for  it  is  not  seen  in  winter,  November 
2,  1871,  being  the  latest  autumn  date  we  have. 

Burrowing  Owls  are  not  now  as  common  in  El  Paso 
as  they  were  formerly ;  too  many  are  killed  by  hunters  as  they 
offer  rather  a  tempting  mark,  and  many  are  brought  to  the 
taxidermist  to  be  mounted.  It  is  a  pity  to  slaughter  the  queer 
little  fellows  so  uselessly  and  wantonly,  for  they  are  really  of 
use  when  alive,  feeding  on  mice  and  insects.  They  live  in  the 
deserted  burrows  of  prairie  dogs,  laying  their  eggs  several 
feet  below  the  surface  late  in  May. 

As  a  table  bird  the  Burrowing  Owl  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, Aiken  says,  and  he  should  know,  because  he  has  tried 
it.  Some  years  ago  one  was  brought  to  be  mouYited  on  Sat- 
urday evening.  The  weather  was  warm  and  to  keep  the  bird 
from  spoiling  until  Monday  Aiken  carried  it  home  and  placed 
it  in  the  family  ice  chest.  Invited  guests  were  present  at  Sun- 
clay  dinner  and  when  all  were  seated  at  the  table  Aiken's  sis- 
ter, who  it  may  be  stated  is  not  as  good  an  ornithologist  as  her 
brother,  remarked  that  she  had  prepared  a  special  dish  for  him 
— "the  bird  you  put  in  the  ice  chest."  At  that  moment  the 
the  waitress  brought  in  a  dainty  looking  browned  and  buttered 
fowl  which  from  appearance  might  have  been  a  woodcock, 
but  it  wasn't.  A  mild  outburst  of  indignation  passed  and  the 
laugh  having  subsided  he  generously  offered  to  share  his  tit- 
bit with  each  one  present,  but  each  as  graciously  declined. 
Aiken,  however,  declared  he  would  not  allow  the  opportunity 
of  testing  the  quality  of  owl  meat  to  pass,  so  he  cut  a  choice 
bit  from  the  breast  and  ate  it,  after  which  he  decided  to  save 
the  balance  of  the  bird  for  his  dog.  This  dog  was  very  greedy 
for  meat.  Anything  in  the  way  of  meat  offered  he  seized 
voraciously  and  gulped  down.     When  this  bird  was  held 


512  Colorado  Collect  Publication 

temptingly  toward  him  he  seized  it  as  usual  but  instead  of 
swallowing  it  he  very  carefully  laid  it  on  the  ground,  took  one 
cautious  sniff  of  it  and  then  dropped  his  tail  and  went  into 
his  kennel.  No  owls  have  been  served  at  the  Aiken  table  since 
that. 

GhttcidJum  gBoma  pinicob.     Rocky  Mountain  Pygmy  Owl. 

Resident;  probably  more  common  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed but  often  escapes  notice  from  its  habit  of  sitting  quietly 
on  a  branch  as  a  person  passes  by. 

This  little  owl  ranges  to  timberline,  breeding  from  8,000 
feet  up,  having  been  known  to  nest  at  the  Strickler  Tunnel  at 
almost  12,000  feet.  It  comes  down  to  the  plains  in  winter  and 
at  such  times  is  not  uncommon.  It  has  been  known  to  make  its 
winter  quarters  in  a  bam  on  a  ranch. 

The  bird  seems  to  be  of  a  perfectly  fearless  disposition, 
paying  little 'heed  to  the  presence  of  man,  and  often  attacks 
birds  larger  than  itself.  William  Unruh,  in  the  winter  of 
1874-5,  shot  into  a  flock  of  Bohemian  Waxwings  on  a  dead 
pine  tree  and  dropped  several,  when  a  Pyg^y  Owl  which  had 
been  perching  in  the  same  tree  flew  down  and  seized  one  of 
the  wounded  birds  as  it  reached  the  ground,  and  was  shot  by 
Unruh  with  the  Waxwing  in  its  claws. 

Wallace  Hook  said  that  he  was  once  walking  through  the 
edge  of  some  timber  in  the  mountains  when  he  saw  one  of 
these  owls  dart  after  a  flying  Long-crested  Jay,  bearing  it  to 
the  ground. 

February  1,  1900,  a  Pyg^y  Owl  was  brought  to  Aiken 
which  had  been  caught  at  the  Garden  Ranch  near  Colorado 
Springs  under  very  peculiar  circumstances.  Two  men  were 
at  the  house  on  the  ranch  and  heard  the  squalling  of  birds. 
They  ran  out  to  see  what  was  going  on  and  reaching  the  steep 
bank  of  the  arroyo  in  which  the  creek  there  runs  saw  a  Pygmy 
Owl  and  Bob-white  Quail  by  the  edge  of  the  water.    The  owl 


The  Bntos  or  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  513 

was  on  its  back  with  the  claws  of  both  feet,  clutched  about  the 
quail's  neck,  and  the  latter  was  fluttering  and  struggling  trying 
to  escape.  The  men  jumped  down  into  the  gulch  and  picked 
up  both  birds,  the  owl  offering  no  resistance,  but  by  this  time 
the  quail  was  dead. 

On  the  same  date  an  employe  at  the  Giddings  Ranch,  12 
miles  east  of  Colorado  Springs,  told  Aiken  that  he  had  seen 
Pyg^y  Owls  attack  half  grown  chickens  in  the  farm  yard,  the 
method  of  attack  being  to  swoop  down  from  a  nearby  tree  and 
strike  the  chicken  in  the  head,  and  to  follow  this  up  by  re- 
peated passes  until  the  chicken  was  disabled  or  exhausted. 
These  various  occurrences  show  it  to  be  a  day  owl. 

In  1884,  a  tie  chopper  working  somewhere  in  the  Ute  Pass, 
near  Green  Mountain  Falls,  cut  down  a  hollow  tree  in  which 
were  four  young  Pygmy  Owls  about  two-thirds  grown.  Ont 
was  killed  by  the  fall,  the  other  three  were  brought  alive  to 
Aiken,  who  kept  them  alive  about  two  weeks.  These  birds  were 
nearly  fully  feathered.  When  first  taken  in  the  hand  they 
played  possum,  laying  perfectly  motionless,  and  it  took  a  little 
time  to  induce  them  to  sit  up  on  a  perch.  While  they  were 
kept  they  made  no  cry  nor  any  attempt  to  use  their  claws  or 
to  bite,  exhibiting  none  of  the  ferocity  with  which  adult  birds 
attack  their  prey. 

Geococcyx  californianiis.     Road  Runner.     Chapparal  Cock. 

Resident ;  rare.  This  odd  bird  is  a  resident  the  year  round, 
most  of  the  records  coming  from  along  the  Fountain  Valley. 
It  has  also  been  reported  from  the  sandstone  hogback  just 
north  of  the  mouth  of  Bear  Creek  Canon;  from  near  Glen 
Eyrie,  and  has  been  seen  several  times  on  the  mesa  between 
there  and  Colorado  Springs.  Also  reported  from  Austin 
Bluffs,  Fountain,  Bates  Ranch,  Barnes's  Canon,  Turkey  and' 
Rock  Creeks.  There  is  a  record  from  Palmer  Lake.  Where 
tree  cactus  grows  it  frequents  the  places  where  it  is,  elsewhere 
its  is  very  apt  to  be  found  about  oak  brush. 


514  G>LORADO  College  Publication 

Pike  mentions  in  his  Journal  a  bird  about  the  identity  of 
which  there  has  been  a  certain  amount  of  speculation,  and 
which  Coues  considered  to  have  been  the  Carolina  Paroquet. 
The  bird  was  taken  by  Pike  December  2Sth,  1806,  at  which  date 
he  was  camped,  as  estimated  by  Coues,  somewhere  about  the 
neighborhood  of  Brown's  Canon,  7  miles  above  Salida.  Pike 
says: 

"Caught  a  bird  of  a  new  species,  having  made  a  trap  for 
him.  This  bird  was  of  a  green  color,  almost  the  size  of  a 
quail,  has  a  small  tuft  on  its  head  like  a  pheasant,  and  was  of 
the  carnivorous  species;  it  differed  from  any  bird  we  ever 
saw  in  the  United  States.  We  kept  him  with  us  in  a  small 
wicker  cage,  feeding  him  on  meat,  until  I  left  the  interpreter  on 
the  Arkansaw,  with  whom  I  left  it.  We  at  one  time  took  a 
companion  of  the  same  species  and  put  them  in  the  same  cage, 
when  the  first  resident  never  ceased  attacking  the  stranger  until 
he  killed  him." 

Instead  of  being  a  Paroquet  it  seems  much  more  probable 
that  tiiis  bird  was  a  Road  Runner  for  various  reasons.  The 
color,  green,  applies  to  that  bird  as  well  as  to  the  other,  for 
many  of  its  feathers  are  of  that  color,  and  there  is  a  strong 
greenish  tinge  or  cast  to  most  of  its  plumage;  the  size  of  the 
body  is  just  about  that  of  a  quail;  and  the  feathers  of  the 
head  are  erectile  and  make  a  crest  or  tuft  quite  similar  to  that 
on  the  head  of  a  Ruffed  Grouse,  which  Pike  probably  meant 
when  he  compared  it  to  a  pheasant,  that  being  the  name  by 
which  the  grouse  was  and  is  now  known  at  his  home.  The 
fact  that  they  fed  the  bird  on  meat  is  another  point  in  favor 
of  its  being  this  species,  which  lives  almost  exclusively  on 
animal  food.  It  also  seems  that  a  Road  Runner  would  be 
more  likely  to  be  caught  in  any  trap  Pike  could  have  made  than 
a  Paroquet;  moreover,  Pike  must  surely  have  known  what  a 
parrot  was  like,  and  if  he  had  caught  one  would  have  called  it 
such,  even  though  he  might  have  expressed  surprise  at  finding 
it  in  such  a  locality.    Then  again,  if  a  Paroquet,  the  first  caught 


The   Birds  of  El   Paso   County,   G)i.oraik)  515 

bird  would  hardly  have  been  likely  to  have  killed  the  other  when 
put  in  its  cage. 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  altitude,  above  7,000  feet,  is 
loo  great  for  the  Road  Runner,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  there  is  a  record  of  the  bird  on  Marshall  Pass,  at  10,000 
feet,  not  very  many  miles  to  the  southwest,  and  the  Arkansas 
Valley  is  here  (Brown's  Caiion),  in  spite  of  the  altitude,  a 
cedar  and  pifion  region,  in  other  words  either  Upper  Sonoran 
or  the  very  lowest  portion  of  the  Transition  zone,  and  these 
zones  are  within  the  natural  habitat  of  the  bird,  which  is  re- 
ported common  fifty  miles  farther  down  the  river. 

To  Aiken  belongs  the  credit  of  having  first  advanced  this 
theory  as  to  the  identity  of  Pike's  bird,  but  it  seems  the  most 
plausible  to  us  both.  Though  somewhat  beyond  the  limits  of 
our  paper  the  preceding  note  hardly  seems  out  of  place  here, 
in  view  of  the  interest  which  is  taken  in  Pike's  travels  m 
Colorado. 

CoccjTzus  americanus  americamis.     Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 

Summer  resident;  rare.  Arrives  the  middle  or  last  of 
May.  There  is  a  specimen  of  the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  in  the 
Aiken  Collection,  taken  at  Ramah,  June  4,  1898,  at  which  place 
two  were  seen.  The  bird  seems  to  be  very  rare  in  El  Paso 
County. 

Ceryle  alcyon*     Belted  Kingfisher. 

Summer  resident,  not  uncommon.  A  few  remain  through 
the  winter.  Considering  that  suitable  localities  for  them  are 
rather  scarce  in  El  Paso  County,  Kingfishers  are  not  so  very 
rare.  They  are  noted  frequently  in  the  upper  end  of  Monument 
Valley  Park,  where  the  small  ponds  contain  suckers  and  such 
fish.  One  was  noted  there  regularly  in  1912  from  July  28  to 
October  14,  and  in  1913  from  April  10  to  October  8.  It  was 
seen  by  Aiken  during  the  winter  of  1871-2. 


516  Colorado  College  Publication 

Dryobates    vfllotus    monticobu      Rocky    Mountain    Hairy 
Woodpecker. 

Resident  through  the  year ;  common. 

Breeds  from  the  foothills  up  to  10,000  feet  or  more,  prob- 
ably as  high  as  there  is  suitable  timber.  Aiken  took  a  nest 
with  four  eggs  on  Turkey  Creek,  May  26,  1872.  Frequently 
seen  in  winter  in  the  trees  along  the  streams,  and  occasionally 
comes  into  the  heart  of  Colorado  Springs.  It  has  been  founa 
at  Lake  Moraine  in  January. 

Dryobftles  pubetcens  homoras.     Batchelder's  Woodpecker. 
Downy  Woodpecker. 

Resident;  common,  but  somewhat  irregular  in  winter; 
rare  in  summer.    No  breeding  records  known  for  the  County. 

This  small  woodpecker  ranges  over  about  the  same  area 
as  the  preceding  species,  but  seems  more  irregular  in  occur- 
rence and  distribution.  It  has  been  seen  at  Lake  Moraine  in 
December,  March,  and  June,  and  at  Seven  Lakes  in  January, 
showing  that  it  is  in  those  high  altitudes  the  year  round,  while  at 
the  lower  elevations  it  has  been  found  at  all  seasons. 

Picoides  americanus  dorsaHs.     Alpine   Three-toed   Wood- 
pecker. 

Rare  resident  in  the  mountains. 

There  are  but  few  records  for  this  species  in  El  Paso 
County.  W.  C.  Ferrill  took  one  at  Palmer  Lake,  June  4.  1900. 
which  is  now  in  the  collection  of  the  State  Historical  and 
Natural  History  Society  at  Denver.  Dr.  W.  W.  Arnold  saw  a 
pair  breeding  near  the  Half-Way  House,  June,  1905.  Harry 
Amann  killed  one  near  Victor,  Teller  County. 

In  the  summer  of  1912,  L.  L.  Shaw  discovered  a  breeding 
pair  in  Crystal  Park.  The  nest  hole  was  in  a  dead  aspen  tree 
8  inches  in  diameter,  and  was  five  feet  above  the  ground. 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,   Colorado  517 

There  was  but  one  young  bird  and  that  disappeared  before  it 
was  ready  to  leave  the  nest,  possibly  captured  by  the  Sharp- 
shinned  Hawks  which  had  a  nest  not  far  away. 

Sphjrrapicut  varius  nuchalit.     Red-naped  Sapsucker. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  in  April.  Breeds 
in  the  mountains. 

5phyrapiciu  thyroideiis.     William's  Sapsucker. 

Summer  resident;  rather  tmcommon.  Arrives  early  in 
April. 

This  woodpecker  is  a  bird  of  the  mountains,  ranging  from 
the  foothills  to  above  10,000  feet.  Aiken  took  a  female  in 
downy  plumage  on  the  Cheyenne  Mountain  road,  August  29, 
1897. 

Melanerpes  enrthrocephaliis.     Red-headed  Woodpecker. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  the  middle  of  May, 
departs  in  October,  having  been  seen  as  late  as  the  2Sth. 

This  species  breeds  over  the  lower  portions  of  the  County 
especially  in  the  cottonwoods  along  the  streams,  not  going  into 
the  mountains  in  the  nesting  season,  but  after  that  time  may 
wander  quite  extensively,  and  a  young  of  the  year  was  taken 
at  Lake  Moraine,  September  2,  1905. 

In  1913  a  pair  apparently  took  possession  of  a  hole  in 
Monument  Valley  Park  which  had  been  made  and  occupied 
by  Flickers,  that  spring,  and  they  were  there  as  late  as  May 
13,  but  on  the  26th  the  Red-heads  had  it.  The  Flickers  were 
first  seen  at  the  hole  the  last  of  April.  They  could  hardly 
have  raised  their  young  and  presumably  were  forcibly  evicted. 
The  Red-heads  were  seen  at  the  hole  regularly  after  this  into 
June,  and  on  July  27  both  old  and  young  birds  were  seen  near 
the  nest  site. 


518  Colorado  College  Publication 

Asyndesimis  lewisL     Lewis's  Woodpecker. 

Resident;  common  in  summer,  only  occasionally  seen  in 
winter.  The  spring  migrants  arrive  the  middle  or  latter  part 
of  April,  and  the  birds  remain  until  the  middle  of  November, 
at  least  at  times. 

While  this  species  is  noted  above  as  a  resident,  it  is  much 
more  abundant  in  summer  than  in  winter,  and  very  probablv 
many  winters  none  stay  in  the  County.  January  4,  1907,  half 
a  dozen  or  more  were  seen  in  the  bluffs  north  of  Colorado 
Springs,  but  this  was  a  very  mild  winter.  While  it  is  found 
over  most  of  the  County  where  there  are  trees  from  about 
8,000  feet  down,  yet  probably  in  the  breeding  season  most,  if 
not  all,  are  found  in  the  yellow  pines,  though  there  are  also 
some  in  the  cottonwoods  along  the  lower  streams.  It,  however, 
leaves  the  pines  to  some  extent  when  the  young  are  fledged, 
and  scatters  over  the  County,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  family 
parties  on  the  plains  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  moun- 
tains. August  2  and  3,  1909,  they  were  common  in  the  Foun- 
tain Valley  from  the  Pueblo  County  line  north  to  Colorado 
Springs. 

While  on  the  Divide  near  Peyton  in  July,  1897,  Aiken 
noted  that  this  bird  affected  the  tallest  pine  trees  on  the  ridges 
and  was  continually  taking  flights  from  the  top  of  one  tree 
to  another,  often  crossing  ravines  or  going  to  a  considerable 
distance  and  high  in  the  air.  They  sometimes  ascend  verti- 
cally in  the  air  SO  or  60  feet,  perhaps  to  catch  an  insect,  and 
then  sail  off  to  a  tree  top  two  or  three  hundred  yards  away. 

Centnrus  carolinus.     Red-bellied  Woodpecker. 

Rare;  taken  but  once  in  El  Paso  County,  by  Aiken  at 
Fountain,  in  1873. 

Colaptes  cafer  coUaris.     Red-shafted  Flicker. 
Resident ;  common.. 


X 


tM-rc   SM 


Kwir  Hear  Creek  t"*ifKm, 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,   Colorado  510 

A  common  bird  all  over  the  County  where  there  are  trees, 
and  ranging  to  timberline  in  the  mountains,  breeding  through- 
out its  range.  Often  seen  in  Colorado  Springs  through  the 
year,  in  the  summer  devouring  the  ants  on  the  lawns  and 
gravel  walks,  and  gathering  grubs  and  insects.  There  are 
always  some  to  be  found  in  Monument  Valley  Park.  As 
noted  under  the  Red-headed  Woodpecker  a  pair  of  Flickers 
had  a  nest  there  April  28,  1913,  and  were  driven  out  by  the 
other  species.  September  tenth  following  a  female  Flicker 
was  observed  feeding  young  at  this  hole.  A  decidedly  late 
date  for  a  brood  of  this  species  to  be  coming  out  and  it  would 
be  very  interesting  if  one  knew  that  it  was  the  same  pair 
which  were  ousted  from  that  nest  in  May. 

The  majority  of  winter  residents  probably  come  from  the 
far  north,  but  it  is  certain  that  some  individuals  remain 
throughout  the  year.  Dr.  Arnold  has  fed  the  same  pair 
throughout  the  year.  Some  of  these  winter  birds  have  a  well- 
marked  red  nape,  and  there  is  a  series  of  specimens  in  Aiken's 
private  collection  which  show  every  gradation  from  a  mere 
indication  of  red  on  the  nape  up  to  a  strong  nuchal  band  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  or  more  wide.  It  would  seem  possible 
that  these  birds  represent  a  distinct  race. 

They  are  distinct  from  the  so-called  "Hybrid  Flickers," 
which  are  rarely  seen  either  in  winter  or  during  the  breeding 
season,  but  which  are  fairly  common  in  migration,  b^inning 
to  come  in  March,  but  rare  in  April ;  they  return  in  Septem- 
ber and  October.  These  birds  have  the  body  coloration  of 
collaris,  and  the  red  mustache,*with  the  undersides  of  the  wings 
and  tail  yellow  or  saffron.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  breed- 
ing birds  with  a  few  yellow  feathers  in  wing  or  tail.  May 
15,  1904,  Aiken  found  at  Ramah  a  Flicker's  nest  with  seven 
fresh  eggs,  capturing  the  male  bird  on  the  nest.  This  bird  had 
the  underparts  of  the  wing  and  tail  bright  salmon-colored. 
Some  of  our  breeders  with  all  red  show  a  strong  vinaceous 


520  Colorado  College  Publication 

tinge  on  the  breast,  a  tendency  toward  the  northwest  coast 
form  saturatior. 

The  holes  are  usually  excavated  in  dead  wood,  at  almost 
any  height  from  five  to  fifty  feet  or  more  from  the  ground. 

O'Connor  killed  three  Flickers  with  black  cheek  marks 
and  yellow  shafts  about  May  1,  1911,  ten  miles  east  of  Foun- 
tain. 

Phalmioptihit  nottalli  mittallL     Poor-will. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  usually  early  in 
May,  the  earliest  date  being  April  27,  1899,  and  departs  late 
in  September  or  early  in  October,  having  been  noted  on  Oc- 
tober 4th.  1904. 

This  species  seems  to  be  largely  or  entirely  a  bird  of  tht 
foothills,  and  apparently  at  times  ranges  quite  high,  for  War- 
ren found  young  in  the  Sangre  de  Christo  mountains,  Iul\ 
11,  1909,  at  an  elevation  of  above  10,000  feet.  It  spends  the 
day  on  the  ground  on  the  brush  covered  hillsides,  flying  out 
into  the  open  spaces  at  dusk  to  hunt  insects. 

ChordeOes  virginianus  henryL     Western  Nighthawk.     ''Bull 
Bat." 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  May  23,  de- 
parts usually  by  September  25. 

The  Nighthawk  is  common  on  the  plains  and  the  higher 
open  ground,  its  habits  being  similar  to  those  of  the  eastern 
bird,  spending  the  day  on  the  ground,  on  top  of  a  post,  or 
perched  lengthwise  on  a  limb  or  fence  rail.  The  eggs,  usually 
two,  sometimes  only  one,  are  laid  on  the  bare  ground  without 
the  slightest  semblance  of  a  nest. 

August  2,  1909,  what  appeared  to  be  a  migratory  move- 
ment of  Nighthawks  was  seen  a  few  miles  south  of  Buttes 
station ;  altogether  from  50  to  100  of  the  birds  were  seen,  all 
flying  southerly  in  a  leisurely  manner  and  not  hunting  insects. 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  521 

They  were  not  in  a  flock,  but  came  along  in  a  scattering  fash- 
ion, by  ones,  twos,  threes  or  more. 

August  4,  11  and  18,  1912,  a  Nighthawk  was  seen  in 
Monument  Valley  Park,  always  on  the  same  place  on  a  cer- 
tain limb  or  a  cottonwood,  presumably  its  regular  roost  dur- 
ing the  day.  The  tree  was  on  the  bank  of  the  creek,  and  not 
far  from  a  walk  which  was  quite  constantly  used.  June  2, 
1913,  a  Nighthawk  was  seen  on  the  same  high  limb,  probably 
the  same  bird  returned  for  the  summer.  Because  of  absence 
from  home  no  further  observations  were  made  until  late  in 
July,  when  nothing  was  seen  of  the  bird,  but  during  the  sum- 
mer men  were  working  on  the  creek  bank  close  by  and  no 
doubt  disturbed  the  bird  so  that  it  abandoned  the  place. 

Aeronautes  melanoleucut.    White-throated  Swift. 

Summer  resident;  locally  common.  Begin  to  come  the 
last  of  March,  Brewster  and  Allen  having  noted  it  March 
24,  18fS2,  but  probably  the  main  body  comes  early  in  April. 
Departs  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  September,  the  18th  of 
that  month  being  the  latest  date  we  have. 

"Observed  only  at  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  where  many 
pairs  were  breeding,  though  sought  for  at  Castle  Rocks  and 
other  similar  places.  They  breed  in  holes  and  crevices  in  the 
rocks,  usually  far  above  gunshot.  They  seemed  very  shy, 
and  flew  mostly  near  the  tops  of  the  highest  rocks.  Upon 
ascending  the  rocks  most  frequented  by  them  they  moved  to 
other  points,  and  thus  managed  to  keep  generally  out  of  range. 
By  spending  a  considerable  part  of  two  days,  we  procured  only 
four  specimens,  though  several  others  were  killed,  which  fell 
in  inaccessible  places.  They  fly  with  great  velocity  and  are  very 
tenacious  of  life.  As  they  swoop  down  to  enter  their  nests, 
the  rushing  sound  produced  by  their  wings  can  be  heard  to 
a  considerable  distance.  Hirundo  thallassina  (i.e,  T,  t,  lepida) 
was  also  breeding  here  in  similar  situations."    Allen,  1872. 


522  Colorado  College  Publication 

The  preceding  description  of  the  habits  of  this  bird  holds 
good  today.  It  is,  as  would  be  inferred  from  this,  a  lover  of 
th'ffs  and  canons,  where  it  nests  and  raises  its  young  in  the 
most  inaccessible  places.  Besides  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  it 
is  found  about  the  Cheyenne  Canons.  Bear  Creek  Canon,  and 
Sclater  records  it  from  Glen  Elyrie.  Lloyd  Shaw  noted  it  in 
Ute  Pass  and  at  the  "Gateway  Rocks**  at  Crystal  Park,  though 
not  breeding  there.  June  5,  1909.  the  present  authors  saw 
tw  or  three  near  the  Glen  Cairn  Ranch  on  Turkey  Creek. 
Several  were  seen  atout  the  reservoir  in  Monument  Valley 
Park;  May  18,  1913.  In  May.  1908,  Aiken  observed  a  colony 
about  two  miles  east  from  Palmer  Lake,  on  the  crest  of  the 
Divide,  and  saw  some  near  St.  Peter's  Dome,  in  July,  1907. 

Archilochus  ahxandrL     Black-chinned  Hummingbird. 
Rare. 

This  species  has  previous  to  this  only  been  recorded  from 
llie  southwestern  part  of  the  State;  however,  Aiken  saw  a 
male  hummingbird  a  short  distance  south  of  Colorado  Springs 
May  17,  1898,  which  he  believes  was  the  Black-chinned.  He 
also  saw  a  female  or  immature  hummingbird  in  Monument 
Valley  Park  August  18,  1907,  which  from  the  oscillating  tail 
movement  charactertistic*  of  this  species  he  believes  to  have 
been  the  same.  In  July,  1906,  a  visiting  lady  bird  student  in- 
formed him  that  while  sitting  near  the  top  of  the  Seven  Falls 
ill  South  Cheyenne  Canon  a  male  hummer  poised  close  before 
her  whrch  she  positively  identified  as  the  Black-chinned. 


♦Aiken  had  exceptional  opportunities  of  studying  the  characteristics 
Tf  the  four  hummingbirds  listed  in  the  present  paper  while  collecting 
in  the  White  Mountains  of  Arizona  in  the  summer  of  1876.  where  all  of 
them  were  plentiful.  F'ollowing  is  an  extract  from  his  field  notes: 
'Rufus  most  abundant  species  in  August,  frequenting  open  woods  where 
extensive  beds  of  scarlet  pentstemon  (Pentstemon  torreyi)  grow.  Moults 
forepart  of  August  without  becoming  ragged.  Habit  in  common  with 
hlatyccrcus  of  chasing  others  of  species These  demonstra- 
tions accompanied  by  chippering  notes,  very  loud  for  such  small  birds. 
Noise  made  by  wings  of  rufus  is  a  loud  sharp  hum  approaching  that 
made  by  platycercus,  which  is  a  whizzing  noise  that  may  be  heard  at  a 


The   Birds  of   El   Paso  County,   G)lorado  523 

Selasphorus  platycercut.     Broad-tailed  Hummingbird. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Begins  to  arrive  the  first 
week  in  May.  Departs  in  mid-September,  the  latest  date  we 
have  being  September  18,  1913. 

This  species  is  found  all  over  the  County,  ranging  well 
up  into  the  mountains,  being  known  to  attain  an  altitude  of 
above  10,000  feet,  and  breeding  wherever  found.  In  summer 
it  often  comes  about  the  gardens  in  Colorado  Springs,  sleek- 
ing its  food  from  the  flowers,  and  sometimes,  when  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  and  the  birds  have  retired  to  their  winter  quarters, 
the  delicate  little  nest  will  be  noted  on  a  shade  tree  by  the 
street.  One  confiding  bird  built  its  nest  on  the  electric  light 
fixture  directly  before  the  front  door  of  a  house,  on  a  porch 
where  people  were  continually  going  and  coming,  and  raised 
two  young. 

Selasphorus  rufus.     Rufus  Hummingbird. 

Summer  resident;  rare. 

Aiken  found  this  species  on  the  Divide  near  Peyton  in 
July,  1897,  and  noted  one  in  Colorado  Springs,  August  21, 
1898,  and  saw  one  near  the  mouth  of  Bear  Creek,  August  20. 
1907. 

One  spring  some  fifteen  years  ago  the  mummified  re-** 
mains  of  a  young  Rufous  Hummer  were  found  in  a  barn  at 
Manitou  hanging  to  a  piece  of  baling  wire  by  the  feet.  It  was 
supposed  the  bird  went  into  the  barn  the  autumn  before,  for 

distance  of  from  60  to  100  yards.  Alexandri  is  less  active,  less  ag- 
gressive. Noise  by  wings  a  plain  hum.  Female  similar  to  female  of 
platycercus  but  readily  distinguished  when  hovering  before  a  flower 
by  the  oscillating  (up  and  down  or  backward  and  forward)  movement 
of  the  spread  tail.  The  other  species  carry  the  tail  still.  Calliope 
frequents  same  localities  as  the  others  but  prefers  different  flowers. 
Keeps  low  in  and  among  the  plants  where  it  easily  escapes  notice. 
Noise  made  by  wings  is  a  low  hum  like  that  of  a  large  bumblebee. 
All  four  species  have  the  common  habit  of  alighting  among  trees, 
usually  on  a  dead  twig  of  a  lower  branch.  They  are  very  cute  about 
hiding. 


524  Colorado  College  Publication 

refuge  from  a  cold  storm,  and  perished  from  the  cold,  possi- 
bly freezing,  and  either  thawed  and  dried  out  very  gradually, 
or  else  that  the  toes  were  so  much  contracted  that  the  feet 
did  not  lose  their  hold  on  the  wire  when  the  bird  died. 

Slelhila  calliope.     Calliope  Hummingbird. 

Rare ;  but  one  record  for  the  County,  which  was  also  the 
first  for  Colorado  of  the  species.  This  was  an  adult  male 
which  was  found  dead  in  Cheyenne  Cation,  July  25,  1897,  by 
a  Mrs.  Martin,  who  brought  it  to  Aiken.  It  was  made  into 
a  skin  and  taken  away  by  the  finder. 

Tyrannns  tyrannm.     Kingbird. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  from  the  5th  to  the 
13th  of  May,  and  departs  about  September  7. 

The  Kingbird  is  common  in  the  region  in  the  summer,  in 
the  lower  portions,  ranging  up  onto  the  Divide.  Its  favorite 
breeding  places  are  in  the  cotton  woods  and  other  trees  along 
the  watercourses,  and  on  the  plains  it  nests  wherever  it  can 
find  suitable  places.  Keyser  found  a  nest  near  Ramah  con- 
taining four  eggs,  in  the  same  tree  with  the  nest  of  an  Arkan- 
sas Kingbird  and  a  Mourning  Dove.  He  also  found  other 
nests  about  a  mile  away.  Between  Pueblo  and  Colorado 
Springs,  August  2  and  3,  1909,  it  was  seen  frequently,  but  was 
not  as  common  as  the  Arkansas  Kingbird.  The  young  are 
flying  about  the  first  week  in  July. 

One  August  day  an  old  bird  was  seen  to  feed  its  young 
grasshoppers  in  a  Colorado  Springs  street,  catching  the  insects 
on  the  ground  in  a  vacant  lot  where  they  were  plenty,  and 
carrying  them  into  the  tree  where  the  youngster  was  perched, 
beating  them  there  on  the  branches,  and  then  giving  them  to 
its  baby. 

At  Ramah  Aiken  witnessed  the  attack  of  some  Kingbirds 
on  a  Swainson's  Hawk,  which  is  described  in  his  notes  as 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  G>LoitADO  S2S. 

follows :  "The  hawk,  which  was  sailing  about  the  valley  and 
•^creaming  scre-e  at  intervals,  came  toward  the  line  of  treeg 
fringing  the  creek,  when  three  or  four  Kingbirds  advanced  to 
meet  it.  One  of  them  flying  down  upon  it  from  above  alightecl 
upon  the  hawk's  head,  and  seizing  the  fathers  of  the  forehead 
in  its  beak,  straightened  itself  and  pulled  vigorously,  and  in 
this  attitude  was  carried  40  or  50  yards  through  the  air.  The 
hawk  made  no  effort  to  dislodge  the  Kingbird,  neither  did  it 
show  particular  annoyance,  though  it  turned  presently  and  re- 
treated in  the  direction  from  which  it  had  come." 

Tjnramiiis  verticalis.     Arkansas  Kingbird. 

Common  summer  resident.  Arrives  and  departs  at  about 
the  same  time  as  the  preceding  species. 

The  Arkansas  Kingbird  is  the  most  common  of  the  three 
species  found  in  the  County  and  is  found  through  much  of 
the  territory  treated  in  this  list.  Between  Pueblo  and  Colorado 
Springs,  August  2  and  3,  1909,  it  was  very  common,  and  fam- 
ily groups  were  frequently  seen.  In*  1898,  Aiken  found  breed- 
ing near  Ramah,  in  a  quite  limited  area,  about  fifty  pairs  of 
Arkansas  Kingbirds,  and  only  about  eight  pairs  oi  Cassin's. 
As  noted  under  T.  tyrannus  Keyser  found  it  breeding  near 
Ramah,  and  a  nest  he  found  contained  three  young  and  one 
egg.  Aiken  found  a  nest  there  with  eggs  June  5,  1898,  also 
a  number  of  freshly  built  nests  which  did  not  yet  contain 
eggs,  showing  that  the  nesting  season  was  hardly  in  full  swing. 
This  species  is  not  altogether  dependent  upon  trees  for  nesting 
sites,  for  nests  have  been  found  in  cavities  in  stream  bank$, 
between  two  fence  posts,  and  under  the  rafters  of  a  log  cabin ; 
possibly  the  other  species  may  use  similar  sites,  but  we  have 
not  happened  to  notice  such.  In  July,  1907,  Aiken  saw  a  nest 
of  this  species  upon  the  crossbar  of  a  telegraph  pole  at  the 
Buttes  station  of  the  Santa  Fe  R.  R.,  and  the  agent  told  him 
the  birds  had  nested  on  the  same  pole  the  previous  year;  he 
said  they  were  a  great  protection  to  his  poultry,  attacking  and 
driving  away  every  hawk  which  came  in  sighL 


526  Colorado  College  Publication 

Tjrraimiit  vodferans.     Cassin's  Kingbird. 

Summer  resident;  not  common.  Arrives  and  departs 
at  about  the  same  times  as  the  two  preceding  species. 

Cassin's  Kingbird  is  not  nearly  as  common  as  the  pre- 
ceding species,  being  the  least  common  of  our  three  Kingbirds, 
and  thus  its  distribution  through  the  County  is  not  quite  so 
well  known,' though  it  inhabits  the  same  localities.  Its  com- 
parative abundance  with  the  Arkansas  at  Ramah  has  already 
been  mentioned  under  that  species.  Lloyd  Shaw  noted  a  pair 
breeding  near  Prospect  Lake,  June  1,  IQU. 

Aiken's  notes  compare  the  habits  of  this  and  the  preceding 
species  as  follows: 

"Although  the  two  species  resemble  one  another  so  closely 
in  appearance  there  is  much  difference  in  the  manners  and 
actions  of  the  Cassin's  and  Arkansas  Kingbirds.  The  Arkan- 
sas Kingbird  comes  out  to^meet  the  intruder  and  hovers  about 
in  the  air,  chattering  continually;  they  hover  about  the  top 
of  a  tree  and  alight  upon  the  topmost  twigs.  Cassin's  King- 
bird is  more  sedate,  less  active,  and  less  noisy,  and  has  less  of 
the  fluttering  motions.  It  alights  usually  upon  the  side  branch 
of  a  tree  or  in  the  body  of  it,  and  often  sits  quietly,  though 
usually  their  call  note,  cu-ver-o,  is  uttered  at  intervals  of  four 
or  five  seconds  in  a  harsh  tone." 

Myiarchns  cinerascent.     Ash-throated  Flycatchen 

The  only  record  we  have  of  this  species  for  El  Paso  Coun- 
ty is  a  specimen  taken  by  Aiken  May  21,  1872,  near  Red  Creek 
Canon,  close  to  the  Fremont  County  line,  several  other  being 
seen  at  that  same  time.  It  frequents  pifion  and  cedar  regions, 
and  probably  is  not  uncommon  in  that  portion  of  the  County 
as  a  summer  resident.  One  was  seen  by  Warren  June  6,  1909, 
at  Glendale,  in  Fremont  County,  but  only  a  few  miles  south- 
west of  the  above-mentioned  locality. 


Plate  XIII. 


Fig.  23. 


Rocky  Mountain  Jav  or  Camp  Bird. 
Gunnison  County"  Colo. 


E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 


Pig.  24. 
Cla.rke's  Nttcracker. 
Gunnison  County,  Colo. 


E.  R.  IV.,  Photo 


Plate  XIV. 


Fig.  25.  E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 

Nest  and  Eggs  of  Desert  Horned  Lark. 
Near  Colorado  Springs. 


Fig.  26.  E.  R.  IV.,  Photo. 

Nest  and  Eggs  of  Western  Meadowlark. 
Weld  County,  Colo. 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  527 

Sayomis  sayus.     Say's  Phoebe. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  April  first, 
and  departs  the  last  week  in  September.  The  earliest  date  of 
arrival  being  March  15,  1914,  and  the  latest  date  at  which  it 
has  been  noted  being  September  28,  1913. 

Say's  Phoebe  is  a  common  summer  resident  in  the  County, 
ranging  quite  high  at  times,  having  been  seen  at  Lake  Moraine, 
September  2,  1905,  and  June  17,  1900,  found  breeding  at  Di- 
vide station.  Teller  County,  9,200  feet.  Its  breeding  habits 
are  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  Eastern  Phoebe,  for  it  likes 
to  nest  on  the  sills  and  joists  of  buildings  about  ranches  and 
farms,  under  bridges  and  similar  locations,  in  cavities  in 
stream  banks,  under  rock  ledges,  and  even  down  in  wells  in 
the  stone  curbing. 

June  21,  1905,  three  young,  able  to  fly,  were  seen  with 
their  parents  about  a  house,  and  the  old  birds  were  feeding 
them.  That  their  appetites  were  good  was  shown  by  their 
swallowing  Pyrameis  butterflies  whole.  They  are  indefati- 
gable insect  catchers,  and  continually  in  pursuit  of  prey,  and 
the  number  of  insects  annually  consumed  by  one  must  be 
enormous.  It  has  the  habit  of  perching  on  trees,  posts,  fences, 
or  tall  weeds,  and  continually  uttering  its  calls,  something  like 
that  of  the  Eastern  Phoebe. 

Nnttanornit  borealis.     Olive-sided  Flycatcher. 

Summer  resident  in  the  mountains ;  not  uncommon.  Ar- 
rives May  20-25. 

A  large,  rather  heavily  built  flycatcher,  with  large  bill, 
easily  recognized  in  its  summer  home  by  its  habit  of  perching 
on  the  topmost  branches  of  dead  trees,  whence  it  makes  its 
flights  in  pursuit  of  insect  prey.  It  breeds  exclusively  in  the 
mountains,  going  nearly  to  timberline.  July  4,  1907,  Aiken 
found  five  or  six  pairs  breeding  on  the  hillside  below  St. 
Peter's  Dome  station.    It  was  common  in  Crystal  Park,  August 


528  Colorado  Collick  Publication 

first,  1912.  Several  were  seen  about  Monument  Valley  Park 
May  26  and  27 ^  1913 ;  this  was  of  course  just  after  their  arrival 
in  the  spring. 

Mjriochaiies  riduurdsoiii  richardsonL     Western  Wood  Pee- 
wee. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  May  20, 
departs  the  last  of  September. 

Found  practically  all  over  the  County  wherever  trees  can 
be  found,  whether  on  the  plains  or  in  the  mountains.  It  was 
common  on  the  Divide  north  of  Peyton  July  17,  1897,  15  being 
seen  then.  Aiken  noted  them  singing  as  late  as  August  25, 
the  song  being  zee-a,  uttered  in  an  explosive  manner. 

Empidonu  di£Bcilu  diffidUs.    Western  Flycatcher. 

Summer  resident ;  not  common. 

Most  common  in  the  mountains,  and  it  is  rarely  found 

along  the  Fountain  during  the  spring  migration.     Its  habits 

are  similar  to  those  of  other  flycatchers  of  the  genus.  Noted 
on  the  Divide  north  of  Peyton,  August  28,  1907. 

Empidonu  trailli  traillL     TrailFs  Flycatcher. 

Summer  resident ;  common.    Arrives  about  May  25. 

Common  almost  everywhere  in  the  County,  up  to  nearly 
9,000  feet.  Seems  to  prefer  the  neighborhood  of  the  alders 
along  the  creeks. 

Empidonaz  minimus.     Least  Flycatcher. 

Rare  migrant ;  arrives  in  May. 

This  widely  distributed  Eastern  species  reaches  the  west- 
ern limit  of  it  range  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. It  was  first  taken  in  Colorado  by  Aiken  on  Turkey 
Creek,  May,  1873,  and  in  recent  years  he  has  found  it  several 
times  along  Fountain  Creek  between  the  towns  of  Fountain 


.   Thb  Birds  op  El  Paso  County.  Colorado  529 

and  Colorado  Springs  (May  13  to  June  6),  and  at  several 
points  along  the  line  of  the  Rock  Island  Railroad  eastward. 
Warren  has  noted  one  in  Monument  Valley  Park.  The  earliest 
dates  of  arrival  are  those  of  Allen  and  Brewster,  who  have 
recorded  two  specimens  taken  May  4  and  9,  respectively,  dur- 
ing their  visit  to  Colorado  Springs  in  1882. 

The  Least  Flycatcher  may  be  looked  for  among  the  scat- 
tered cottonwoods  that  fringe  the  streams  issuing  from  the 
foothills,  or  which  mark  the  occasional  waterholes  on  the 
plains  eastward  toward  the  Kansas  state  line.  It  has  not  been 
found  in  the  mountains  and  is  not  known  to  breed  south  of 
Wyoming.  A  specimen  taken  by  Aiken  in  the  pine  belt  on 
the  Divide  north  of  Peyton  August  28,  1907  is  the  first  record 
of  its  capture  at  so  high  an  altitude  as  7,000  feet  or  among 
conifers;  also  the  only  autumnal  record 

Empidonaz  hammondL     Hammond's  Flycatcher. 

Summer  resident;  rare.    Arrives  in  May. 

The  eastern  range  of  Hammond's  Flycatcher  meets  the 
western  range  of  the  Least  Flycatcher  along  the  eastern  base 
of  the  mountains,  and  except  in  favored  localities  it  is  scarcely 
more  common.  A  specimen  taken  by  Aiken  May  20,  1908,  at 
Butte  Station  on  Fountain  Creek  is  the  most  eastern  reported 
in  the  County.  The  distance  from  the  foothills  is  about  12 
miles.  Aiken  met  with  it  several  times  in  the  early  seventies 
along  Turkey  Creek  within  the  foothills,  but  it  was  somewhat 
more  common  on  Beaver  Creek,  which  runs  through  a  narrow 
valley  between  pinon  clad  hills  in  Fremont  County  just  west 
of  our  County  line.  Allen  and  Brewster  took  it  in  1882.  All 
migrants  pass  further  north  or  retire  to  higher  elevations  to 
breed. 

Our  opportunities  for  observation  in  the  mountains  have 
not  been  extended  enough  to  enable  us  to  speak  with  jnuch 
assurance  as  to  its  nesting  within  the  County,  but  we  have, up 


530  Colorado  College  Publication 

doubt  it  does,  Aiken  found  a  small  Empidenax  in  a  willow 
thicket  on  the  south  slope  of  Pikes  Peak,  July  9-10,  1899,  be- 
lieved to  be  of  this  species,  which,  however,  he  failed  to  secure. 

Enipidonaz  wrightL     Wright's  Flycatcher. 

Summer  resident ;  rather  common  in  migration.  Arrives 
in  May  and  has  been  taken  as  early  as  the  sixth  (1899). 

This  species  breeds  in  the  mountains,  probably  to  or 
nearly  to  timberline.  The  nest,  as  found  by  Warren  in  Gun- 
nison County,  is  a  cup-shaped  structure  made  largely  from  the 
sh^dded  inner  bark  from  dead  aspens  built  in  the  crotch  of  a 
willow.    The  eggs  are  usually  four  in  number  and  pure  white 

Empidonaz  griseat.    Gray  Flycatcher. 

A  single  record  for  El  Paso  County,  a  bird  taken  by 
Aiken  at  Fountain,  May  3,  1872. 

Otocoris  alpestrit  kucobmuu     Desert  Homed  Lark. 

A  common  resident. 

The  Homed  Larks  are  found  on  the  plains  and  in  the 
open  country  west  from  Green  Mountain  Falls.  In  other  parts 
of  the  State  they  are  also  found  above  timberline  in  summer, 
breeding  there,  but  we  do  not  have  any  records  of  this  sort  for 
El  Paso  County.  While  the  birds  are  residents,  it  is  most 
likely  that  their  numbers  are  augmented  in  winter  by  migrants 
from  farther  north,  and  quite  possible  that  some  of  our  simi- 
mer  residents  may  go  south.  Beginning  to  breed,  as  it  does, 
in  early  April,  it  raises  at  least  two  broods  in  a  season,  and 
young  have  been  seen  being  fed  by  their  parents  the  last  of 
June.  A  nest  with  three  eggs  was  found  near  Colorado  Springs 
May  14,  1903 ;  the  parent  was  incubating  then.  This  nest  was, 
as  always  with  this  species,  on  the  ground,  almost  flush  with 
the  surface,  and  sheltered  by  a  tuft  of  grass.  Allen  and  Brew- 
ster mention  a  nest  with  two  fresh  eggs  April  1,  1882,  and 
full-fledged  young  seen  April  22  and  later.    September  8,  1904, 


The   Birds  of   El   Paso   County,   Colorado  531 

a  young  lark  was  seen  which  could  not  have  been  long  out 
of  the  nest. 

While  the  larks  usually  remain  on  the  plains  during  the 
winter  and  are  not  especially  conspicuous  by  their  numbers, 
yet  when  severe  weather  comes,  especially  if  it  is  accompanied 
by  snow  which  lays  some  length  of  time  without  melting, 
making  it  difficult  for  the  birds  to  obtain  food,  they  will  come 
into  town,  sometimes  by  thousands.  This  has  been  the  case 
hi  several  different  winters.  The  winter  of  1902-3  was  quite 
a  notable  instance  of  the  sort.  It  was  a  very  cold  winter,  with 
snow  on  the  ground  much  of  the  time,  and  consequently  the 
larks  could  find  little  or  no  food  on  the  plains,  being  unable 
to  reach  the  ground  under  the  snow.  This  being  the  case,  they 
were  in  Colorado  Springs  in  great  numbers.  The  people  were 
feeding  them  in  many  places,  putting  out  millet  and  similar 
food  for  them.  One  feeding  place  was  near  the  County  Court- 
house in  Alamo  Park.  A  space  8  by  12  feet  would  be  covered 
by  the  birds  feeding,  and  also  at  other  feeding  places  they 
would  alight  so  thickly  as  to  hide  the  ground.  February  was 
the  most  severe  month ;  after  March  first  the  weather  moder- 
ated and  the  birds  began  to  disappear  from  the  town.  May 
14,  1912,  during  a  cold  storm  with  snow,  Horned  Larks  were 
driven  into  Colorado  Springs  as  far  south  as  Weber  and  Co- 
lumbia Streets.  For  some  reason  none  came  into  the  town  in 
February,  1913,  though  there  was  snow  on  the  ground  for 
several  days. 

During  these  cold  winters  there  is  great  mortality  among 
these  birds,  many  perishing  from  cold  or  hunger.  Many  are 
found  dead  under  wire  fences,  and  it  would  seem  possible  that 
the  birds  light  on  the  wires  with  their  feet  wet  from  being 
in  the  snow,  and  the  toes  freezing  to  the  wires  the  birds  can- 
not get  away  and  so  freeze  to  death  there,  and  afterward  fall 
to  the  ground  when  the  feet  relax  their  hold  from  thawing. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  find- 
i!ig  of  large  numbers  of  Homed  Larks  dead  at  times  of  storms 


532  Colorado  College  Publication 

Aiken  has  carefully  examined  large  series  of  such  birds  to 
observe  the  range  of  individual  variation  and  to  discover  if 
cxtralimital  forms  occur.  January  30,  1898,  with  120  speci- 
mens in  hand  he  writes:  "I  detect  only  one  form,  leuco- 
Iccfna,  and  the  differences  are  doubtless  due  to  age  and  indi- 
vidual variation.  The  majority  of  males  measure  7.25  inches 
in  length,  wing  4.23.  The  brightest  colored  are  nearly  as 
bright  as  breeding  birds  and  are  assumed  to  be  oldest,  though 
some  with  pale  throats  appear  full  adults.  The  yellowest 
throated  birds  have  this  color  suffusing  the  entire  chin,  throat, 
and  sides  of  neck,  and  tinging  the  frontal  and  superciliary 
stripes.  No  males  are  found  with  immaculate  white  throats, 
but  many  have  a  narrow  whitish  streak  from  chin  to  breast- 
collar. 

Streaked  upper  parts  are  taken  to  characterize  immaturity, 
but  some  marked  thus  have  yellow  throats  and  some  with  paler 
backs  have  pale  throats.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  intensity 
of  yellow  is  not  due  to  age,  but  to  individual  variation.  The 
same  variation  exists  among  breeding  birds.  An  undoubted 
immature  plumage  is  seen  with  duller  pinkish  colors  and  un- 
developed black  loral  and  breast  markings  like  females. 

Females  average  considerably  smaller.  The  brightest 
have  the  yellow  suffusion  nearly  as  intense  as  in  the  brightest 
males,  but  many  females  have  white  throats  with  no  trace 
of  yellow." 

Aiken  has  also  ascertained  that  breeding  birds  at  high 
altitudes  in  the  mountains  do  not  differ  from  those  breeding 
on  the  lower  plains.  Only  one  specimen  has  been  detected 
that  approaches  the  Mississippi  Valley  form;  this  has  been 
pronounced  by  Mr.  Oberholser  as  intermediate  between  Icu- 
colxma  and  praticola. 

Pica  pica  hudsonia.     Magpie. 
-   Resident;  commoiL      .    . 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,   G)lorado  533 

The  Mag^pie  is  possibly  the  most  noticeable  bird,  at  least 
to  strangers,  in  the  whole  Pikes  Peak  region.  With  its  con- 
spicuous black  and  white  plumage  and  long  tail  it  at  once  at- 
tracts the  attention  of  the  tenderfoot,  and  the  old-timer  gen- 
erally notices  one  when  it  appears.  Found  wherever  there  are 
trees,  it  lives  along  the  watercourses  and  through  the  moun- 
tains, though  avoiding  the  dense  evergreen  timber,  and  prob- 
ably not  breeding  much  above  9,000  feet,  but  it  is  reported 
to  occasionally  visit  the  summit  of  Pikes  Peak  in  summer. 

The  bulky  nests  are  built  in  almost  any  sort  of<  tree, 
though  deciduous  growth  seems  to  be  preferred,  but  conifierous 
trees  are  occasionally  used.  They  are  placed  anywhere  from 
3  to  50  or  more  feet  above  the  ground,  and  we  find  them  in 
the  willows  along  the  streams,  in  the  scrub  oaks  of  the  foot- 
hills, and  up  toward  the  tops  of  the  tall  cotton  woods.  The 
nests  are  quite  remarkable  structures ;  built  with  a  foundation 
of  twigs  in  which  is  a  deep  cup  of  mud  lined  with  fine  roots 
and  similar  material,  and  over  all  is  a  dome  or  roof  of  twigs 
and  small  branches,  with  the  entrance  hole  in  one  side,  just 
above  the  edge  of  the  cup.  In  this  are  laid  the  eggs,  as  many 
as  thirteen  having  been  found  in  one  nest  in  Montana ;  from 
six  to  eight  is  the  usual  number.  The  eggs  are  laid,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Colorado  Springs,  the  latter  part  of  April,  five  were 
found  April  24,  1913,  and  there  are  other  equally  early  dates, 
while  fresh  eggs  are  likely  to  be  found  all  through  May.  The 
following  dates  give  an  idea  of  the  laying  season:  May  3, 
1904,  a  nest  with  one  egg  was  found,  and  when  next  visited, 
the  16th,  there  were  8;  May  10,  1904,  several  eggs  were 
found  in  a  nest  so  situated  it  was  difficult  to  count  them; 
May  11,  1904,  nest  with  2  eggs;  April  25,  1910,  5  eggs;  April 
24,  1898,  4  eggs.  The  young  come  out  of  the  nest  about  a 
month  after  hatching,  but  can  fly  only  a  little  then  or  not  at 
all,  and  merely  hop  around  in  the  branches  of  the  home  tree 
or  bush,  and  are  cared  for  by  the  parents  for  two  or  three 
weeks  longer,  perhaps  more.  Shaw  found  a  nest  with  4  young 
about  3  weeks  old,  June  25,  1912,  in  Crystal  Park,  at  8,500  feet. 


534  Colorado  College  Publication 

After  the  breeding  season  is  over  and  the  young  can  fly 
well  the  Magpies  scatter  about  everywhere,  and  especially  in 
winter  are  they  widely  distributed  seeking  food.  They  are 
seen  at  Lake  Moraine  all  through  the  winter,  though  they  do  not 
appear  to  breed  there,  as  no  nests  were  noted  in  that  vicinity. 
In  the  fall  there,  also  seems  to  be  a  southward  migratory 
movement  of  the  species,  as  they  are  seen  in  large  numbers 
along  the  Fountain  Valley  moving  in  a  southerly  direction. 

One  day  late  in  September,  1913,  three  or  four  Magpies 
were  seen  near  Monument  Valley  Park  mobbing  a  couple  of 
Sharp-shinned  Hawks,  flying  at  them  and  annoying  them  in 
every  way  possible. 

Cyanocitta  crblata.     Blue  Jay. 

An  accidental  visitor,  only  one  instance  being  known  of 
its  occurrence  in  El  Paso  County,  a  bird  seen  in  Colorado 
Springs  October  5,  1902,  by  E.  P.  Scheutze.  Aiken  took  one 
May  27,  1905  near  Limon,  about  20  miles  northeasterly  from 
the  northeast  corner  of  the  County.  Blue  Jays  are  abundant 
in  western  Kansas  almost  to  the  Colorado  line,  and  also  at 
Wray,  in  northeastern  Colorado,  and  with  the  settlement  of 
the  intervening  region  an  overflow  through  our  State  within 
a  few  years  may  be  looked  for.  Aiken  found  them  at  Good- 
land,  Kansas,  and  over  the  country  east  of  there  in  May,  1899. 
They  were  observed  in  flocks  flying  from  one  tree  claim  to 
another,  which  were  in  most  cases  several  miles  apart. 

CyanocitU  itelleri  diademata.     Long-crested  Jay. 

Common  resident  in  the  foothills  and  mountains  and  on 
the  Divide. 

The  Long-crested  Jay,  or  "Blue  Jay,"  as  it  is  usually  com- 
monly called  about  here,  is  nearly  as  familiar  a  bird  about 
the  foothills  and  canons  as  the  Magpie,  as  it  flits  among  the 
trees  and  bushes,  sociable  but  shy,  and  it  calls  forth  many 
exclamations  of  admiration  from  the  tourists  because  of  its 


Plate  XV. 


#  j| 

'^ 

* 

m 

^E 

v^ 

it^^ 

in 

$*?»■ 

^E3 

^  _ 

^ 

^3^ 

'^m 

■ 

1 

rOT 

■ 

1 

^4 

^ 

Male  Brewer's  Blackbird. 
Colorado  Springs. 


E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 


/  ^•^ 


Western-  Evening  Grosbeak. 
Colorado  Springs. 


h\  IV.,  Photo. 


Plate  XVI. 


Fig.  29. 

Western   Vesper  Sparrow. 

Colorado  Springs. 


E.  !<.  IV.,  rnotn. 


Fig.  30. 

Westhu^n  Lark  Sparrow. 

Colorado  Springs. 


/♦.  R.  IV..  Photo. 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  535 

handsome  plumage.  Its  range  in  winter  i^  similar  to  that  of 
the  Magpie,  from  the  plains  to  high  into  the  mountains,  up  to 
Lake  Moraine  and  Seven  Lakes,  11,000  feet,  but  its  breeding 
range  is  much  more  limited,  being  between  6,500  and  8,000 
feet. 

Its  food  consists  of  almost  anything  eatable,  seeds,  grain, 
insects,  nuts,  etc.  A  pair  killed  near  St.  Peter's  Dome  by 
Aiken,  June  13,  1907,  had  been  after  food  for  their  young. 
Each  had  its  mouth  full  of  food,  and  had  used  discretion  in 
gathering  it.  They  had  been  first  to  the  garbage  pile  of  the 
station,  and  filled  the  throat  with  soft  bread,  after  which  they 
had  caught  several  winged  ants,  grasshoppers  and  spiders  that 
were  held  by  the  bill,  extending  along  the  length  of  the  man- 
dibles. 

A  nest  was  found  by  Warren  in  a  gulch  near  Bear  Creek 
Caiion,  May  5,  1913,  containing  then  3  eggs,  and  there  were 
4  May  8,  when  the  nest  was  collected,  and  which  is  now  in 
the  Colorado  College  Museum.  The  nest  was  6  feet  from  the 
ground  in  a  Douglas's  fir  sapling,  only  2  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  base,  and  on  a  branch  close  to  the  stem  of  the  tree.  The 
outside  diameter  of  the  nest  was  about  10  inches,  and  it  was  5 
deep,  the  nest  cavity  being  4j4  inches  in  diameter  inside,  by  3 
deep.  The  outer  portion  was  a  loosely  constructed  affair  of 
twigs,  varying  from  %  io  %  inch  thick,  while  the  inner  por- 
tion was  of  fine  rootlets  closely  put  together,  and  with  the  walls 
of  the  cup  varying  from  J4  to  ^  inch  in  thickness.  The  struc- 
ture was  loosely  laid  on  the  few  branches  which  supported 
it,  looking  as  if  it  might  easily  fall  off. 

This  species  differs  in  habits  from  the  Eastern  Blue  Jay, 
being  less  noisy,  and  not  going  in  flocks  in  fall  and  winter, 
though  parties  of  half  a  dozen  or  more  are  seen  at  times. 

Aphelocoma  woodhoiueL     Woodhouse's  Jay. 

Resident ;  rather  common  from  the  edge  of  the  plains  up 
to  7,000  feet. . 


5»36  Colorado  College  Publication 

Woodhouse's  Jay  is  a  bird  of  the  foothills,  being  found 
in  the  scrub  oak  brush  along  the  base  of  the  mountains,  and 
the  lower  parts  of  the  canons,  but  not  going  to  any  great 
elevation ;  it  is  also  found  about  Austin's  Bluffs.  Occasionally 
in  winter  it  comes  into  town;  from  November  20,  1910,  to 
April  16,  1911,  at  least  four  were  about  the  north  end  of 
Monument  Valley  Park  and  vicinity  and  were  frequently  seen 
about  houses  four  or  five  blocks  east  of  the  Park. 

Aiken  found  two  nests  May  2,  1872,  and  his  description 
was  the  first  to  be  published  of  the  nesting  of  the  species.  The 
nests  contained  4  and  5  eggs  respectively.  His  description  is 
as  follows:  "Nest  composed  outwardly  of  dead  twigs,  then 
of  fine  roots,  and  lined  with  fine  rootlets  and  horsehair.  The 
eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  laid  about  May  1st.  They 
are  of  a  light  bluish-green  color,  with  the  reddish-brown  specks 
thickest  at  the  large  end." 

When  Aiken  was  at  his  ranch  on  Turkey  Creek  in  Oc- 
tober, 1873,  a  migratory  flight  of  VVoodhouse's  Jays  was  seen. 
They  were  not  flying  high,  but  making  short  flights  from  point 
to  point,  always  in  a  southerly  direction.  It  was  estimated 
that  there  were  at  least  500  scattered  over  from  50  to  100  acres 
of  ground,  as  they  kept  lighting  after  their  short  flights.  After 
this  flight  had  passed  the  species  seemed  to  be  fully  as  com- 
mon during  the  following  winter  as  it  had  been  during  the 
summer.  The  flight  had  undoubtedly  come  from  a  more  north- 
ern locality.  Local  birds  appear  to  be  non-migratory  and  are 
found  in  the  same  localities  throughout  the  year. 

Perisoreus  canadensu  capitalb.       Rocky     Mountain     Jay. 
Camp  Bird.    Camp  Robber. 

A  not  uncommon  resident  of  the  higher  elevations,  from 
above  10,000  feet  to  timberline. 

This  species  is  a  bird  of  the  Hudsonian  zone,  where  it 
spends  most  of  its  life,  breeding  in  the  heavy  timber  very 
early  in  the  spring.     Occasionally  in  fall  and  early  winter  it 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso  County,  Colorado  537 

wanders  lower  down,  and  has  even  been  seen  in  the  streets  of 
Colorado  Springs.  It  conies  about  the  houses  of  the  care 
takers  of  thie  Colorado  Springs  water  system  in  the  mountains, 
at  10,000-11,000  feet,  to  pick  up  what  scraps  may  be  thrown 
out,  arid  at  times  becomes  very  tame  and  familiar.  It  is  quite 
easy  to  induce  them  to  take  food  from  one's  fingers.  They 
carry  off  more  than  they  eat,  presumably  hiding  and  storing 
ii  for  future  use. 

Corvus  coraz  sinaatiis.     Raven. 

Resident. 

A  few  pairs  of  Ravens  are  resident  on  Pike's  Peak  about 
timberline,  where  it  is  said  they  are  increasing  in  numbers  and 
are  supposed  to  breed  in  the  "Crater."  They  are  seen  occa- 
sionally by  occupants  of  the  house  on  the  summit  and  one  was 
killed  there  by  J.  G.  Hiestand  in  the  autumn  of  1912.  It  has 
been  noticed  near  Seven  Lakes  in  January  and  on  Bison  Creek, 
near  Clyde,  in  September.  In  winter  they  may  descend  to  the 
plains  at  rare  intervals,  probably  less  often  than  40  years  ago. 
Several  reports  of  a  "crow''  or  "raven"  seen  have  come  to 
Aiken  within  the  past  few  years,  but  the  descriptions  were  not 
sufficiently  accurate  to  make  identification  positive.  One  was 
caught  in  a  trap  and  brought  to  Aiken  in  1901,  and  Dr.  W.  W. 
Arnold  kept  one  as  a  pet  for  two  or  three  years  which  had 
been  brought  to  him  with  a  broken  wing. 

Corvus  cryptoleucus.    White-necked  Raven. 

Formerly  a  common  resident,  now  unknown  in  the  County. 

The  following  quotation  from  Henshaw's  Rei)ort  on  the 
Ornithology  of  the  Wheeler  Surveys  published  in  1875,  gives 
an  account  of  its  former  occurrence  and  habits : 

Mr.  Aiken  communicates  the  following: 

"It  seems  to  me  not  a  little  singular  that  I  should  have 
been  the  first  to  detect  the  presence  of  this  bird  in  Colorado, 


538  Colorado  College  Publication 

for  it  outnumbers  all  the  other  Corz'i  in  certain  localities.  It 
had  previously  been  considered  a  bird  of  the  southeast,  and 
was  supposed  to  be  confined  mainly  to  the  Staked  Plains  of 
Texas,  but  I  now  know  it  to  be  common  along  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  throughout  the  entire  extent  of 
Colorado,  and  it  even  winters  as  far  north  as  Cheyenne.  It 
has  also  been  found  at  Tucson,  Ariz.,  by  Capt.  Bendire,  who 
includes  it  among  the  resident  birds  of  that  locality,  so  that  it 
has  quite  an  extended  range.  I  first  saw  them  in  October, 
1871,  about  twenty-five  miles  south  of  Cheyenne,  on  the  line 
of  the  Denver  Pacific  Railroad,  where  a  large  flock  was  hover- 
ing over  the  plain.  In  the  city  of  Denver  I  have  often  found 
them  searching  for  food  in  the  less  frequented  streets,  and 
,  about  one  hundred  miles  farther  south,  on  the  Fontaine  Qui 
Bouille,  I  have  seen  immense  numbers.  At  the  latter  place,  a 
flock  of  probably  one  thousand  individuals  was  resident  dur- 
ing the  winter  of  1871-2.  Although  so  abundant  in  winter, 
very  few  are  to  be  seen  in  summer ;  the  greater  number  either 
pass  to  the  northward  or  become  so  distributed  over  the  coun- 
try as  not  to  attract  attention.  Being  seldom  disturbed,  these 
birds  have  little  of  the  shyness  which  the  common  crow  of  the 
East  exhibits,  though  it  is  not  always  easy  to  get  within  gun- 
shot of  them.  I  have  on  one  occasion  ridden  along  within 
twenty  feet  of  a  fence  on  which  sat  thirteen  of  these  'imps  of 
darkness,'  only  one  of  which  flew  away,  the  others  contenting 
themselves  by  keeping  a  watchful  eye  on  my  demeanor,  and 
an  instant's  halt  on  my  part,  or  a  suspicious  motion,  would 
have  started  them  off  instantly.  C.  cryptoleucus  is  mainly  a 
bird  of  the  plains,  being  replaced  in  the  mountains  by  the 
common  raven.  The  two  birds  resemble  each  other  so  closely 
in  notes  and  habits  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
them  at  a  distance;  the  greatest  apparent  discrepancy  being 
in  size,  though  the  croak  of  carnivorus  (i.  e.  sinuatus)  is 
somewhat  deeper  and  louder  than  that  of  the  other.  I  have 
sometimes  found  them  both  associated  in  the  same  flock.  Each 
succeeding  year  since  I  first  saw  these  birds  I  have  noticed 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  539 

a  marked  decrease  in  their  numbers  in  El  Paso  County,  Colo. 
The  cause  of  this  I  do  not  know  unless  it  is  because  as  the 
country  becomes  more  thickly  settled  the  solitude  they  love  so 
well  is  denied  them."    Pp.  326-7. 

Since  the  above  was  written  Aiken  has  changed  his  opin- 
ion as  to  the  cause  of  the  disappearance  of  the  White-necked 
Raven  from  this  region.  Some  strong  incentive  was  necessary 
to  have  induced  these  birds  to  wander  northward  from  their 
native  range  in  western  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  This  was 
offered  by  the  slaughter  and  extermination  of  the  buffalo  herds 
on  the  western  plains  which  was  going  on  during  the  late  sixties 
and  early  seventies.  Pioneer  settlers  were  pushing  ahead  of 
the  railroads;  transportation  was  by  teams,  and  travelers 
camped  along  the  roads  and  fed  grain  to  their  stock.  The 
Ravens,  probably  first  attracted  by  the  buffalo  carcasses  that 
strewed  the  northern  plains  later  followed  along  the  routes  of 
team  travel  and  fed  on  scattered  grain  left  by  campers.  By 
1874  the  buffalo  were  nearly  gone;  completed  railroads  had 
put  the  wagon  freighters  out  of  business;  frequent  houses 
along  most  roads  provided  shelter  for  travelers  and  camping 
became  unnecessary;  the  food  supply  of  the  White-necked 
Raven  was  curtailed  and  the  bird  presently  retired  to  its  former 
habitat. 

An  unusual  record  for  altitude  is  California  Gulch,  Au- 
gust 27,  1872  (Aiken). 

May  17,  1878,  Aiken  found  on  Horse  Creek,  some  sixty 
miles  east  of  Colorado  Springs,  in  what  is  now  Lincoln  County, 
a  nest  of  the  White-necked  Raven  which  contained  7  nearly 
hatched  eggs.  Of  two  other  nests  of  the  same  species  found 
five  days  later,  one  contained  5  half-grown  young,  and  the 
other  6  (traces  of  a  7th  having  been  broken)  nearly  fresh  eggs. 
Nest  cup-shaped,  inside  of  hair  and  wool  firmly  matted  and 
woven  and  outwardly  built  of  dry  twigs. 


540  &)LORADo  College  Publicahom 

Corvos  brachyrhjmchos*     Crow. 

Rare.  The  Crow  has  been  taken  so  infrequently  in  El 
Paso  County  that  it  would  seem  to  be  nothing  more  than  a 
straggler.  There  are  but  two  specimens  in  the  Aiken  Collec- 
tion, one  without  date,  taken  near  Colorado  Springs,  the  other 
from  Monument,  taken  in  November,  1906.  It  is  strange  it 
should  be  so  rare  here  when  there  are  many  places  north  of 
the  Divide  where  it  is  a  xrommon  bird.  This  species  was  com- 
mon 15  miles  southeast  of  Colorado  Springs  in  February  and 
March,  1914,  where  they  they  were  feeding  on  carcasses  of 
sheep  killed  by  heavy  snowstorms. 

Nodfraga  columbiaiuu       Clarke's    Nutcracker.        Clarke's 

Crow. 

Not  uncommon  resident  in  the  mountains,  coming  lower 
down  in  winter. 

Like  the  Rocky  Mountain  Jay,  by  whose  names  of  Camp 
Bird  and  Camp  Robber  it  is  sometimes  called,  Clarke's  Nut- 
cracker is  a  bird  of  the  higher  mountains,  breeding  quite  early 
in  the  green  pine  and  spruce  timber.  There  is  a  full  grown 
young  of  the  year  in  the  Aiken  Collection,  taken  at  St.  Peter's 
Dome,  June  21,  1907.  It  is  rather  more  of  a  wanderer  than 
the  other  species,  and  habitually  comes  down  to  lower  eleva- 
tions in  winter  and  the  early  fall  than  that  species  does,  Wet- 
more  and  Rockwell  noting  a  number  at  Palmer  Lake  Septem- 
ber 6,  1909.  It  is  plentiful  in  the  Turkey  Creek  valley  in  au- 
tumn. It  has  been  seen  at  Lake  Moraine  in  March,  June  and 
September,  and  at  Seven  Lakes  in  January.  In  winter  it  is 
found  about  the  foothills  and  at  Austin's  Bluffs,  and  probably 
wanders  and  straggles  over  most  of  the  region  where  there 
are  trees.  In  September  and  October  this  species  is  apt  to  be 
found  among  the  pinons,  living  on  the  seeds  or  nuts  of  that 
tree,  getting  them  sometimes  by  clinging  to  a  cone  and  hanging 
upside  down  from  it  and  extracting  the  seeds  from  below, 
and  again  standing  on  top  of  a  cone  and  reaching  over  and 


The  Birds  of  £l  Paso  County.  Colorado  S41 

picking  out  the  seeds  from  above.  A  pair  noticed  on  the  sum- 
mit of  Cheyenne  Mountain  in  May,  1913,  by  Aiken,  are 
thought  to  have  bred  there. 

Cjranocephalus  cyanocephalus.     Pinon  Jay. 

Resident ;  common  locally. 

The  Pinon  Jays  breed  in  the  pinons  and  cedars,  of  which 
there  are  but  a  comparatively  small  area  in  the  County,  laying 
its  eggs  so  early  in  the  season  that  the  young  are  out  of  the 
nest  by  the  first  of  May.  Late  in  the  summer  and  early  in 
the  autumn  they  begin  to  wander  about  in  flocks,  often  of  many 
individuals,  reaching  both  higher  and  lower  elevations  than 
their  breeding  range.  Wetmore  and  Rockwell  saw  it  at  Palmer 
Lake  September  6,  and  Warren  saw  one  on  Bison  Creek,  near 
Clyde,  at  10,000  feet,  September  8,  1911;  extremely  high  for 
this  species.  In  winter  it  is  now  common  at  Austin's  Bluffs, 
near  Colorado  Springs,  but  thirty  years  ago  it  was  very  rare 
there  or  not  seen  at  all.  The  reason  for  this  change  may  be 
that  in  the  early  days  there  was  no  food  for  them  about  there, 
and  now  there  is  considerable  farming  with  corn  and  grain- 
fields  where  food  may  be  found.  Occasionally  flocks  may 
be  seen  flying  over  the  city  of  Colorado  Springs  on  their  way 
back  and  forth  from  their  feeding  grounds. 

Dolichonsrx  onrzhrorus.     Bobolink. 

Rare  spring  and  summer  visitor ;  no  breeding  records. 

Allen  and  Brewster  state  that  "A  single  specimen  was 
brought  to  Mr.  Aiken  May  18,  [1882],  and  another  May  23; 
two  others  reported  as  seen.  But  two  specimens  were  pre- 
viously known  to  Mr.  Aiken  as  having  been  killed  here." 

There  is  a  male  in  the  Aiken  Collection  taken  near  Colo- 
rado Springs,  September  5,  1897.  May  20,  1913,  Warren  saw 
two  males  in  Monument  Valley  Park,  and  one  on  the  21st 
and  22nd. 


542  CoLOEADo  College  Publication 

Molothnw  aler.     Cowbird. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  the  last  of 
April.    Departs  in  October,  has  been  seen  as  late  as  the  29th. 

The  Cowbird,  well  known  for  its  habit  of  laying  its  eggs 
in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  is  a  rather  common  summer  resi- 
dent in  much  of  the  County.  Bendire,  in  his  "Life  Histories 
of  North  American  Birds,"  figures  a  Cowbird's  egg  taken  from 
the  nest  of  a  Mountain  Song  Sparrow  in  El  Paso  County  by 
Aiken,  and  Aiken  took  two  eggs  from  a  Meadowlark's  nest 
near  Ramah,  June  4th. 

Xanthocephahit  zanlhocephalus.     Yellow-headed  Blackbird. 

Summer  resident;  common  in  suitable  localities.     Arrives 
the  last  of  April,  and  departs  in  September. 

Localities  such  as  the  Yellow-headed  Blackbird  prefers 
for  breeding  places  are  rather  rare  in  El  Paso  County,  for 
swamps  and  sloughs  with  plenty  of  tules  and  rushes  are  their 
favored  resorts,  and  there  are  not  many  such  within  our  lim- 
its. Skinner's  being  the  only  place  where  we  know  of  its  breed- 
ing within  the  County.  The  nest  is  woven  to  the  stems  of  the 
tules,  and  forms  a  rather  deep  cup  in  which  4  or  5  eggs  are  de- 
posited. 

^gelaius  phonicew  fortis.     Thick-billed  Redwing. 

Resident ;  conmion. 

While  the  Red-winged  Blackbird  may  be  considered  a 
resident  species  as  some  individuals  remain  through  the  win- 
ter, yet  it  is  more  abundant  in  the  summer,  the  migrating  birds 
coming  in  the  spring  about  the  first  of  March,  or  the  last  of 
February,  the  males  always  preceding  their  mates.  Probably 
most,  if  not  not  all,  the  winter  birds  are  a  different  lot  from 
the  summer  residents.  They  are  found  all  over  the  County, 
at  least  below  the  foothills,  where  there  is  such  ground  as 
they  like,  for  they  are  always  found  near  water,  and  breed 
throughout  their  range. 


Plate  XVII. 


Fig.  31. 

Western  Tree  Sparrow. 

Colorado  Springs. 


E,  R.  W.,  Photo. 


Fig.  32.  E.  R.  ]V.,  Photo. 

Intermediate  Junco. 
(In  a  photograph  Shufeldt's  Junco  would  look  very  like  this). 
Colorado   Springs. 


Phtc  XVIII. 


Pink-Sided  Jtnco. 
Colorado  Springs. 


/:.  R.  H\.  Photo. 


I'W'  34- 
Grav-Headed  JrNco. 
Gunnison  County,  Colo. 


/f.  H.  It'.,  Photo. 


The  Biros  of  El  Paso  G)unty,  G)lorado  543 

All  the  Redwings  in  the  Aiken  and  Warren  Collections 
have  recently  been  examined  and  identified  by  Mr.  H.  C. 
Oberholser  of  the  Biological  Survey.  These  included  22  speci- 
mens from  the  region  now  under  consideration,  taken  at  va- 
rious dates  through  the  year  from  January  24  to  November 
20,  and  all  were  labeled  by  Mr.  Oberholser  as  A.  p,  fortis. 

Stumella  neglecta.     Western  Meadowlark. 

Summer  resident ;  common ;  a  few  often  spending  the  win- 
ter. Arrives  early  in  March,  sometimes  the  last  of  February. 
Departs  late  in  October  or  early  in  November. 

One  feels  as  if  spring  had  really  come  when  he  hears  the 
Meadowlarks  singing  from  the  light  and  telephone  poles  in 
town,  and  the  fence  posts  along  the  roadside,  for  they  are  no 
sooner  here  than  they  announce  themselves  with  their  cheery 
notes.  Found  everywhere  on  the  plains  region,  and  in  the 
lower  portions  of  the  mountains  where  there  are  open  spaces, 
it  is  one  of  our  commonest  species,  and  most  useful  as  well, 
living  very  largely  on  insects  of  all  sorts,  of  which  it  destroys 
vast  numbers  in  a  season. 

Two  broods  are  raised,  sometimes  at  least.  In  the  summer 
of  1903  a  pair  nested  and  raised  two  sets  of  young  in  a  vacant 
lot  at  the  comer  of  Cascade  Avenue  and  Caramillo  St.,  in 
Colorado  Springs,  with  houses  all  about  them.  September  8, 
1904,  a  young  bird  hardly  able  to  fly  was  seen  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  town.  The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground,  usually  well 
hidden  in  long  grass,  often  with  more  or  less  of  a  dome-shaped 
roof  of  grass  above  it.  The  eggs  vary  from  four  to  six.  June 
4,  1909,  a  nest  with  one  tgg  and  one  young  bird  several  days 
old  was  by  the  Canon  City  road  several  miles  southwesterly 
from  Colorado  Springs. 

The  song  of  the  Western  Meadowlark  has  been  the  theme 
of  many  writers,  its  beauty  and  variety  arousing  the  admira- 
tion of  all  who  hear  it.  Mrs.  Sturgis  has  lately  published  a 
little  book  with  words  and  notes  of  a  niunber  of  songs  as  heard 


544  &)LOEADO  G>LLEGE   PuBLICATIOW 

about  Colorado  Springs;  Keyser  could  hardly  find  words  to 
express  his  admiration  and  wonder  of  the  lark's  music,  and 
others  have  written  in  the  same  strain. 

June  4-7,  1898,  Aiken  made  notes  on  Meadowlark  songs 
at  Ramah,  as  follows : 

"The  variety  of  its  song  is  quite  remarkable.  I  noticed 
some  styles  of  song  different  from  those  in  the  vicinity  of  Colo- 
rado Springs,  and  some  that  are  the  same.  It  is  a  common 
thing  to  hear  a  certain  lark  that  has  been  singing  one  song  for 
a  time  change  to  another  in  different  key,  and  with  different 
notes  and  inflections.  I  take  it  that  each  bird  has  two  songs. 
Two  by  one  individual  which  I  noted  were:  see,  ching-ling, 
ihick'le-pup,  and  see-saw,  chick-a-lit-tle,  chick-a-loop.  The  song 
consists  usually  of  seven  or  nine  notes  or  syllables,  a  combina- 
tion of  clear  flute  or  whistling  notes  with  liquid  and  guttural 
tones.  Usually  one  or  two  notes  receive  special  emphasis,  and 
the  variation  of  accent  is  one  point  of  difference.  It  is  often 
on  the  last  note  but  is  also  given  on  various  notes  in  the  song. 
The  different  key  in  which  different  songs  begin  and  end  is 
another  point,  but  the  notes  themselves  differ  widely  in  differ- 
ent individuals.  The  following  songs  are  most  often  heard  at 
Colorado  Springs,  and  also  at  Ramah:  See -saw-see,  bil-lee- 
cO'bah;  co-que-co,  queed-lick,  tivei-pah;  bah  bebp-a-lo,  chuck- 
a-luck  In  the  last  the  first  part  is  the  conspicuous  part, 
but  in  the  two  others  the  last  part  is  most  pronounced.  I  also 
note  at  Ramah  the  following:  ta  ti  ta  ta,  ta-ty-ta,  the  second 
note  on  a  higher  key,  and  the  last  three  uttered  like  tremolo; 
ei  too,  eat  a  little  ee-tle  doo-ple."  Subsequently  to  writing  this 
Aiken  heard  five  of  the  familiar  songs  uttered  by  one  bird  with- 
in a  few  minutes. 

In  June,  1900,  he  made  the  following  note  on  the  song 
of  a  lark  at  Hartsel.  Park  County:  "I  heard  a  song  I  had 
never  heard  before,  *Come  Wil-lie,  come  quickly  home.'  I 
had  almost  concluded  the  mountain  larks  had  songs  unlike 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  G)Unty,  Colorado  S4S 

those  of  the  plains,  when  the  same  bird  sung  one  of  the  most 
familiar  ones." 

Icterus  bullockL     Bullock's  Oriole. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  about  May  10.  Most 
of  them  leave  the  latter  part  of  August;  the  latest  date  at 
hand  is  September  14,  1903. 

Orioles  are  found  all  over  the  County  wherever  there  are 
trees,  below  8,000  feet.  When  the  leaves  are  gone  from  the 
trees  in  autumn  many  of  their  pensile  nests  are  seen  hanging 
from  the  extremities  of  the  branches,  testifying  to  the  abund- 
ance of  the  builders.  Practically  all  the  nests  are  built  in  the 
Cottonwood  trees,  these  being  the  most  suitable  kind  we  have 
for  their  style  of  architecture.  They  are  at  home  in  the  towns 
as  well  as  in  the  country,  and  Monument  Valley  Park  is,  a 
favored  place  for  them.  A  male  of  this  species  in  the  Aiken 
Collection  taken  at  Ramah,  June  5,  1898,  is  peculiar  in  having 
no  black  on  the  head,  this  being  rather  bright  yellow. 

Euphagus  carolinus.     Rusty  Blackbird.   - 

Rare ;  but  one  record  for  the  County,  3  seen  and  2  killed 
by  Aiken  at  Skinner's,  January  15,  1908.  There  are  only  a 
few  records  of  this  species  for  Colorado,  and  this  is  the  only 
one  south  of  the  Divide. 

Euphagus  cyanocephalus.     Brewer's  Blackbird. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  the  last  week  in 
April.  Most  of  them  are  gone  by  October  first,  but  it  has  been 
known  to  remain  until  January  1. 

Brewer's  Blackbird  is  one  of  our  most  common  summer 
birds,  seen  everywhere  about  the  ranches  on  the  plains  and  up 
into  the  mountains,  where  a  great  many  breed,  gathering  after 
the  breeding  season  is  over  into  flocks,  often  of  large  size. 
Since  Monument  Valley  Park  has  been  established  a  number 
are  there  every  season,  at  the  north  end,  and  L.  L.  Shaw  found 


546  COLOKADO  COLLIGB  PUBLICATION 

a  nest  there,  May  28,  1912,  which  contained  3  eggs.  At 
Ramah,  June  4,  1898,  nests  contained  young  and  eggs  in  ad- 
vanced stages  of  incubation.  It  nests  in  all  sorts  of  situations, 
in  trees  and  bushes,  on  the  ground,  and  even  in  haystacks. 

Qoiscaliis  qoMcola  wBomm.     Bronzed  Crackle. 


Summer  resident ;  only  locally  common.  Arrives  the  last 
of  April,  the  earliest  date  being  April  19,  1899.  Departs  early 
in  autumn. 

The  Bronzed  Crackle  breeds  in  colonies,  and  there  is  one 
near  Buttes  on  Fountain  Creek.  The  birds  probably  leave  as 
soon  as  the  young  can  fly  well,  and  no  doubt  all  leave  the 
County  long  before  winter  sets  in. 


Hetperiphoiui  vetperlina  montaiuu    Western  Evening  Cros- 
beak. 

Resident ;  locally  and  irregularly  common. 

The  Evening  Crosbeak  is  better  known  as  winter  visitor 
than  as  a  summer  bird,  for  but  few  of  us  are  favored  with  a 
sight  of  it  at  the  latter  season,  though  Aiken  has  seen  the 
species  in  the  County  every  month  in  the  year.  And  as  a 
winter  visitor  it  is  decidedly  irregular,  for  several  winters  may 
pass  without  one  being  seen,  then  there  will  be  numbers  around 
town,  always  going  in  flocks  and  feeding  in  the  yards  and 
among  the  trees.  They  are  usually  tame  and  approachable 
then,  and  easily  observed.  They  probably  breed  in  the  moun- 
tains in  this  region,  but  their  nesting  places  have  not  yet  been 
located. 

June  19,  1898,  Aiken  found  in  the  oak  thickets  of  the 
lower  foothills  near  Bear  Creek  a  flock  of  25  or  30  Evening 
Grosbeaks,  from  which  he  killed  five  males.  Both  sexes  were 
together  and  had  probably  come  down  off  the  mountains  to 
feed  on  the  larvae  of  insects  that  were  devouring  the  leaves 
of  the  oaks.    The  contents  of  the  gizzard  of  one  bird  examined 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  547 

appeared  to  consist  of  small  black  seeds  mingled  with  the  insect 
larvae.  The  testicles  in  all  were  of  the  size  of  large  beans  and 
indicated  that  the  birds  were  either  breeding  or  on  the  point 
oi  doing  so. 

Pinicok  enudeator  montana.     Rocky  Mountain  Pine  Gros- 
beak. 

Resident  in  the  mountains.    More  common  in  winter. 

It  is  difficult  for  us  to  say  with  the  information  at  hand 
what  is  the  abundance  of  the  Pine  Grgsbeak  in  this  region, 
but  we  do  not  consider  that  it  is  at  all  common  even  in  the 
localities  where  it  dwells.  It  is  a  mountain  bird,  and  seldom, 
with  us,  descends  to  the  lower  altitudes,  but  remains  above 
9,000  feet  most,  if  not  all  of  the  year,  and  does  not  seem  to  be 
given  to  those  wanderings  which  brihg  its  eastern  cousins 
down  from  the  north  into  the  eastern  states,  often  penetrating 
a  considerable  distance  south.  It  was  seen  and  taken  by  War- 
ren above  Seven  Lakes,  11,000  feet,  in  January,  and  also  seen 
by  him  on  top  of  Cheyenne  Mountain,  November  21,  1905.  In 
the  case  of  those  seen  at  Seven  Lakes  the  care-taker  at  the 
Strickler  Tunnel  said  they  had  been  about  there  all  winter. 
They  were  in  the  willows  when  seen.  Aiken  has  had  several 
specimens  from  near  timberline  on  Pike's  Peak. 

Carpodacus  caatinL     Cassin's  Purple  Finch. 

Resident. 

Cassin's  Finch  is  a  resident  of  the  mountains,  where  it 
breeds,  coming  down  to  the  foothills  and  edge  of  the  plains  in 
fall  and  winter,  but  rather  irregularly,  not  being  observed  at 
all  some  seasons.  At  this  season  it  is  found  in  flocks,  which 
at  first  sight  seem  to  be  composed  largely  of  females,  but  many 
of  the  supposed  females  are  really  males  in  their  first  winter 
plumage,  which  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  the  female. 
They  frequent  the  trees  and  bushes  along  the  streams,  in  the 


548  G>LORADO  G>LLEGE   PUBLICATION 

foothills,  and  at  the  bluffs.  It  is  doubtless  more  or  less  common 
in  the  pines  on  the  Divide,  and  has  been  noted  at  Eastonville 
early  in  March.  We  have  no  records  of  its  occurrence  in  the 
mountains  in  this  region  in  summer,  though  it  should  breed 
among  them  as  it  does  elsewhere  in  the  State.  Our  winter 
residents  are  doubtless  migrants  from  more  northern  localities. 

Carpodacus  mesdcanus  frontalis.     House  Finch. 
Resident;  common  about  towns. 

House  Finches  are  town  rather  than  country  birds  with  us, 
apparently  preferring  the  neighborhood  of  human  habitations, 
and  are  about  the  only  birds  we  have  which  seem  able  to  hold 
their  own  against  the  imported  House  or  English  Sparrow. 
While  resident  the  year  through,  it  seems  possible  there  may  be 
a  slight  migration,  a  portion  going  south  in  winter,  for  they 
do  not  seem  as  abundant  at  that  season  as  in  summer,  though 
that  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  birds  do  leave 
the  neighborhood  of  houses  and  go  out  among  the  fields  search- 
ing for  food.  However  that  may  be,  they  return  in  good  sea- 
son, and  in  early  March  the  brightly  clad  males  may  be  heard 
singing  sweetly  and  courting  their  mates.  They  build  their 
nests  about  houses  and  other  buildings,  as  well  as  in  trees. 

In  1903  a  pair  built  their  nest  on  the  cap  of  a  column  on 
the  porch  at  my  home,  beginning  to  build  April  20.  Thert 
was  one  egg  in  the  nest  the  evening  of  April  27;  3  eggs 
on  the  afternoon  of  May  1  ;  4  eggs  May  4,  but  I  have  no  notes 
of  the  intervening  days.  The  three  days  preceding  May  first 
the  female  spent  a  good  deal  of  time  on  the  nest  as  the  weather 
was  cold.  The  morning  of  May  12  there  were  3  young  in 
the  nest  and  one  egg;  about  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  I  saw 
the  female  eat  most  of  an  eggshell ;  possibly  the  last  egg  had 
just  hatched.  From  May  12  to  28  I  photographed  these 
young  birds  daily,  sometimes  one,  sometimes  all  four.  Mav 
26  the  largest  escaped  from  me  and  flew  across  the  street, 
alighting  in  a  tree,  where  its  mother  afterwards  fed  it ;  all  the 
lemaining  young  left  the  nest  May  29.  (E.  R.  W.) 


The  Bikds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  549 

Two  broods  are,  sometimes  at  least,  raised  in  a  season, 
and  possibly  three.  September  3,  1903,  young  House  Finches 
were  noticed  which  seemed  to  have  just  left  the  nest.  Lloyd 
Shaw  found  a  nest  May  26,  1912,  containing  4  eggs,  and  on 
the  28th  there  were  3  young ;  presumably  these  eggs  were  laid 
from  the  12th  to  the  16th  of  May.  June  16,  1912,  a  young 
bird  just  from  the  nest  was  seen  in  Monument  Valley  Park. 
Two  broods  were  hatched  in  one  nest  in  1913 ;  the  first  hatched 
June  2  or  3,  the  second  flew  July  25. 

The  food  of  the  House  Finch  consists  largely  of  seeds  of 
various  sorts.  They  sometimes  eat  the  seeds  of  that  pest  thci 
dandelion,  in  fact  Dr.  W.  H.  Bergtold  says  the  young  are 
largely  fed  on  those  seeds.  In  the  fall  they  have  been  seen 
eating  the  seeds  of  Clematis  paniculata  which  was  growing 
o\  er  a  porch. 

"A  comparison  of  House  Finches  collected  in  El  Paso 
County  with  specimens  from  California,  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico,  shows  the  local  bird  to  be  consistently  darker  with 
broader  streaks  beneath,  olivaceous  brown  rather  than  hair 
brown.  White  of  underparts  purer  or  ashy,  lacking  the  buffy 
tinge;  the  red  more  crimson.  Bill  and  feet  more  robust  and 
darker.  Culmen  shorter  (10  mm.),  little  more  than  (depth  of 
bill  at  base.  Average  length  of  11  males  153  mm. ;  average  of 
17  males,  Wing,  78.3  mm.;  Tail,  61.3  mm. 

I  conclude  that  the  House  Finches  of  Colorado  east  of  the 
mountains  and  probably  of  southeastern  Wyoming  are  sub- 
specifically  distinct  from  those  of  California,  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  at  least  as  far  east  as  the  Rio  Grande  River.  H 
further  investigation  proves  this  conclusion  correct  the  more 
western  and  southern  form  becomes  Carpodacus  mexicanus 
cbscurus  McCall.  Local  birds  are  true  frontalis  since  Say*s 
type  locality  is  the  Arkansas  Valley. 

Our  House  Finches  are  in  part  migratory  and  in  part  non- 
migratory.     There  are  the  same  smoke-soiled  birds  with  us 


550  CoLotADO  College  Pubucation 

through  the  winter  which  breed  here  in  the  summer  and  there 
is  no  evidence  that  any  wintering  birds  are  from  more  northern 
localities.  In  April  I  meet  clean  plumaged  birds  coming  north 
from  their  winter  resort.  Flocks  of  House  Finches  are  seen 
migrating  in  autumn;  August  13,  1907,  I  noticed  flock  after 
flock  passing  south  along  the  Fountain  at  Skinner's  six  miles 
south  of  Colorado  Springs.  Young  birds  gather  in  weedy 
fields  in  August  where  they  linger  a  few  days  until  the  autumn 
moult  is  completed  and  then  most  of  them  go  southward,  prob- 
ably led  by  old  birds.  The  percentage  of  these  which  return  in 
the  spring  seems  to  be  small. 

I  first  met  with  House  Finches  near  Canon  City,  April 
26,  1872 ;  a  flock  of  several  hundred  were  sweeping  through  the 
valley.  In  the  May  following  I  found  2  or  3  pairs  nesting  in 
the  pinon  hills  northeast  of  there.  I  found  none  nesting  in 
those  early  days  in  Canon  City,  Pueblo,  Colorado  Springs,  or 
Denver,  but  at  Trinidad,  in  July,  1872,  I  first  saw  them  utiliz- 
ing human  habitations.  It  was  many  years  before  the  north- 
ern birds  took  up  with  the  advance  of  civilization  and  made 
their  homes  in  towns.  When  I  returned  to  Colorado,  in  De- 
cember, 1895,  after  some  years  absence,  I  found  them  fre- 
•  quenting  the  city.  The  spring  following  a  pair  built  their  nest 
in  a  wistaria  vine  close  under  the  eaves  of  my  front  porch 
and  directly  over  the  steps.  They  raised  a  brood  and  went  off 
with  the  young  as  soon  as  they  could  fly,  and  were  not  seen 
again  until  the  following  spring  (1897),  when  they  cleaned 
and  reoccupied  the  old  nest. 

When  the  young  in  this  nest  were  half  grown  the  parents 
built  a  second  nest  under  my  neighbor's  porch  and  while  the 
male  was  attending  the  first  brood  the  female  raised  another. 
In  1898  the  breeding  impulse  was  even  stronger.  The  male 
was  first  noticed  December  27  of  the  previous  year  to  come 
and  inspect  the  old  nest.  At  intervals  of  ten  days  he  came 
after  that  for  several  weeks  before  he  brought  his  mate.  In 
March  the  pair  cleaned  and  relined  the  old  nest  and  the  female 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  G)unty,  Colorado  551 

began  incubating.  Soon  after  the  young  were  hatched  a  second 
nest  was  built  adjoining  the  first  and  attached  to  it  in  which  a 
second  complement  of  eggs  was  laid  and  the  female  sat  on 
these  while  the  young  were  growing  in  the  first  nest  beside  her. 
When  the  second  brood  were  hatched  a  third  clutch  of  eggs 
was  laid  in  the  nest  now  vacated  by  the  first  brood  and  a  third 
brood  successfully  reared.  A  chronology  of  the  domestic  af- 
fairs of  the  pair  for  the  next  year,  1899,  follows: 

March  8.    Male  bird  seen  inspecting  the  old  nest. 

April  13.  Both  birds  had  been  house-cleaning  since  March 
17  and  had  relined  the  original  nest. 

April  25.    Female  sitting  and  the  male  keeps  out  of  sight. 

May  8.    Five  young  hatched. 

May  28.  Nest  deserted  and  both  parent  birds  presumed  to 
be  with  the  young  instructing  them  to  providp  for  themselves, 
but  returned  a  few  days  later. 

June  11.    Female  incubating  second  laying. 

June  23.  Second  brood  of  young  several  days  old.  Male 
not  seen  but  heard  singing  in  early  morning. 

July  3.    Young  of  second  brood  left  the  nest. 

In  1900  the  male  was  seen  inspecting  the  nest  January  13, 
and  the  female  joined  him  February  23.  March  8  the  old  nest 
was  relined.  The  first  laying  of  eggs  was  thrown  out  of  the 
nest  April  16  but  April  20  the  female  was  incubating  a  fresh 
set,  and  May  1 1  the  young  were  about  a  week  old. 

In  1901  one  brood  was  reared. 

In  1902  the  pair  seemed  much  annoyed  to  discover  that 
English  Sparrows  had  occupied  their  nest  as  a  roosting  place 
but  finally  renovated  it  and  occupied  it  about  May  20.  One 
brood  raised. 

In  1903  the  pair  came  early  and  finding  their  nest  demol- 
ished by  sparrows  built  elsewhere  in  the  neighborhood. 


552  Colorado  College  Publication 

In  1904  the  pair  appeared  March  3  and  after  lingering 
about  the  old  nest  sometime  began  carrying  material  from  it 
across  the  street  where  the  nest  was  constructed.  Work 
done  by  the  female  closely  attended  by  the  male.  English 
Sparrows  then  built  their  own  nest  on  the  platform  of  the 
denuded  finch  nest. 

In  1905  the  pair  of  House  Finches  came  February  26  and 
for  nearly  a  month  kept  near  the  old  nest  which  they  seemed 
bent  on  reoccupying,  but  on  March  11  a  catastrophe  occurred 
which  closed  their  life  history.  In  attempting  to  destroy  the 
pestiferous  English  Sparrows  I  accidentally  killed  both  finches, 
much  to  my  regret.  They  had  for  ten  years  been  memf>ers  of 
my  domestic  family.  Their  skins  are  preserved  in  the  Aiken 
Collection  in  Colorado  College,  their  original  numbers  being, 
male,  4577,  and  female.  4578. 

My  excuse  for  relating  this  extended  history  is  that  I  be- 
lieve that  some  light  may  be  thrown  upon  the  breeding  habits 
of  various  other  species  of  birds  by  the  application  of  my  nar- 
ration. I  have  space  to  point  out  but  one  point  here.  I  assume 
and  am  convinced  that  the  birds  were  in  their  first  reproduc- 
tive year  when  they  built  the  first  nest.  They  reached  the 
height  of  reproductivity  in  the  third  year  when  they  raised 
three  broods.  In  succeeding  years  they  dropped  to  two  broods 
and  then  to  one.  This  may  be  accepted  as  a  law  or  rule  appli- 
cable to  other  species  whose  habit  is  recorded  of  producing 
two  or  more  broods  in  a  season.  We  may  conclude  that  the 
more  vigorous  pairs  produce  two  or  more  broods  some  sea- 
sons but  other  pairs  may  produce  but  one. 

Breeding  male  House  Finches  show  a  variable  amount  of 
red  in  the  plumage.  Those  with  the  least  I  have  supposed  to 
be  birds  of  the  previous  year  which  would  acquire  the  full  plu- 
mage at  succeeding  moults,  concluding  also  that  deficiency 
of  red  characterized  all  birds  of  the  year.  I  think  this  is  the 
prevailing  view.  In  1907  I  made  investigations  which  throw 
some  light  on  the  subject.    Young  birds  take  on  the  coat  worn 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  553 

through  winter  and  the  following  summer  about  three  months 
after  leaving  the  nest.  A  large  proportion  of  them  and  of 
adults  as  well  moult  in  August.  The  new  feathers  grow  out 
through  the  feathers  of  the  old  coat,  gradually  displacing  them. 

I  observed  at  this  time  that  moulting  young  males  were 
acquiring  as  extensive  a  distribution  of  red  as  the  brightest  col- 
ored adults,  in  fact  after  completion  of  the  moult  in  both  young 
and  adult  they  are  not  distinguishable.  Several  specimens 
illustrating  this  moult  were  preserved.  Evidently  then  the  ma- 
jority of  young  acquire  the  perfect  coat  at  the  first  autumnal 
moult.* 

Later  in  1907,  on  October  4,  I  obtained  an  undoubted 
young  male  just  completing  its  moult  which  is  indistinguishable 
externally  from  a  female  at  the  same  season  except  perhaps 
for  a  faint  tinge  of  red  on  the  jugulum.  It  suggests  a  parallel 
case  to  that  of  Carpodacus  cassini  in  which  young  males  regu- 
larly take  the  coat  of  the  female  at  the  autumnal  moult.  What 
may  take  place  in  further  development  of  the  plumage  in  such 
cases  as  that  of  this  imperfectly  marked  House  Finch  is  open 
to  further  investigation.  Possible  conclusions  are  that  it  might 
develop  some  increase  of  red  at  the  breeding  season  and  ac- 
quire a  perfect  coat  at  the  second  autumnal  moult,  or  it  might 
develop  at  the  second  moulting  a  phase  of  scanty  red  diffusion 
tliat  would  exist  through  life  and  prove  an  individual  variation, 
perhaps  an  individual  characteristic  transmittable  to  progeny. 

Orange-red  mingled  with  or  displacing  crimson-red  in 
House  Finches  is  accepted  as  indicating  age.  A  male  taken 
May  22,  1904,  shows  a  scanty  reddish  area  of  the  orange  shade, 
so  probably  this  bird  lived  a  number  of  years  without  increas- 
ing the  amount  of  red. 


*The  red  of  the  autumnal  coat  remains  pinkish  through 
early  winter,  gradually  deepens  toward  spring,  and  acquires 
its  greatest  intensity  at  time  of  breeding  without  a  spring  moult 
or  apparent  abrasion. 


554  Colorado  College  Publication 

Finally,  it  seems  probable  that  these  birds  acquire  no  ma- 
terial increase  of  the  red  area  after  the  second  summer,  and 
that  the  extent  of  red  is  not  dependent  on  age." 

(C  E.  A.) 

Loxia  curvirostm  miiior.     Crossbill. 

Resident  in  the  mountains ;  locally  common. 

Aiken  found  several  about  St.  Peter's  Dome  in  June  and 
July,  1907;  also  at  Palmer  Lake,  June  2(\  1907.  Allen  and 
Brewster  reported  seeing  a  flock  of  about  thirty  at  Austin's 
Bluffs,  April  26,  1882,  and  also  noticed  a  few  both  there  and 
elsewhere  at  both  earlier  and  later  dates.  Two  birds  taken  at 
St.  Peter's  Dome  on  June  13  were  apparently  just  completing 
their  moult,  and  one  taken  at  Palmer  Lake,  June  26  was  in  the 
midst  of  moulting. 

Loxia  curviroslrtt  stricklandi.     Mexican  Crossbill. 

There  is  in  the  Aiken  Collection  a  male  Crossbill  col- 
lected on  Turkey  Creek,  May  22,  1874,  which  is  much  larger 
than  the  other  birds  just  mentioned,  and  has  a  much  larger 
bill.  Sclater  referred  this  to  stricklandi,  while  Oberholser  calls 
it  bendirei  Ridgway,  but  this  latter  subspecies  has  not  as  yet 
been  recognized  by  the  A.  O.  U.  There  is  a  female  in  the  same 
collection  belonging  to  the  same  form,  and  having  a  label  with 
the  same  date,  but  which  was  really  taken  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains, Arizona,  in  1876,  by  Aiken. 

Leocotticte  tephrocotis  tephrocotb.     Gray-crowned   Rosy 
Finch. 
Winter  resident ;  irregularly  common. 

This  species,  in  common  with  the  two  succeeding  species 
of  Rosy  Finch,  is  a  winter  visitor  with  us,  but  quite  uncertain 
in  its  occurrence.  Probably  they  are  fairly  regular  in  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  mountains,  but  lower  down,  below  the  foot- 
hills, they  do  not  come  so  often,  though  Aiken  has  collected  a 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  S55 

number  in  various  winters  near  Colorado  Springs  and  Colo- 
rado City.  Occasionally  it  comes  right  into  town;  thus  one 
was  seen  December  29,  1902,  near  the  Plaza  Hotel  in  Colo- 
rado Springs,  and  February  12,  1903,  two  were  seen  feeding 
with  a  large  flock  of  Horned  Larks  on  millet  seed  which  had 
been  put  out  for  the  latter.  They  are  often  about  the  care- 
laker's  house  at  Lake  Moraine  in  winter.  Rosy  Firtches  are 
sociable  birds  and  are  almost  always  found  in  flocks,  fre- 
quently of  many  individuals,  and  sometimes  including  all  four 
of  the  forms  which  are  found  in  Colorado.  In  April,  1874,  a 
flock  fed  about  Aiken's  dooryard  in  Colorado  Springs  and  he 
captured  some  alive  and  kept  them  in  a  wire  cage  for  a  time. 
They  evinced  no  fear  and  would  occasionally  sing  an  unpre- 
tentious trill. 

Leucotticte  tephrocotis  littoralis.     Hepburn's  Rosy  Finch. 

Winter  visitor ;  not  common. 

This  species  is  found  associated  with  the  others,  but  is  not 
nearly  as  common.  Aiken  has  taken  a  few  near  Colorado 
Springs  and  Colorado  City,  and  Warren  took  two  at  Lake 
Moraine,  December  12-13,  1906,  and  saw  one  a  mile  southwest 
of  Colorado  City,  November  7,  1913,  in  company  with  about  a 
dozen  of  the  preceding  species. 

LeucottiGte  atraU.     Black  Rosy  Finch. 

Winter  visitor ;  not  common. 

The  type  of  this  species  was  shot  by  Aiken  at  Canon  City 
f  nd  the  name  atrata  was  suggested  by  him  to  Ridgway.  The 
Black  Rosy  Finch  has  been  met  with  a  number  of  times  in 
El  Paso  County  where  it  occurs  as  a  winter  visitor  with  con- 
siderable regularity  and  at  all  altitudes.  Like  others  of  its 
kin  it  is  a  mountain  bird  but  is  sometimes  driven  down  to  the 
plains  by  snow.  Aiken  obtained  specimens  from  the  summit 
of  Pike's  Peak  in  1877,  Colorado  City  in  1878,  and  from  near 
Colorado  Springs  in  1883,  while  Warren  found  it  at  Lake 


556  Colorado  College  Publication 

Moraine  in  December,  1905,  and  March  and  December,  1906, 
and  secured  a  good  series  of  specimens. 

Le«icoslicte  austrmlu.     Brown-capped  Rosy  Finch. 
Resident ;  common. 

The  Brown-capped  Rosy  Finch  is  a  resident  species,  Hving 
in  summer  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains  above  timberline, 
and  was  first  met  with  by  Aiken  on  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak, 
July  4,  1873.  The  nest  has  never  been  found,  but  if  its  nest- 
ing habits  are  Hke  those  of  the  Gray-crowned  species,  or  rather 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Rosy  Finch,  the  nest  will  be  found  hidden 
under  stones  in  rock  slides,  for  such  was  the  situation  of  the 
nest  of  its  relative  recently  discovered  in  California.  In  sum- 
mer it  may  be  seen  flitting  around  the  mountain  slopes,  search- 
ing for  food,  often,  even  in  what  would  seem  to  be  the  breed- 
ing season,  two  or  three  together.  In  autumn,  when  the 
weather  becomes  more  severe,  and  food  possibly  more  difficult 
to  secure,  they  go  lower  down  and  join  with  their  visiting  rela- 
tives, the  three  preceding  species,  and  make  up  large  flocks, 
and  in  these  it  often  seems  to  be  in  a  minority  as  compared 
with  the  Gray-crowned.  No  doubt  some  of  this  species  mi- 
grate farther  south  in  winter,  leaving  their  places  to  be  filled  by 
the  others. 

Acanthis  linaria  linaria.      Redpoll. 

The  Redpoll  is  a  decidedly  rare  winter  visitor  with  us, 
and  not  often  seen ;  possibly  it  may  be  more  common  in  the 
mountains;  Warren  found  it  at  Lake  Moraine  in  December, 
1SX)6.  There  are  specimens  in  the  Aiken  Collection  taken  in 
the  winter  of  1878-9,  near  Colorado  Springs,  and  also  one  col- 
lected in  Fremont  County,  April  25,  1872,  which  seems  an  un- 
usually late  date.  Dr.  W.  \V.  Arnold  reported  a  flock  of  25 
about  Colorado  Springs  the  winter  of  1910-11,  and  noted  that 
the  birds  ate  the  cottony  scale  on  the  maple  trees. 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  S57 

Astragalinus  tristis  trittis.     Goldfinch.     ''Wrld  Canary." 

Summer  resident ;  common. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  separate  the  records  and  occur- 
rence of  this  from  the  following  subspecies,  as  a  sufficient  series 
of  specimens  for  the  purpose  is  lacking.  With  the  exception 
of  the  few  which  sometimes  spend  the  winter  the  Goldfinches 
arrive  early  in  May  for  the  summer  and  are  quite  common 
over  the  County  below  7,000  feet. 

Astragalinus  tristis  palfidus.     Pale  Goldfinch. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Found  occasionally  in  win- 
ter. 

Aiken  considers  that  the  Goldfinches  which  spend  the 
winter  in  the  County  are  all  pallidtis,  and  that  the  summer  resi- 
dents along  the  foothills  are  mainly  this  species,  while  most  of 
the  typical  form  are  found  toward  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
County.  More  collecting  of  specimens  is,  however,  necessary 
to  fully  settle  these  points.  Summer  birds  soon  lose  the  paler 
edges  of  the  feathers  by  abrasion  and  are  then  not  noticeably 
different  from  the  preceding  form. 

Astragalinus  psaltria  psaltria.     Arkansas  Goldfinch. 

Astragalinus  psaltria  arizon«.     Arizona  Goldfinch. 

Astragalinus  psaltria  mexicanus.     Mexican  Goldfinch. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Typical  psaltria  usually  ar- 
rives the  third  week  in  June ;  extremely  early  dates  are  April 
21,  1900,  and  May  13,  1898,  and  specimens  taken  at  these  dates 
were  still  in  their  winter  dress.  Most  of  them  leave  in  Sep- 
tember and  October ;  an  unusually  late  date  is  that  of  a  speci- 
men from  Beaver  Creek,  Fremont  County,  November  11,  1872. 
This  is  still  in  summer  dress. 

The  A.  O.  U.  Committee  has  eliminated  the  last  two  of 


558  .  G)LORADO  College  Publication 

the  above  named  forms  from  its  Check-List,  regarding  the 
differences  in  color  as  being  due  to  age,  this  being  the  position 
taken  by  Oberholser  in  a  paper  published  in  1903,  in  which 
he  states  that  a  series  of  summer  males  from  Colorado  Springs 
''exhibits  all  gradations  from  the  green-backed  to  the  black- 
backed  forms,  representing  thus  psaltria,  ariconce,  and  mexi- 
canus — all  breeding  at  the  same  place!"  It  is  very  true  that 
the  series  of  males  in  the  Aiken  Collection  represents  these 
gradations,  but  there  is  one  point  that  has  been  overlooked 
with  regard  to  the  occurrence  of  these  birds  in  El  Paso  County, 
at  least,  and  that  is  psaltria  alone  is  the  breeding  form,  so  far 
as  at  present  known,  the  dark  forms  not  making  their  appear- 
ance until  later,  arisonce  coming  in  July,  and  mexicanus  the 
very  last  of  July  and  first  of  August,  and  their  actions  then 
would  indicate  that  they  have  but  just  arrived,  nor  have  any 
dark  colored  birds  been  discovered  breeding  in  the  County. 

The  dates  of  skins  of  psaltria  are  April  20,  1900;  June  25, 
1898;  July  23,  1899;  August  15,  1907;  September  2  and  5, 
1897.  Of  arisonw,  July  16,  1872  (Fremont  Co.)  ;  August  5, 
1898  (2) ;  August  6  and  7,  1897;  August  12,  1907.  A  bird 
seen  by  Warren,  June  15,  1912,  appeared  to  be  this  form. 
Mexicanus,  August  4,  1898;  Salida,  Chaffee  Co.,  August  3, 
1908;  5  or  6  seen  by  Aiken  in  yard  August  11,  1907.  Dr. 
Bergtold  reported  seeing  one  in  Denver,  June  30,  1908,  but 
did  not  collect  it. 

The  evidence  of  the  specimens  and  of  field  observations 
agree  very  well,  though  it  is  only  fair  to  state  that  it  is 
difficult  to  always  distinguish  arizonce  from  mexicanus  in  the 
lield,  as  the  birds  almost  invariably  appear  darker  than  they 
really  are.  These  Goldfinches  are  often  seen  about  the  town 
on  vacant  lots,  especially  where  sunflowers  have  grown  up  and 
gone  to  seed,  and  are  easy  to  approach  and  observe,  so  that 
one  can  readily  study  them.  An  examination  of  the  plumage  of 
these  specimens  gives  us  no  clue,  for  it  seems  perfectly  fresh 
and  unworn.    A  possible  explanation  which  occurred  was  that 


Plate  XIX. 


Fig.  33.  E.  R.  W.,  Photo, 

The  Nest  Under  the  Protecting  Branch. 


/'j>.  3^-  F.  R.  JV..  Photo. 

Xest  anh  Ecr.s  of  Gray-Headed  JrNco;  a  Close  View. 
Near  Golden,   Colo. 


Plate  XX. 


lig.  37'  E.  R.  W,,  Photo. 

Male  Black- Headed  Grosbeak. 
Ivy  wild. 


E.  R.  ir.,  Pkula. 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  S59 

ihe  differences  in  color  might  be  due  to  the  wearing  away  of  the 
outer  portions  of  the  feathers  leaving  a  dark  inner  portion 
exposed,  but  the  plumage  of  psaltria  shows  no  dark  portions 
of  the  back  feathers  which  could  be  thus  exposed  by  wear, 
though  we  have  examined  specimens  taken  August  15  which 
are  much  worn,  and  as  stated  above  the  dark  skins  show  no 
indication  of  any  such  wear. 

To  summarize:  PsaUria  is  the  first  of  the  three  forms 
to  appear  here  in  spring,  and  seems  to  be  the  breeding  form; 
arizonce  makes  its  appearance  in  July;  while  mexicanus,  the 
darkest  of  the  three,  does  not  appear  until  about  August  first. 
After  that  time  all  three  forms  are  to  be  found  and  in  fiocks 
together. 

We  have  tried  to  present  the  facts  in  this  puzzling  case 
a^  clearly  as  possible,  feeling  the  settlement  of  the  matter  by 
the  A.  O.  U.  Committee  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  it  might  be. 

Two  of  the  males  in  the  fiock  noted  as  seen  in  yard 
August  1 1  were  quarreling  over  a  female. 

Besides  sunfiower  seeds  the  species  eats  almost  any  sort 
of  weed  seeds,  including  those  of  the  dandelion. 

Spinus  pinus.     Pine  Siskin.     Pine  Linnet.     Pine  Finch. 

Resident;  common. 

Pine  Siskins  are  probably  found  at  some  season  of 
the  year  over  all  the  County  where  there  is  any  cover  for 
them,  but  they  are  rather  irregular  in  their  occurrence,  at 
least  in  winter,  and  some  seasons  but  few  will  be  noted.  The 
winter  of  1910-11  a  large  flock  was  about  the  north  end 
of  Monument  Valley  Park,  while  the  following  winter  but 
few  were  seen.  It  ranges  at  least  as  high  as  Lake  Moraine, 
where  Aiken  has  taken  it.  May  16,  1913,  a  pair  had  a  nest 
at  Ivywild,  in  a  cottonwood  tree,  well  out  on  a  branch  30 
feet  above  the  ground.  The  birds  could  be  plainly  seen  at  the 


560  G)LoiiAoo  College  Publication 

nest  and  identified.    Dr.  Arnold  has  seen  this  species  eating 
the  cottony  scale  on  maples  trees. 

P«sser  domettkut.     House  Sparrow.     English  Sparrow. 

Resident;  common  about  towns. 

The  House  Sparrow  was  first  seen  by  Aiken  in  Colorado 
Springs  in  1895,  on  his  return  after  an  absence  of  a  few 
years.  At  that  time  there  were  several  flocks  about  the  town, 
most  of  which  had  probably  been  hatched  that  season,  and 
numbering  about  50  birds ;  the  following  year  it  was  estimated 
there  were  500  birds  in  the  same  area.  The  species  probably 
reached  the  town  in  the  spring  of  1895. 

While  the  English  Sparrow,  everything  considered,  is  a 
pest  and  a  nuisance,  it  does  do  a  little  good,  possibly  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  greedy  and  omnivorous,  and  will  eat  almost 
everything  which  comes  its  way.  It  has  been  seen  to  catch 
grasshoppers  and  feed  the  fledged  young  with  them  in  the 
street ;  to  work  about  in  the  grass  of  a  lawn,  and  dig  up  worms 
or  grubs  of  some  sort,  probably  cutworms;  also  to  eat  some 
sort  of  plant  lice  on  the  branches  of  trees. 

A  good  many  summer  in  Monument  Valley  Park,  and  then 
leave  in  the  fall,  presumably  going  up  among  the  houses 
for  the  winter,  though  it  is  probably  there  is  a  partial  migration 
in  autumn  as  there  are  not  as  many  of  the  birds  around  the 
town  in  winter  as  in  summer,  and  they  become  numerous 
again  in  the  spring. 

September  24, 1912,  a  partially  albino  male  House  Sparrow 
was  seen  near  a  residence  in  Colorado  Springs.  There  were 
one  or  two  white  feathers  in  the  right  wing,  either  the  last 
primaries  or  first  secondaries,  and  one  or  two  of  the  inside 
feathers  on  the  right  side  of  the  tail  were  white.  When  the  bird 
flew  these  white  feathers  in  the  spread  wing  and  partly  spread 
tail  made  a  striking  contrast  with  the  rest  of  the  plumage. 
It  was  never  seen  again  though  often  looked  for. 


The  Birds  of  CL  Paso  Coukty/  Colorado  561 

In  spring,  before  they  begin  to  breed,  on  ^  bright  day, 
especially  after  a  storm,  a  flock  will  often  gather  on  a  bush 
or  the  roof  of  a  building,  and  sing  and  twitter  together,  having 
as  much  of  a  song  as  some  of  our  other  sparrows. 

Aiken  has  traced  the  progress  across  the  plains  of  this 
undesirable  alien  by  ascertaining  from  residents  through  west- 
ern Kansas  dates  of  its  appearance  at  different  points  along 
the  line  of  the  Rock  Island  Railroad.  He  estimated  that  the 
westward  advance  of  the  invading  army  of  sparrows  was  at 
the  rate  of*  about  50  miles  a  year. 

Plectrophenax  nivalit.     Snow  Bunting. 

Winter  visitor;  rare,  but  one  record  of  its  occurrence 
in  El  Paso  County,  a  pair  taken  by  Aiken  at  Colorado  Springs, 
in  1874.  These  are  mounted  and  in  the  Colorado  College 
Museum. 

Calcariut  lapponicus  alascensis.     Alaska  Longspun 

Winter  visitor;  very  irregular. 

In  the  Aiken  Collection  are  specimens  taken  near  Colo- 
rado Springs,  January  5,  1874,  at  which  date  a  large  flock 
was  reported  to  be  near  town,  and  20  specimens  were  brought 
in;  specimens  were  also  taken  December  28  and  29,  1876; 
January  12,  1877.  In  January,  1884,  Warren  took  one  on 
each  of  three  different  days,  always  with  a  large  flock  of 
Horned  Larks. 

Calcarius  ornatus.     Chestnut-collared  Longspun 

Winter  visitor;  common  in  certain  localities.  Arrives  in 
September,  Aiken  having  seen  it  September  12,  1897,  on  the 
plains  east  of  Colorado  Springs ;  later  in  the  same  year,  October 
3  and  13,  he  found  it  at  Broadmoor  Ranch,  his  notes  men- 
tioning the  Longspurs  being  in  alfalfa  fields  which  had  been 
mowed  close.  The  species  was  near  Colorado  Springs  in 
February,  1899.     In  the  seventies,  when  living  on  a  ranch 


562  Colorado  G>llege  Publication 

on  Turkey  Creek,  Aiken  used  to  frequently  see  this  and  the 
following  species  on  the  open  ground  between  there  and 
Fountain,  out  of  the  foothills.  Allen  and  Brewster  saw  about 
20  May  9,  1882,  securing  five.  This  is  the  latest  spring  date 
we  have. 

Rlismcopliaiies  mccowm.     McCown's  Longspun 

Winter  visitor;  irregular.  Not  quite  as  common  as  the 
Chestnut-collared. 

January  14,  1884,  Warren  took  one  just  north  of  Colorado 
Springs.  This  and  the  Alaska  Longspurs  were  taken  at  a 
tir^e  when  we  had  severe  cold  weather  with  a  little  snow  on 
the  ground.  On  the  north  edge  of  the  city,  somewhere  about 
the  end  of  Wahsatch  Avenue,  were  large  flocks  of  Homed 
Larks,  and  it  was  with  these  the  Longspurs  were  found.  Allen 
and  Brewster  took  one  May  9,  1882,  with  the  before  men- 
tioned flock  of  Chestnut-collared  Longspurs. 

Pooecetes  gramineus  confiiiis.     Western  Vesper  Sparrow. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  usually  about  April 
18,  the  earliest  date  being  April  9,  1899.  Are  probably  gone  by 
about  October  first,  the  latest  dates  we  have  being  September 
25,  1913,  and  October  1,  1872. 

The  Vesper  Sparrow  is  an  abundant  bird  in  the  open 
parts  of  the  County,  and  should  be  found  in  the  open  spaces 
in  the  mountains  up  to  at  least  9,000  feet.  Nests  in  May, 
an  unusually  early  date  being  a  nest  found  by  Warren  near 
Colorado  Springs,  May  5,  1904,  which  contained  3  eggs.  The 
nest  is  always  on  the  ground,  often  in  a  depression,  and 
usually  hidden  under  a  tuft  of  grass,  a  bunch  of  weeds,  or  a 
low  bush. 

Patserculus  sandwichensas  alaudfaiut.     Western   Savannah 
Sparrow. 

Summer  resident  above  7,000  feet;  common.    Most  of 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso  County,   Colorado  563 

them  arrive  the  last  of  April  and  early  in  May,  an  extremely 
early  date  being  March  19,  1899.  They  begin  to  move  south 
the  last  of  July,  and  are  all  gone  by  the  middle  of  October. 

In  spring  the  Savannah  Sparrow  is  found  around 
meadows  and  marshy  places,  taking  refuge  in  old  dead  weeds 
when  disturbed,  and  is  quite  apt  to  be  about  alfalfa  fields 
during  May  and  to  June  first.  In  the  autumn  it  is  around 
weedy  fields  and  grassy  places.  Before  June  first  most  of 
them  go  into  the  mountains  and  northward,  breeding  in  this 
County  from  7,000  to  9,000  feet.  It  has  not  been  found 
bre;eding  along  the  Fountain.  A  pair  seen  near  Ramah  in 
June  appeared  to  be  getting  ready  to  nest.  The  nest  is  placed 
on  the  ground,  well  hidden   in  the  grass. 

Ammodramut  bairdL     Baird's  Sparrow. 

Migrant,  but  rare  in  spring,  there  being  but  one  record 
for  that-  season,  May  6,  1873.  Autumn  records  are  more  fre- 
quent, Aiken,  in  1897,  securing  specimens  at  various  dates 
from  August  22  to  October  13;  in  1898  it  appeared  as  early 
as  August  10.  Most  of  these  specimens  were  taken  about 
weedy  fields  near  the  Broadmoor  Ranch  south  of  Colorado 
Springs. 

October  5,  1872,  Aiken  killed  one  on  the  prairie  11  miles 
east  of  Fountain  which  was  practically  a  rediscovery  of  the 
species  which  had  been  unknown  since  Audubon  first  described 
it  in  1844  frOm  a  specimen  taken  in  eastern  Montana,  near 
old  Fort  Union,  North  Dakota.  This  specimen  of  Aiken's 
was  described  by  him  as  a  new  species,  Centronyx  ochrocepha- 
Itis,  as  it  did  not  agree  with  the  descriptions  of  any  other 
sparrows  known  at  that  time,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  was 
in  a  different  plumage  from  the  bird  described  by  Audubon. 
Mr.  Robert  Ridgway  examined  Aiken's  bird  and  expressed 
the  opinion  that  it  was  a  new  species. 

It  is  found  on  the  prairies  and  in  fields,  but  never  in 
brush  or  bushes,  at  least  as  observed  in  this  region. 


564  .    CoLOftAoo  College  Publication 

Ammodraniiit  savannamm  bimanihifm.      Western  Grass- 
hopper Sparrow. 

A  rare  autumn  migrant,  not  observed  in  spring.  The 
only  records  for  the  County  are  specimens  taken  by  Aiken  at 
Ramah,  •July  15,  1898,  and  near  Colorado  Springs,  July  20, 
1898,  and  August  8  and  September  24,  1897. 

Chondesles  grammacus  strigatas.     Western  Lark  Sparrow. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  first  week  in 
May,  April,  17,  1907,  being  the  earliest  date.  Departs  in 
September,  the  latest  date  being  September  25,  1913.  • 

Common  on  the  plains,  and  probably  in  the  open  parts 
of  the  Ute  Pass  region.  It  may  raise  two  broods  as  young 
not  long  from  the  nest  have  been  seen  on  different  occasions 
in  the  first  two  weeks  in  August,  which  would  be  late  for 
a  single  brood  unless  the  first  nest  had  been  destroyed. 

Zonotrichia  querula.     Harris's  Sparrow. 

Rare,  but  two  records  for  the  County,  a  female  taken  by 
Aiken  at  Buttes,  January  24,  1908,  which  was  in  company 
with  Juncos  and  Tree  Sparrows ;  and  one  seen  by  Lloyd  Shaw 
and  others  in  Monument  Valley  Park,  February  14,  1914. 

Zonotrichia  leucophrys  leucophiyt.     White-crowned  Spar- 
row. 

Summer  resident  in  the  mountains;  common.  Arrives 
about  May  4.  Allen  and  Brewster  saw  it  April  24,  1882.  It 
has  been  seen  as  late  as  October  first  at  9,500  feet,  and 
October  12  in  Monument  Valley  Park. 

Just  about  the  time  the  GambeFs  Sparrows  are  beginning 
to  leave  in  the  spring  the  White-crowns  make  their  appearance, 
and  are  found  along  the  lower  streams  for  a  month  before 
they  retire  to  the  mountains  for  the  breeding  season.  They 
were  noted  by  Warren  in  Monument  Valley  Park  as  late  as 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  565 

June  2,  1913,  and  Aiken  saw  6,  collecting  one,  at  Ramah, 
June  4,  1898. 

This  species  breeds  exclusively  in  the  mountains,  prob- 
ably few  breeding  below  9,000  feet,  and  from  that  elevation  to 
above  timberline.  The  nest  is  placed  in  low  bushes  of  various 
kinds,  often  evergreens,  and  never  very  far  above  ground. 
Drew  stated  that  in  the  San  Juan  Mountains  it  raised  two 
broods,  the  first  at  the  lower  part  of  its  range,  and  then  a 
vertical  migration  was  made  to  above  timberline  where  the 
second  brood  was  raised. 

On  a  trip  to  Strickler  Tunnel  July  9-10,  1899,  Aiken 
found  White-crowned  Sparrows  "abundant  in  willows  above 
timberline,  and  in  the  canon  below  Seven  Lakes,  where  birds 
were  seen  skulking  among  the  low  bushes,  where  they 
evidently  had  nests  though  they  could  not  be  found.  The 
males  mount  to  a  top  twig  and  watch  the  intruder  quietly  from 
a  distance  or  utter  a  chirp  of  alarm  on  close  approach.  The 
song  from  near  by  may  be  represented  by  the  syllables 
oo'dree-e-e,  twee-ty  too.  Inhale  the  "oo"  through  the  teeth 
and  exhale  the  "dree"  in  higher  key.  Some  times  a  low  inhaling 
sound  follows  the  effort.  Birds  above  timberline  were  in  full 
song.  Those  lower  down  where  nesting  was  probably  further 
advanced  were  more  quiet  and  skulking." 

Zonotrichia  leucophrys  gambelL     GambePs  Sparrow. 

Migrant ;  common  in  spring  and  autumn ;  a  few  winter. 
Arrives  usually  about  the  middle  of  March,  February  27, 
1899,  being  the  earliest  date,  and  remains  until  the  first  week 
in  May.  May  11,  1898  is  the  latest  spring  date  we  have.  The 
fall  migration  begins  about  the  first  of  October,  September 
28,  1907,  being  the  earliest  date,  and  tthe  majority  have  gone 
on  by  the  early  part  of  November. 

While  with  us  these  birds  frequent  the  brush  along  the 
streams  and  in  the  ravines,  feeding  on  w^ed  seeds  and  anything 
else  they  may  find  to  their  taste.  Just  before  they  leave  in  the 


566  CoLOKADO  College  Publication 

spring  they  are  often  found  in  company  with  their  relatives, 
the  White-crowns,  who  have  just  arrived  for  the  summer. 

Spixelk  monticola  ochrmcea.     Western  Tree  Sparrow. 

Winter  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  the  first  of 
October,  the  earliest  date  being  September  22,  1912.  They 
begin  to  leave  the  last  of  February  and  early  in  April  are 
nearly  all  gone.  The  latest  spring  date  is  one  taken  by  Aiken, 
April  20,  1900. 

The  Tree  Sparrow  is  one  of  our  commonest  winter  birds, 
found  everywhere  about  the  bushy  places  of  the  foothills  and 
plains,  but  does  not  go  far  into  the  mountains  in  winter.  While 
it  is  often  associated  with  various  juncos,  yet  they  seem  dis- 
posed to  keep  somewhat  apart,  and  when  a  mixed  flock  is 
disturbed  the  sparrows  will  often  separate  to  a  considerable 
extent  from  the  others.  In  Monument  Valley  Park,  the  winters 
of  1911-12,  many  have  patronized  the  food  tables  where  millet 
and  other  seed  is  put  out  for  them.  Though  they  come  to 
these  tables  in  large  numbers  they  are  rather  shy  while  there 
and  will  not  permit  a  close  approach.  They  are  not  entirely 
dependent  on  these  tables,  however,  even  in  the  park,  and  can 
be  seen  hunting  food  for  themselves  in  the  weeds  and  grass 
there,  possibly  for  variety's  sake.  As  their  food  is  practically 
all  seeds  in  winter,  the  Tree  Sparrows  and  Juncos  destroy 
great  quantities  of  weed  seeds  during  that  season. 

SpizeUa  pasteriiia  arizoiMe.     Western  Chipping  Sparrow. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  April  10  to  20,  the 
earliest  dates  being  March  23,  1900  and  March  24,  1899. 
Leaves  in  October,  probably  are  about  all  gone  by  the  15th; 
the  latest  fall  date  is  October  24,   1897. 

The  Chipping  Sparrow  is  one  of  our  most  abundant  sum- 
mer residents  and  breeders;  nests  in  trees  and  bushes  along 
streams  and  in  gulches.  Aiken  noted  a  full  fledged  brood  in 
Colorado   Springs   June  21,    1897;   very   likely   two   broods 


The  Bntos  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  567 

are  raised  in  a  season.  The  last  of  August  and  first  of  Sep- 
tember they  gather  in  large  flocks,  composed  of  adults  and 
young  of  the  year,  the  latter  often  hard  to  identify  in  the 
field,  and  are  found  about  the  brushy  and  weedy  places  every- 
where. When  the  young  are  fledged  and  able  to  take  care  of 
themselves  the  males  separate  into  little  flocks  by  themselves 
and  the  females  and  young  are  in  other  flocks.  The  males 
migrate  first,  which  is  a  common  habit  with  various  birds. 

Spizella  pallicUu     Clay-colored  Sparrow. 

Migrant;  rather  common  on  the  plains.  Arrives  about 
the  7th  of  May  and  found  until  about  the  25th.  It  has  been 
taken  in  the  fall  migration  as  early  as  July  25th,  and  by  the 
middle  of  September  all  have  gone  on. 

Often  found  in  flocks  along  the  more  open  stream  bot- 
toms, and  in  weedy  fields,  avoiding  the  thickest  brush;  also 
found  on  the  prairies. 

Spizella  breweri.     Brewer's  Sparrow. 

Migrant ;  common ;  a  few  breed  on  the  plains.  Arrives 
about  the  first  week  in  May,  earliest  date  April  30,  1873  and 
1898.  The  fall  migration  has  passed  by  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember. 

Brewer's  Sparrow  probably  breeds  in  small  numbers  in 
the  County.  Aiken  found  it  July  14,  1897,  at  Ramah;  June 
25,  1899,  at  the  Garden  Ranch,  where  several  pairs  were  breed- 
ing; and  took  a  nestling  near  Colorado  Springs,  August  6, 
1898,  and  also  young  in  downy  plumage  August  22,  1897. 
Breeds  in  low  bushes,  apparently  preferring  sage  brush  and 
greasewood,  of  which  there  is  but  little  in  the  County;  here 
if  is  found  about  tthe  scrubby  bushes  along  outcropping  rock 
ledges.    Aiken  recorded  the  song  as  bc-s-s  te'e-e'e-e-e, 

Junco  aikenL     White- winged  Junco.     Aiken's  Junco. 

Winter  resident;  common.    Arrives  the  middle  or  latter 


568  Colorado  G>llege  Pubucation 

part  of  October,  the  earliest  date  near  Colorado  Spring  being 
October  20,  1911,  and  the  last  spring  date  being  April  11, 
1882,  by  Allen  and  Brewster,  probably  most  of  them  are  gone 
by  April  first. 

Possibly  this  and  the  other  Juncos  go  to  the  higher  ele- 
vations on  their  first  arrival  in  fall,  for  Lloyd  Shaw  reported 
seeing  them  in  Jones  Park,  9,000  feet,  October  1,  1911. 

This  species  varies  considerably  in  abundance  during 
different  years,  and  some  seasons  it  is  not  at  all  plenty;  the 
winter  of  1912-13  seemed  to  be  an  example  of  this.  On  the 
other  hand  the  winter  of  1909-10  it  was  unusually  numerous; 
near  Austin's  Bluffs  there  seemed  to  be  three  times  as  many 
of  this  as  of  /.  mearnsi  as  shown  by  speciments  shot  indis- 
criminately and  field  notes  made  at  the  time.  The  species 
seems  to  prefer  the  foothills  and  bulffs,  and  to  keep  away 
from  the  valley  streams.  It  was  found  at  Lake  Moraine 
March  8  and  9,  1906.  The  first  specimens  of  this  species 
known  to  science  were  discovered  by  Aiken  in  Barnes's  Canon 
in  December,  1871. 

Junco  hyemalb  hsremalis.     Slate-colored  Junco. 

Winter  visitor,  not  common.  Probably  arrives  and  de- 
parts at  the  same  time  as  the  other  Juncos.  The  latest  spring 
date  is  April  25,  1899. 

The  rarest  of  our  Juncos  in  winter  but  during  a  short 
period  of  autumn  and  spring  migration  quite  common,  some- 
times in  large  flocks. 

Junco  hyemaKs  connectens.     Intermediate  Junco. 

Winter  resident;  not  common.  Times  of  arrival  iti<l 
departure  no  doubt  the  same  as  the  other  Juncos. 

About  as  common  as  hy emails,  shufeldti,  and  montanus, 
much  more  common  in  migration  than  in  winter. 


The  Bntns  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  569- 

Junco  oreganut  shufeldtL     Shufeldt's  Junco. 

Winter  resident ;  not  common.  Arrives  and  departs  at  the 
same  time  as  the  other  Juncos,  extremes  being  October  IS  and, 
April  10. 

For  the  names  of  this  and  the  two  following  species  we 
follow  Ridgway  rather  than  the  A.  O.  U.  Check-List  as  it  seems 
to  us  that  the  treatment  of  the  Juncos  in  the  latter  is  exceed- 
ingly unsatisfactory. 

Shufeldt's  Junco  is  not  uncommon  during  the  winter  but 
is  not  found  in  any  such  numbers  as  the  Pink-sided  or  Gray- 
headed  Juncos,  or  even  the  White-winged  in  its  abundant 
seasons.  In  the  field,  without  the  use  of  a  glass,  it  is  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  this  and  the  Intermediate  and 
Montana  Juncos,  except  when  one  is  very  close.  At  a  near 
view,  the  very  black  head  and  pink  sides  of  the  Shufeldt's 
make  it  easily  identified,  but  the  females  are  difficult  if  not  im- 
possible.  As  a  writer  in  Bird  Lore  says: 

"For  the  female  of  the  species  is  more  puzzlin'  than  the 
male." 

Warren  took  one  at  Lake  Moraine  in  December,  1906, 
and  a  black-headed  Junco  of  some  sort  was  seen  there  in 
March,  1906. 

In  migration  this  species  is  quite  common. 

Junco  montanus.     Montana  Junco. 

Winter  resident;  not  common.  Arrives  and  departs  at 
much  the  same  times  as  the  other  Juncos. 

There  are  seven  specimens  in  the  Aiken  Collection  taken 
at  various  date  from  October  25  to  April  24.  This  is  probably 
the  least  common  of  our  Juncos  in  Winter;  in  the  migrations 
it  is  more  abundant.  The  males  arrive  from  the  south  about 
February  25  and  are  around  for  ten  days  or  more,  and  the 
females  follow  somewhat  later  in  March. 


570  Colorado  College  Publication 

Junco  meltftiiL     Pink-sided  Junco. 

Winter  resident;  common.  Arrives  early  in  October, 
possibly  usually  not  until  the  second  week ;  earliest  record 
September  30,  1913.  Departs  in  April,  lingering  longer  than 
either  of  the  Juncos  previously  mentioned.  Latent  date  May 
4,    1872. 

The  most  numerous  of  the  Junco?,  and  usually  forming 
the  greater  proportion  of  the  flocks  one  meets  with,  but  in 
the  winter  does  not  usually  go  high  into  the  mountains,  keep- 
ing more  to  the  foothills  and  plains.  It  is  always  to  be  found 
in  Monument  Valley  Park  in  winter  with  the  flocks  of  Tree 
Sparrows.  Possibly  the  reason  they  stay  later  in  spring  than 
the  other  species  is  that  they  have  not  so  far  to  go  to 
reach  their  breeding  grounds,  as  many  spend  the  summer  ii 
Wyoming.  4 

Junco  plueonolut  caniceps.     Gray-headed  Junco. 

Resident ;  common. 

This,  our  resident  Junco,  breeds  commonly  in  the  moun- 
tains down  to  7,500  feet.  It  spends  the  winter  in  the  foothills 
and  on  the  plains  in  varying  numbers,  but  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  at  that  season  it  is  always  outnumbered  by  the  Pink- 
sided  Junco,  and  frequently  by  the  White-winged.  It  prefers 
the  foothills  to  the  plains.  Sometimes  flocks  of  Juncos  are 
seen  which  contain  a  large  percentage  of  this  form ;  one  good- 
sized  flock  seen  by  Warren  on  Bear  Creek  near  the  mouth  of 
the  canon,  November  18  and  20,  1912,  seemed  to  be  fully  one 
half  of  this  species,  the  rest  Pink-sided ;  usually  the  proportion 
is  much  smaller.  Ordinarily  but  one  or  two  at  a  time  are  seen 
in  Monument  Valley  Park.  The  majority  of  our  summei 
birds  probably  go  south  in  winter,  many  of  the  winter  residents 
coming  from  other  localities. 

The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground,  sometimes  in  a  cavity  in 
a  roadside  bank  or  a  stream  bank.    One  found  by  Rockwell 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  S71 

and  Warren  in  Jefferson  County  was  sunken  in  the  ground  so 
that  the  rim  was  flush  with  the  surface.  The  nest  proper  was 
made  of  grass,  coarse  outside,  lined  with  finer,  wi|h  a  few 
horsehairs  intermingled.  This  was  under  a  Douglas's  fir  tree, 
and  nearly  covered  by  a  spreading  branch  which  grew  out  al- 
most at  the  foot  of  the  tree  and  actually  rested  on  the  ground 
over  the  nest.  This  nest  contained  four  fresh  eggs  and  is 
now  in  the  Colorado  College  Museum.  Taken  May  30,  1912. 

July  10,  1899,  Aiken  found  a  nest  with  five  young  a 
week  old  at  the  S trickier  Tunnel,  11,500  feet.  The  first  nest 
of  the  species  known  to  science  was  found  by  Aiken,  and  the 
description  was  published  in  1875. 

Aiken  took  two  of  the  birds  at  Ramah,  May  16,  1904,  a 
rather  late  spring  record  for  the  plains.  One  was  also  taken 
May  16,  1908,  at  Buttes. 

Melospiza  melocEa  montaiuu     Mountain  Song  Sparrow. 

Summer  resident;  not  common.  A  good  many  spend  the 
winter,  and  it  is  abundant  in  migration.  The  spring  migration 
seems  to  begin  about  March  first,  and  in  fall  most  of  the 
birds  have  gone  on  by  the  last  of  October. 

As  a  winter  resident  the  Song  Sparrow  is  no  doubt  ir- 
regular. November  8,  1897,  Aiken  took  two  on  Fountain 
Creek;  the  22nd  he  took  three  and  saw  about  a  dozen;  they 
were  not  found  December  6th  following  at  the  same  place. 
At  Skinner's,  January  15,  1908,  he  took  3  and  saw  20.  At 
Buttes,  January  24,  1908,  many  were  seen.  There  is  a  skin 
in  the  Aiken  Collection  taken  February  6,  1873. 

Warren  took  one  on  each  of  the  following  dates :  December 
4,  1882,  December  12  and  14,  1883.  One  was  seen  February  23 
and  24,  1913,  in  Monument  Valley  Park  and  also  later  on  in 
March.  November  17,  1912,  two  or  three  were  seen  in  the 
Park,  and  seemed  to  hold  themselves  aloof  from  the  numerous 
Tree  Sparrows.   December  22,  1912,  one  was  also  seen  there. 


572  Colorado  Omxege  PuBLtcAtioi^ 

December  8,  24,  and  28,  1913,  after  the  unusually  heavy  snow- 
storm of  that  year,  one  or  two  were  seen  in  the  Park. 

Certain  specimens  from  this  region  have  been  identified  as 
M.  m.  melodia,  but  are  not  typical. 

Melotpiza  melodb  juddL     Dakota  Song  Sparrow. 

A  Song  Sparrow  taken  by  Aiken  near  Colorado  Springs, 
March  20,  1898,  has  recently  been  identified  by  H.  C.  Ober- 
holser  of  the  Biological  Survey  as  Melospica  melodia  juddi. 
This  is  the  first  record  of  this  subspecies  for  Colorado. 

Mdotpiza  lincoliii  linccdiiL     Lincoln's  Sparrow. 

^  Summer  resident  in  the  mountains;  common.  Arrives  in 
^  April,  there  being  a  considerable  variation  in  the  first  arrival 
dates,  from  April  9,  1899  to  April  30,  1898.  Near  Colorado 
Springs  the  migration  lasts  until  the  middle  of  May,  and  Jiuie 
4-7,  1898,  Aiken  found  it  at  Ramah,  still  migrating.  A  pair 
was  noted  south  of  Colorado  Springs  the  first  week  in 
June,  1897. 

Lincoln's  Sparrow  breeds  in  the  mountains,  from  8,500 
feet  possibly  to  timberline,  though  we  have  no  exact  informa- 
tion as  to  the  upper  limit  of  its  breeding  range.  It  prefers 
the  willow  thickets  in  the  mountain  parks. 

Me^apiza  georgiaiuu     Swamp  Sparrow. 

Rare,  but  one  occurrence  known  in  the  County,  a  bird  seen 
'  near  Broadmoor  Ranch  by  Aiken,  August  8,  1897. 

Pipilo  maculatus  arcticiit.     Arctic  Towhee. 

Winter  resident;  not  uncommon.  Earliest  autumn  date, 
-November  11,  1909;  latest  spring  date.  May  12,  1878. 

Most  of  out  winter  towhees  are  probably  the  Arctic 
Towhee.  They  are  found  usually  about  the  oak  thickets  at  the 
lower  edge  of  the  foothills  and  in  the  bluffs,  industriously 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  ^573 

scratching  among  the  leaves  for  whatever  they  can  find  in 
the  way  of  food. 

Pipilo  maculatiu  montanut.     Mountain  Towhee. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Winter  resident;  rare.  The 
spring  migration  seems  to  begin  early  in  April  and  is  in  full 
swing  by  May  1.  Most  of  the  birds  are  gone  by  the  last  of 
October. 

A  few  individuals  of  this  species  spend  the  winter  with 
us,  just  how  many  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  without  collect- 
ing every  Towhee  one  sees.  The  following  are  winter  dates 
of  specimens  from  the  County  identified  by  Oberholser:  Jan- 
uary 16,  1910;  March  12,  1877;  December  13,  1909.  There  is 
also  one  taken  March  28,  1878,  which  might  be  either  a  winter 
resident  or  an  early  spring  arrival. 

A  common  breeder  up  to  above  7,000  feet  frequenting  very 
largely  the  oak  thickets  in  the  foothills,  bluffs,  and  mesa 
gulches.  Aiken  found  a  nest  with  four  eggs  May  29,  1872.  A 
pair  probably  bred  in  the  Monument  Valley  Park  in  1913. 

Pq>ilo  fiMcus  mesoleucus.       Canon  Towhee. 

Rare;  there  are  a  few  pairs  locally  distributed  along  the 
lower  edge  of  the  foothills.  A  specimen  in  the  Aiken  Collection 
was  taken  at  Red  Rock  Caiion,  April  13,  1878.  The  winter  of 
1907-8  one  or  two  were  constantly  seen  on  Camp  Creek,  not 
far  from  Colorado  City.  Usually  but  one  was  seen,  but  Aiken 
saw  two  January  29. 

Oreotpiza  cUonmu     Green-tailed  Towhee. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  about  May  1 ;  earliest 
date  April  27,  and  by  May  7th  the  species  is  here  in  full  force. 
It  appears  to  be  all  gone  by  October  1. 

This  species  is  most  numerous  in  migration,  probably 
comparatively  few  breed  below  7,000  feet.   A  pair  no  doubt 


574  G>LORADO  College  PublicatioM 

bred  in  Monument  Valley  Park  in  1913  as  they  were  seen 
constantly  about  a  certain  dense  thicket  during  May  and  into 
early  June,  and  July  27  one  was  seen  at  the  same  place.  At 
least  two  males  were  seen  courting  their  mates  in  the  park 
in  May  and  their  actions  are  interesting  and  differ  from  their 
ordinary  habits.  Instead  of  skulking  in  the  brush  and  dodg- 
ing out  of  sight  when  an  intruder  appears,  the  bird  perches 
in  a  tree,  spreads  its  tail  out  into  a  fan,  and  erects  the  feathers 
on  the  head  until  the  red  cap  makes  quite  a  respectable  little 
crest,  and  sings  its  love  song.  While  the  bird  is  thus  engaged 
one  can  approach  quite  closely.  **Its  call  note  is  pe-a-wee, 
rather  weak,  and  with  something  of  the  cat-like  mewing  tone 
of  the  Catbird.  Its  song  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  finches, 
resembling  the  thrushes  in  variety,  modulation  and  sweetness, 
but  lacking  in  volume."    C.  E.  A.,  ms.  notes. 

This  Towhee  wanders  to  considerable  elevations,  breeds 
to  9,000  feet,  perhaps  more.  Aiken  noted  it  at  the  Strickler 
Tunnel  and  Seven  Lakes,  July  9-10,  1899;  Warren  saw  it  at 
I-ake  Moraine  August  30,  1905. 

Zamelodia  melanocephala.     Black-headed  Grosbeak. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  about  May  10.  Are 
all  gone  by  September  1.  Found  commonly  in  thickets  along 
streams  in  the  foothills  and  along  the  valleys;  probably  does 
not  go  much  above  7,000  feet.  Breeds  early  in  June,  though 
nesting  may  continue  through  the  month.  Aiken  found  a  nest 
with  three  eggs  near  Colorado  Springs,  June  19,  1898,  and 
three  nests  near  completion  the  same  day.  Young  of  the  year 
are  common  by  August  first.  A  female  was  sitting  on  eggs  near 
Ivywild,  June  3,  1913. 

A  Black-headed  Brosbeak  kept  in  a  cage  for  8  years  by  a 
Mr.  Feets  of  Colorado  Springs  took  on  a  peculiar  plumage  in 
the  last  year.  Aiken  went  to  see  it  July  21,  1899  and  notes 
as  follows: 

"The  upper  parts  are  wholly  black.   Beneath  it  is  of  the 


Plate  XXI. 


rig.  39.  E.  R.  IV.,  Photo. 

Cuff  Swallows'  Nests. 
A  part  of  the  colony  shown  in  Fij?.  38. 


Plate  XXII. 


White-Rumped  Shrike. 
Garfield  County,  Colo. 


E.  R.  IV.,  Photo. 


Fig.  4T. 

White-Rumped  Shrike's  Nest. 

Elbert  County,  Colo. 


E.  R.  W.,  Photo. 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  575 

normal  autumnal  shade  of  brownish  red,  but  this  color  is  ob- 
scured or  hidden  by  sooty  black  tips  to  the  feathers.  The 
general  effect  is  that  of  a  black  bird."  The  bird  died  late  that 
autumn. 

Guiraca  caerulea  lazula.     Western  Blue  Grosbeak. 

Summer  resident;  not  common.   Arrives  about  June  1. 

There  are  comparatively  few  records  of  the  Blue  Grosbeak 
for  El  Paso  County ;  it  has  been  taken  or  observed  at  Colorado 
Springs,  Skinner's,  Fountain  and  Buttes  at  intervals  from 
1872  up  to  the  present  time,  and  the  dates  run  from  June  1 
to  August  13,  nearly  all  being  June  occurrences. 

Passerina  cyanea.     Indigo  Bunting. 

Rare;  but  one  record  for  the  County,  a  male  taken  by 
Aiken  May  8,  1872,  at  his  ranch  on  Turkey  Creek. 

Pasterina  amoeiuu     Lazuli  Bunting. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  about  the  first  week 
in  May ;  departs  in  August  and  September. 

This  beautiful  bird  is  quite  common  in  the  brush  along 
the  streams;  a  number  seem  to  spend  the  summer  in  Monu- 
ment Valley  Park,  where  one  day  three  of  the  brightly  clad 
males  were  seen  on  a  food  table.  Aiken  found,  June  19,  1898, 
in  rose  bushes  on  a  hillside  near  Bear  Creek  a  nest  of  this 
species  containing  3  eggs  and  one  Cowbird's  egg.  He  notes 
the  song  of  one  bird  heard  as  tsup,  tsup,  tsip,-tsiprtsip,  uttered 
in  loud  clear  tone  and  repeated  at  intervals  of  a  minute  or  so. 
The  vertical  range  of  this  bird  extends  but  little  if  any  above 
7,000  feet. 

Spiza  americana.     Dickcissel. 

There  is  a  single  specimen  of  this  bird  in  the  Aiken  Col- 
lection, a  male  taken  at  Broadmoor  Ranch,  August  29,  1897. 


576  CoLOKAoo  College  Pubucation 

Allen  says  that  in  1871  it  was  "Frequent  near  Colorado  City." 
This  statement  seems  rather  odd  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
above  mentioned  specimen  is  the  only  one  seen  or  taken  in 
El  Paso  County  since. 

Calamotpisa  melanocorys.     Lark  Bunting. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  usually  early  in  May, 
about  the  10th.  It  was  reported  by  Scheutze  April  10,  1910, 
and  by  Shaw  April  15,  1912.  Leaves  in  September. 

A  bird  of  the  plains  and  open  country,  nesting  on  the 
ground,  laying  4  or  5  unspotted  pale  blue  cgg^.  When  first 
arrived  they  are  in  flocks,  the  males  paying  active  court  to 
the  gentler  sex,  and  singing  continually.  In  western  Kansas 
Aiken  found  Lark  Buntings  very  numerous  and  the  notes  on 
their  habit  of  singing  on  the  wing  apply  so  well  to  them  in 
Colorado  they  may  well  be  quoted  here :  "The  males  are  sing- 
ing almost  incessantly  from  daylight  until  7  or  8  o'clock,  and 
frequently  throughout  the  day.  They  frequent  open  prairie 
without  brush,  but  prefer  cultivated  districts  where  there  is 
an  early  growth  of  weeds  and  grass.  The  male  mounts  into 
the  air  at  an  angle  of  about  60  degrees  to  the  height  of  15  or 
20  feet,  gives  two  or  three  broad  flaps  of  his  wings  as  he 
steadies,  and  then  floats  off  to  the  ground,  alighting  15 
or  20  yards  from  where  he  started,  and  singing  continuously,  in 
one  key  as  he  rises,  in  another  as  he  floats  downward.  Look- 
ing out  over  the  prairie  one  see  them  in  their  conspicuous 
black-and-white  dress  going  through  this  performance  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  discern. 

At  this  time  of  the  day  (morning)  females  are  not  seen 
being  probably  on  their  nests,  but  during  the  heat  of  the  day 
they  are  seen  feeding  along  the  road  or  making  short  low 
flights."  This  was  May  24,  1900.  He  found  full-fledged  young 
at  Ramah  July  15,  1897. 


The  Birds  op  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  577 

Pinmga  ludovidana.     Western  Tanager.     ''Louisiana  Tan- 
ager." 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  May  10-15,  Begins 
to  leave  early  in  September,  but  has  been  taken  as  late  as  the 
middle  of  October. 

The  Tanagers  arrive  from  the  south  in  small  flocks  of 
from  3  or  4  to  7  or  8,  and  in  migration  are  found  well  out 
on  the  plains.  While  the  majority  pass  on  a  good  number 
remain  to  breed.  They  are  largely  birds  of  the  foothills  and 
the  Divide,  probably  not  breeding  much  above  8,000  feet, 
though  Aiken  saw  one  in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  Peter's 
Dome,  8,700  feet,  July  4,  1907.  In  summer  they  are  con- 
fined almost  exclusively  to  the  pines.  Keyser  speaks  of  finding 
a  nest  in  a  pine  tree  at  the  entrance  of  Engelmann's  Canon 
near  Manitou.  While  often  seen  in  Monument  Valley  Park 
in  May  it  probably  does  not  breed  there,  not  having  been  ob- 
served in  the  summer  months.  Aiken  notes  the  call  as  clif-ic 
or  crif'ic,  uttered  at  intervals  of  one  or  two  seconds. 

Pinmga  erythromelas.     Scarlet  Tanager. 

Rare.  One  was  taken  at  Palmer  Lake,  May  17,  1902,  by 
W.  C.  Ferrill.  J.  A.  Jeancon  reported  seeing  a  considerable 
number  at  Palmer  Lake,  May  16  and  17,  1909,  during  a  severe 
snowstorm. 

Petrochelidon  Innifroiis  hmifrons.     Cliff  Swallow.       Eave 
Swallow. 

Summer  resident;  common.    Arrives  the  middle  of  May; 
leaves  the  last  of  August  or  early  in  September. 

This  species  reaches  a  high  altitude,  at  least  in  its  search 
for  insects,  for  it  has  been  observed  to  above  13,000  feet.  One 
of  our  most  common  swallows.  It  breeds  in  colonies  about  cliffs 
and  buildings,  on  the  latter  under  thp  eaves. 


57d  G)LORADo  College  Publication 

mfando  erythrogattra.     Barn  Swallow. 

Summer  resident;  not  numerous.  Usually  arrives  about 
May  1 ;  has  been  seen  as  early  as  April  20,  1899.  Departs  the 
last  of  August  or  early  in  September. 

Found  over  much  of  the  County,  but  not  nearly  as  common 
as  the  Cliff  or  Violet  Green  Swallows ;  perhaps  the  fourth  in 
abundance  of  our  swallows.  Like  the  others  it  wanders  above 
timberline  in  pursuit  of  insects. 

Iridoprocne  bkolor.     Tree  Swallow. 

Summer  resident ;  rare. 

Allen  noted  a  pair  nesting  in  June  on  West  Monument 
Creek.  One  of  the  rarest  of  our  swallows,  only  a  few  seen. 
Aiken  has  noted  a  breeding  colony  at  Divide  Station,  Teller 
County. 

Tachydnela  ihalasHna  lepida.     Violet-green  Swallow. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  about  May  1 ;  April 
23,  1899,  being  the  earliest  date.  Departs  about  September 
1.  Wetmore  took  two  at  Palmer  Lake  September  5,  1909. 

This  is  the  most  abundant  of  our  swallows;  it  seems  to 
breed  mostly  in  the  mountains  and  foothills,  nesting  in  hollow 
trees,  and  often  using  old  woodpecker's  holes.  Allen  noted  it 
breeding  in  holes  in  the  rocks  at  the  Garden  of  the  Gods  in 
1871,  and  the  birds  still  continue  to  breed  abundantly  there. 
Like  the  other  swallows  in  August  the  Violet-green  begins  to 
gather  in  flocks  preparatory  to  the  departure  for  winter  quar- 
ters. For  days  we  see  them  congregated  on  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  wires,  then  some  day  they  are  gone  and  not  seen 
again  until  the  next  spring. 

RqMuia  riparia.     Bank  Swallow.     Sand  Martin. 

Rare ;  Aiken  mentions  seeing  it  April  26,  1872.  There  are 
no  records  of  its  breeding  in  the  County. 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  570 

Stelgidopteryx  seirripeniiis.     Rough-winged  Swallow. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  May  10;  de- 
parts  with  the  other  species. 

This  species,  while  fairly  common,  is  somewhat  locally 
distributed  in  the  breeding  season,  owing  to  the  comparative 
lack  of  suitable  nesting  sites.  Full-fledged  young  of  the  year 
were  taken  along  Monument  Creek,  north  of  Roswell,  July 
23,  1899,  by  Aiken. 

Bombycilla  ganida.     Bohemian  Waxwing. 

Winter  visitor;  irregular;  not  seen  at  all  many  winters. 

The  first  note  we  have  of  this  species  is  January,  1872. 
when  Aiken  saw  a  flock  in  Barnes's  Canon,  near  Turkey  Creek, 
and  a  note  that  Carter  killed  one  on  Pike's  Peak  the  fall  of 
1871. 

There  are  specimens  in  the  Aiken  Collection  taken  on 
Cheyenne  Mountain,  January  and  February,  1880.  There  were 
some  around  the  winter  of  1910-11,  and  they  were  in  Colorado 
Springs,  February  26,  1911. 

Aiken  noted  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  in  1895,  that  in  the 
late  afternoon  the  Waxwings,  which  had  been  about  neglected 
orchards  near  the  town  feeding  on  the  apples  still  hanging 
to  the  trees,  began  to  fly  'in  flocks  up  the  canons  toward  the 
mountains,  evidently  going  to  their  roosting  places  in  the 
green  timber. 

Bombycilla  cedroniin.     Cedar  Waxwing. 

"Noticed  only  two  or  three  times  and  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  winter."  Aiken  List,  1872.  5  or  6  seen  on  Beaver  Creek 
by  Aiken,  October  17,  1872.  This  was  just  over  the  line  into 
Fremont  County.  Several  were  also  seen  by  him  just  south 
of  Colorado  Springs,  August  8,  1897. 


580  CoLOKADO  College  Publication 

Laniuft  borealis.     Northern  Shrike. 

Winter  visitor ;  common.  Earliest  date  of  arrival,  October 
17,  1874 ;  latest  spring  date,  April  9,  1899. 

When  one  speaks  of  the  Shrike  as  common  it  is  not  that 
they  are  so  numerous,  but  because,  though  individually  few, 
there  are  always  some  with  us  through  the  winter.  It  is 
usually  to  be  seen  perched  on  a  tree  or  post,  near  brush 
frequently  by  sparrows  or  j  uncos,  watching  for  a  chance  to 
get  a  meal.  No  doubt  the  bird  also  picks  up  a  few  mice,  and 
an  occasional  insect.  Aiken  shot  one  flying  with  a  large  field 
mouse  in  its  claws.  One  was  seen  in  Monument  Valley  Park 
one  November  day  tormenting  a  Magpie  much  as  a  Kingbird 
would.  The  Magpie  was  perched  in  a  tree  and  the  Shrike 
would  fly  at  it  and  make  it  move  to  another  place,  and  re- 
peated these  tactics  until  "Maggie"  got  disgusted  and  went 
away  altogether.  This  Shrike  was  about  the  park  from  October 
20  until  November  17,  1912.  A  male  was  seen  singing  in  the 
park  November  1,  1913. 

At  Ramah,  in  March,  1899,  Aiken  saw  this  Shrike  carry 
away  a  Horned  Lark  which  he  had  just  shot  and  killed.  The 
Shrike  pounced  upon  the  lark  and  seized  it  by  each  shoulder 
with  its  feet,  and  then  rose  into  the  air  and  flew  off  with  it 
against  an  exceedingly  strong  wind,  the  lark  being  held  so 
that  its  wings  were  outspread  beneath  the  body  of  its  captor, 
thus  helping  to  lift  or  support  itself  in  the  air. 

Lanfaift  ludovicianus  excnbitoridet.     White-rumped  Shrike. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Rather  irregular  in  arrival 
in  spring,  from  March  30  to  May  1,  probably  most  of  them 
come  from  the  middle  to  the  latter  part  of  April.  Most  of  them 
have  left  by  October  first,  but  a  few  linger  somewhat  later. 

Mostly  a  bird  of  the  plains  and  foothills,  but  at  times 
ranges  high  in  the  mountains.  Aiken  once  noted  it  above 
timberline  at  the  head  of  Tennessee  Gulch,  Lake  County. 


Thb  Buds  op  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  581 

This  Shrike  builds  a  bulky  nest  of  small  sticks,  lined 
with  wool  and  other  soft  material.  Aiken  found  two  nests  at 
Ramah  with  7  eggs  in  each,  June  4-7,  1898.  He  saw  old  birds 
feeding  young  with  grasshoppers  at  the  same  place,  July  15, 
1897,  at  which  time  30  adults  and  young  were  seen.  These 
birds  are  great  destroyers  of  grasshoppers  and  other  insects 
and  probably  do  not  kill  as  many  birds  as  the  larger  species, 
though  their  actions  and  habits  are  in  many  respects  the  same. 
Scheutze  reported  seeing  a  pure  albino  of  this  species  May  1, 
ISXH,  on  the  plains  east  of  Colorado  Springs.  A  Shrike  with 
black  crown  was  killed  and  mounted  by  the  same  party  about 
June  1,  1907,  but  before  it  had  been  critically  examined  it  was 
destroyed  by  a  cat. 

In  reference  to  the  black-headed  Shrike  Prof.  Wells  W. 
Cooke  writes: 

"There  are  about  six  species  of  shrikes  in  the  world 
which  have  a  black  crown,  but  they  are  all  African  species, 
and  since  they  are  non-migratory  the  only  way  one  of  them 
could  have  gotten  to  Colorado  would  be  as  an  escaped  cage 
bird.  So  far  as  I  know  there  is  no  European  species  of  shrike 
that  has  the  crown  black;  their  shrikes  are  closely  related  to 
ours." 

Vireotylva   gflva   twainsonL        Western    Warbling   Vireo. 
Swainson's  Vireo. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  May  15  to  25; 
departs  the  last  of  August  and  early  in  September. 

Breeds  on  the  plains  and  in  the  mountains ;  Aiken  noted 
it  near  St.  Peter's  Dome,  and  Keyser  at  Lake  Moraine.  Breeds 
in  the  trees  near  the  streams,  building  a  semi-pensile  nest  like 
other  vireos  on  the  lower  branches.  Aiken  found  a  nest  in 
Monument  Valley  Park  in  June,  1907. 


582  Colorado  College  Publicatiok 

Lanivireo  solitariot  caMoiL     Cassin's  Vireo. 

Rare;  one  taken  at  Palmer  Lake,  September  6,  1909,  by 
Alex.  Wetmore. 

Lanivireo  soUtarius  phmibeiis.     Plumbeous  Vireo. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  May  16;  de- 
parts early  in  September. 

Frequents  park-like  areas  with  scattered  pine,  from  the 
foothills  to  9,000  feet.  Aiken  noted  it  at  St.  Peter's  Dome 
July  4,  1907.  Common  on  the  Divide  and  along  the  foothills. 
On  Turkey  Creek  he  found  the  nests  in  small  second  growth 
pines,  some  as  low  as  four  feet  from  the  ground.  It  has  been 
found  breeding  on  Cheyenne  Creek  at  Ivywild. 

Mniolilla  varia.     Black  and  White  Warbler. 

A  single  specimen  of  this  warbler  was  taken  by  Aiken 
on  Turkey  Creek  in  the  autumn  of  1875,  the  only  record  for 
the  County. 

Prolonolaria  dtrea.     Prothonotary  Warbler. 

Rare;  but  one  record  for  the  County,  a  specimen  taken 
between  Palmer  Lake  and  Monument,  May  or  June,  1900,  by 
B.  G.  Voigt,  and  recorded  by  Felger,  Auk,  XXIV,  July,  1907. 
p.  342.  Aiken  has  visited  the  locality  indicated  and  found  an 
extensive  willow  thicket  flooded  by  beaver  dams,  producing 
quite  suitable  conditions  for  this  species. 

Vermivora  virginiae.     Virginia's  Warbler. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  in  May,  earliest  date 
May  2,  1872;  most  numerous  about  the  15th.  Departs  the  last 
of  August  and  early  in  September.  At  Palmer  Lake,  Septem- 
ber 6,  1909,  Wetmore  took  three  and  saw  others. 

A  bird  of  the  foothills,  ranging  in  the  breeding  season 
to  about  8,000  feet.    In  migration,  especially  in  spring,  it  is 


The  Birds  of  El   Paso  County,   Colorado  583 

abundant  along  the  valley  streams  in  the  trees  and  bushes. 
The  males  come  first,  but  their  mates  are  not  long  in  following, 
and  Aiken  took  a  mated  pair  May  21,  1898,  near  Colorado 
City.  It  is  a  characteristic  warbler  of  the  foothills,  and  perhaps 
the  most  abundant  of  this  group  of  birds  in  these  localities. 
The  first  nest  of  this  species  known  to  science  was  found  and 
described  by  Aiken.  This  was  sunk  in  the  ground  in  a  tuft 
of  bunch  grass  growing  in  a  clump  of  oak  brush,  with  the 
dead  grass  hanging  over  and  completely  concealing  the  nest, 
which  was  reached  through  a  small  round  hole  like  a  niouse 
hole  through  the  protecting  grass.  This  nest  contained  five 
fresh  eggs,  and  was  found  about  June  1,  1873.  The  species 
seems  to  nest  exclusively  about  the  oak  brush. 

Vermivora  celata  celata.     Orange-crowned  Warbler. 

Common  in  migration.  Arrives  the  very  last  of  April, 
having  been  observed  on  the  27th  and  28th  of  that  month  in 
different  years. 

This  warbler  is  common  about  the  trees  and  bushes  of  the 
valley  streams  and  in  the  foothills  during  the  first  half  of  May, 
and  is  one  of  the  very  earliest  of  the  warblers  to  arrive  in 
spring,  but  there  are  no  breeding  records  for  this  County. 
If  Oberholser's  subspecies  orestera  had  been  allowed  by  the 
A.  O.  U.  our  birds  would  belong  to  it,  being  intermediate  in 
characters  between  celata  and  lutescens. 

Vermivora  peregrina.     Tennessee  Warbler. 

Rare;  but  one  record  for  the  County,  a  juvenile  male 
taken  by  Aiken,  September  28,  1872.  Aiken  has  found  several 
near  Limon,  some  distance  easterly  from  our  limits,  and  it  is 
undoubtedly  a  regular  migrant  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Colorado. 

Compsothlypis  americana  usneae.   Northern  Parula  Warbler. 

Rare,  but  one  record  for  El  Paso  County,  a  male  taken  by 
Aiken,  May  11,  1872,  on  Turkey  Creek. 


5S4  Colorado  College  Publication 

June  14,  1897,  and  for  six  successive  days  after  that, 
Aiken  observed  in  the  top  of  tall  cottonwoods  at  his  home  in 
Colorado  Springs  in  the  early  morning  a  small  grayish-olive 
warbler,  with  a  conspicuous  white  band  on  the  wing,  which 
it  seems  must  have  been  a  Parula  Warbler.  It  was  seen  again 
July  7;  it  is  presumed  to  have  had  a  nest  in  the  neighborhood. 

Dendroica  estiva  «ttiv«.     Yellow  Warbler. 

Simimer  resident ;  common.  Begins  to  arrive  the  first  week 
in  May,  the  majority  coming  in  the  second  week.  Departs 
early  in  September. 

This  species  is  common  almost  everywhere  in  the  Coimty, 
at  least  where  there  is  any  sort  of  tree  or  brushy  growth,  and 
ranging  up  to  above  9,000  feet.  It  builds  its  nest  in  the  low 
bushes  and  thickets  along  the  streams.  Aiken  found  a  nest  with 
three  eggs  and  one  of  the  Cowbird  near  Bear  Creek,  June  17, 
1898.  June  3,  1913,  a  nest  with  4  eggs  was  found  near  Ivywild. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  common  summer  birds  in  Monument 
Valley  Park.  Many  of  our  breeding  birds  are  very  pale  and 
several  skins  submitted  to  Mr.  Brewster  were  pronounced 
by  him  to  be  "nearly  typical  sonorana." 

Dendroica  coronata.     Myrtle  Warbler. 

Migrant ;  not  common.  Arrives  about  May  1 ;  earliest 
date  April  17,  1907.  There  do  not  seem  to  be  any  autumn 
records. 

Dendroica  audobonL     Audubon's  Warbler. 

Summer  resident  in  the  mountains ;  common.  Arrives  the 
last  of  April  and  soon  becomes  abundant ;  the  earliest  record 
is  April  16,  1872.  Departs  the  last  of  September,  the  latest 
date  being  October  2,  1913. 

This  species  breeds  commonly  in  the  mountains  from  about 
8,000  feet  to  nearly  12,000  feet.  Minot  found  a  nest  of  the 
Audubon's  Warbler  at  Seven  Lakes,  June  24,  1880,  which  he 


The  Butds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  585 

describes  as  follows:  *']\xne  24,  [1880]  at  Seven  Lakes,  I  found 
four  eggs  almost  ready  to  be  hatched.  These  are  curiously 
like  a  common  type  of  the  Yellow  Warbler's,  being  greenish 
white,  marked,  chiefly  about  the  crown,  with  olive  brown 
and  neutral  tint  and  averaging  about  .70x.55  of  an  inch.  The 
nest,  composed  of  shreds  and  feathers,  was  built  in  a  dead 
bare  spruce,  about  twenty  feet  from  the  ground,  compressed 
between  the  trunk  and  a  piece  of  bark  that  was  attached  be- 
neath and  upheld  above,  where  a  bough  ran  through  a  knot- 
hole; so  compressed  that  the  hollow  measures  2j4xlj4  ^"d 
11-3  inches  deep.  Such  a  position  for  the  nest  is  not  unusual, 
for  I  more  than  once  saw  the  birds  about  dead  timber."    . 

Audubon's  Warblers  are  usually  common  in  the  trees  and 
bushes  along  the  streams  on  the  plains  and  in  the  foothills  in 
the  spring  from  their  first  arrival  until  the  middle  or  latter 
part  of  May.  A  late  valley  record  is  one  taken  June  5,  1904,  at 
Fountain,  by  Aiken.  On  the  whole  it  is  the  most  common 
warbler  we  have. 

Dendroica  ttriata.     Black-poll  Warbler. 

Migrant;  rare.  The  only  records  are  of  spring  birds. 
Allen  and  Brewster  noted  it  May  8  and  9,  1882,  at  Austin's 
Bluffs.  Aiken  took  one  May  18,  1872,  on  Turkey  Creek ;  May 
8,  1904,  at  Fountain;  June  1,  1907,  at  Skinner's. 

Minot,  1880,  recorded  it  as  "local  summer  resident  about 
Seven  Lakes."  This  record  is  open  to  question.  Minot  col- 
lected no  specimens,  and  the  locality  is  so  far  south  of  any 
other  known  breeding  station  of  the  species  that  the  record 
had  best  be  disregarded  until  substantiated  by  specimens 
actually  taken. 

Dendroica  nigrescens.     Black-throated  Gray  Warbler. 

Local  summer  resident.  Arrives  about  the  first  week  in 
May,  Aiken  having  taken  his  first  specimen  May  6,  1872. 

As  far  as  we  know  this  species  fs  confined  in  El  Paso 


586  Colorado  College  Publication 

County  to  the  pinon  and  cedar  region  in  the  southwest  corner, 
where  they  were  observed  all  through  the  summers  of  1872-73 

Seiturus  aArocapUlus.     Oven-bird. 

Rare ;  but  one  record  for  the  County,  a  female  with  ovaries 
well  developed  taken  by  Aiken  at  Ramih  June  5.  1898.  With 
one  exception  this  is  the  only  Colorado  record. 

Oporornis  tolmicL     MacGillivray's  Warbler. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  the  first  or  second 
week  in  May.    Departs  in  September. 

Breeds  along  creek  bottoms  from  the  lowest  edge  of  the 
foothills  and  in  the  mountains  up  to  above  9,000  feet.  Shaw 
found  it  common  in  Crystal  Park  at  8,500  feet.  It  is  common 
along  the  plains  streams  in  the  spring  migration,  and  Aiken 
found  it  at  Ramah,  June  6,  1898,  where  it  was  very  common 
as  a  migrant. 

Geothljrpis  trichas  ocddentalis.     Western  Yellow-throat. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  usually  the  first  week 
in  May ;  early  records  are  April  13,  1882,  and  April  17.  1907. 
Departs  in  August  and  early  September.  The  latest  date  is 
September  17,  1897. 

Frequents  the  neighborhood  of  streams  and  ponds  on  the 
plains  and  along  the  foothills,  rarely  going  above  8,000  feet, 
and  breeding  in  dairp  thickets  and  swampy  places.  Aiken  took 
a  female  near  Bear  Creek,  July  25,  1897,  which  had  an  egg 
in  the  ovary.  He  noted  a  pair  in  Manitou  Park,  8,500  feet, 
in  June,  1905. 

Icteria  virens  longicauda.     Long-tailed  Chat. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  the  first  week  in  May. 
Leaves  in  September ;  latest  date  September  8,  1897. 

Breeds  along  the  valley  streams  to  the  foothills,  but  does 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  S87 

not  penetrate  into  the  mountains.  A  shy  and  elusive  bird, 
though  its  song  is  continually  heard  in  the  early  summer 
months.  Olive  Thorne  Mjljer  mentions  finding  a  nest  with 
three  eggs  near  Camp  Harding,  on  Cheyenne  Creek ;  and  Aiken 
mentions  in  notes  young  hatched  June  25,  1872. 

Wibonia  pusilla  pileoUta.     Pileolated  Warbler. 

Summer  resident  in  the  mountains;  common.  Arrives 
about  May  14.  Leaves  in  September,  latest  date  October  13, 
1912. 

This  species  is  the  western  representative  of  the  Wilson's 
Warbler.  It  is  rather  common  during  the  spring  migration 
in  the  thickets  along  the  streams,  found  out  on  the  plains 
as  well  as  near  the  mountains,  remaining  until  the  last^  of  May, 
but  retires  to  the  mountains  to  breed,  and  sometimes  breeds 
in  the  Alpine  willows  above  timberline.  Minot  found  a  nest 
at  Seven  Lakes  which  he  describes  as  follows:  "Here,  June 
22,  [1880]  I  found  a  nest  five  fresh  eggs.  The  nest  was  sunken 
in  the  ground,  on  the  eastern  slope  or  border  of  the  swami>, 
at  the  end  of  a  partly  natural  archway  of  long  dry  grass,  open- 
ing to  the  southward,  beneath  the  low,  spreading  branch  of  a 
willow.  It  is  composed  of  loose  shreds,  with  a  nest  lining  of 
fine  stalks  and  a  few  hairs,  and  with  a  hollow  two  inches 
wide  and  scarcely  half  as  deep." 

Selophaga  ruticilla.     Redstart. 

Rare;  not  many  records.  Dates  of  arrival  are  May  17, 
1905;  May  14,  1898;  May  18,  1882;  May  21,  1872. 

Allen  saw  it  at  Colorado  City  in  1871 ;  he  was  there  early 
in  August.  Almost  all  the  birds  which  Aiken  has  taken  or  seen 
here  have  been  immature  males,  in  the  plumage  of  the  second 
year,  and  but  one  full  plumaged  male  has  been  taken.  There 
are  no  breeding  records  for  the  County. 


588  Colorado  College  Publication 

Anthus  mbescens.     Pipit. 

Summer  resident  at  high  elevations;  common.  Arrives 
on  the  plains  the  last  of  April  and  departs  the  last  of  September. 

The  Pipits  breed  mainly  above  timberline  on  the  open 
grassy  slopes,  placing  the  nest  in  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  often 
protected  by  a  tuft  of  grass.  They,  however,  in  some  instances 
breed  below  timberline  on  open  ground.  Aiken  observed  Pipits 
just  below  the  lowest  of  the  Seven  Lakes  in  Jime.  In  migra- 
tion this  species  often  occurs  on  the  plains  in  large  flocks. 

Cindus  mexkanas  unicolor.     Water  Ousel.     Dipper. 

Resident  on  the  streams  in  the  mountains ;  not  uncommon. 
In  winter  a  few  come  somewhat  lower  down  along  the  streams, 
outside  the  foothills. 

Water  Ousels  are  interesting  birds,  and  if  one  takes  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  the  species  apparently  numbers  but 
comparatively  few  individuals,  might  be  termed  common.  It 
prefers  the  rapid  mountain  streams  for  a  residence  and  only 
in  winter  does  it  come  out  of  the  foothills,  and  but  few  of  the 
birds  do  this,  most  of  them  stay  in  the  mountains  the  year 
round,  always  finging  a  little  open  water  even  in  the  coldest 
weather.  It  is  regularly  seen  in  winter  in  Ruxton  Creek  just 
below  Lake  Moraine,  at  10,000  feet.  One  December  after- 
noon I  was  there,  it  was  cold  and  windy  and  I  was  resting 
in  a  sheltered  place  close  to  the  creek,  which  had  much  fall 
at  that  place.  An  Ousel  came  to  a  rock  a  few  feet  away; 
the  bird  was  down  below  the  rushing  water  which  splashed  on 
it  continually,  and  the  rock  was  wet  and  slippery,  but  the 
Ousel  did  not  mind  a  bit.  Once  it  was  down  on  a  little  twig 
which  was  just  out  of  the  water  and  all  wet;  it  looked  like  a 
cold  place  to  me,  and  I  wondered  how  those  delicate  little  feet 
could  possibly  keep  from  freezing.  Then  the  bird  flew  upon 
the  wet  rock  again  and  began  to  sing,  and  after  singing 
a  little  there  went  to  another  rock  and  stood  there  bobbing  and 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  C6lorado  589 

singing  away.   (E.  R.  W.)   The  song  is  sweet  and  thrush-like, 
and  heard  under  such  conditions  it  sounds  especially  sweet. 

The  food  consists  mostly  of  aquatic  insects,  and  one  killed 
on  Fountain  Creek,  near  Colorado  City,  December  1,  1882, 
had  a  small  fish  in  its  stomach,  too  much  digested  to  be 
identified. 

The  nest  is  a  rounded  mass  of  the  green  moss  from  the 
rocks  along  the  stream,  placed  on  or  under  a  ledge  of  rock, 
often  beneath  a  waterfall,  and  always  near  the  water.  Keyser 
mentions  a  nest  with  two  young  near  Rainbow  Falls,  Ute 
Pass,  and  another  nest  found  farther  up  the  Pass.  A  nest  was 
also  found  in  South  Cheyenne  Canon,  near  the  lower  of  the 
Seven  Falls.  The  nest  under  Rainbow  Falls  was  occupied 
annually  for  many  years,  until  the  falls  were  destroyed  by  a 
cloudburst  which  washed  away  the  rocks  forming  them. 
Olive  Thome  Miller  saw  an  adult  in  South  Cheyenne  Canon 
feeding  a  young  bird  large  enough  to  be  out  of  the  nest. 

Near  Rainbow  Falls  Aiken  was  once  able  to  observe  closely 
an  Ousel  feeding  in  the  water.  He  says :  "As  I  walked  down 
the  Ute  Pass  road  I  looked  into  the  gorge  below  Rainbow 
Falls  and  saw  a  Water  Ousel  at  the  shore  of  the  stream  re- 
peatedly dip  into  the  water  and  return  to  rest  on  a  certain 
stone  at  the  water's  edge.  Its  actions^ere  unusual;  I  had 
noticed  nothing  like  it  before  and  was  curious  to  observe  more 
closely.  So  taking  advantage  of  the  moments  when  th^  bird 
was  beneath  the  water  I  moved  toward  the  spot  and  when 
it  came  to  the  surface  I  stood  motionless.  In  this  way  I  reached 
the  stream  and  stood  within  two  feet  of  the  Ousel's  perch 
without  alarming  him.  He  merely  cocked  his  head  and  looked 
up  curiously  but  gave  me  no  further  attention. 

The  stream  at  this  place  dashes  noisily  over  rocks  and 
boulders  but  on  this  side  was  a  quiet  pool.  This  was  three 
feet  or  more  across  and  seven  or  eight  inches  deep  with  a 
clean  sandy  bottom  which  was  distinctly  seen  through  the 
clear  water,  as  were  also  circling  fragments  of  drift  brought 


S90  Colorado  College  Publication 

in  by  an  eddy  from  the  stream.  Wlien  the  Ousel  was  ready 
to  go  into  the  water  it  dove  in  head  first  and  lit  on  the  bottom 
of  the  pool  where  it  walked  or  ran  about  as  if  on  dry 
ground.  It  chased  and  seized  in  its  beak  certain  small  particles 
of  the  drift  that  were  perhaps  water  insects  or  insect  larvae. 
The  time  spent  under  water  was  some  seconds,  perhaps  a 
minute.  When  he  was  ready  to  come  out  for  breath  he  walked 
over  to  his  resting  place,  popped  to  the  surface  of  the  water 
like  a  bit  of  cork  and  stepped  out  perfectly  dry  onto  the  stone. 

What  a  remarkable  provision  of  Nature  is  this  which 
enables  a  little  song  bird  to  float  without  effort  upon  the  water's 
surface,  or  to  sink  at  will  and  walk  securely  along  the  bottom 
beneath !  The  explanation,  however,  is  not  difficult.  Its  body 
plumage  is  long,  dense,  and  impervious  to  water.  Under  or- 
dinary circumstances,  and  particularly  if  floating,  the  feathers 
stand  out  loosely  from  the  body  and  the  outward  bulk  of  the 
bird  is  great  in  proportion  to  its  weight.  Its  bulk  is  lighter 
than  the  same  bulk  of  water  and  it  floats.  But  if  its  plumage 
.  and  wings  are  tightly  pressed  against  the  body  excluding  all 
air,  the  bulk  is  reduced  so  that  its  weight  is  greater  than  the 
same  bulk  of  water  and  the  bird  sinks." 

Oreotcoptes  montanus.     Sage  Thrasher.     Mountain  Mock- 
ingbird. 

Migrant;  not  common.  Arrives  early  in  April,  from  the 
7th  to  the  15th.  There  are  no  breeding  records.  The  only 
autumn  date  we  have,  if  it  can  be  called  such,  is  one  seen  by 
Aiken  six  miles  north  of  Colorado  Springs,  July  25,  1898. 

This  bird  is  not  at  all  common  in  El  Paso  County,  and  is 
only  seen  during  migration.  In  the  breeding  season  it  inhabits 
the  greasewood  and  sage  brush  plains,  of  which  there  are 
none  in  the  County.  An  occasional  bird  may  be  seen  at  the 
time  of  the  spring  snowstorms  when  they  are  driven  from 
the  mountains. 


Plate  XXIII 


Long-Tailed  Chickadee. 
Bison   Reservoir,  Teller  County,  Colo. 


R.  W..  Photo. 


I'ig.  43'  E'  R'  ^y-s  Photo. 

Mountain  Chickadee. 
Bison   Reservoir,  Teller  County,  Colo. 


Plate  XXTV. 


Robins  and  Nest. 
Colorado  Springs. 


It.  ii.   a    ,   i'Httltf. 


^K(J-  45- 

Young  Mointain  Bia"ebtrd. 

North   Park.   Colo. 


E.  R.  U\,  Photo. 


Thb  BntDS  OF  El  Paso  County,  G)loka])o  591 

Mimas  polyglottot  leucopterns.     Western  Mockingbird. 

Summer  resident;  locally  distributed.  Arrives  the  first 
week  in  May;  earliest  date  April  26,  1882,  Allen  and  Brewster. 

Mockingbirds  are  locally  common  in  El  Paso  County ;  in 
the  Fountain  Valley,  toward  the  Pueblo  County  line,  there 
are  many  and  Aiken  found  them  rather  abundant  at  Ramah, 
where,  June  4-7,  1898,  he  found  two  nests  and  eggs.  Speaking 
of  their  habits,  his  note  book  says :  "The  female  bird  is  retiring 
and  noticeably  browner.  The  male  bird,  on  the  contrary,  is 
much  in  evidence,  taking  extended  flights  across  the  open 
country  and  from  one  part  of  a  grove  to  another,  conspicuous 
from  his  brighter  color  and  large  white  wing  patches." 

A  year  previous  to  this  he  was  told  of  a  pair  coming 
to  a  ranch  on  the  open  prairie  east  of  Colorado  Springs.  The 
ranchman  set  some  branches  from  pine  trees  in  the  ground  and 
the  birds  nested  in  one  of  these.  When  the  five  young  were 
well  grown  they  were  put  in  a  cage  and  were  fed  there  by 
the  mother  until  they  could  take  care  of  themselves.  One 
escaped  from  the  cage  and  was  followed  off  by  the  male  bird, 
but  the  female  remained  to  feed  the  caged  birds. 

The  species  is  rare  at  Colorado  Springs;  instances  are 
known,  however,  of  its  breeding  in  the  city.  In  1904  a  pair  of 
Mockingbirds  nested  in  a  tree  beside  the  street  on  Wood 
Avenue.  Though  the  tree  was  but  a  small  one  its  foliage  was 
so  dense  that  the  nest  could  hardly  be  seen,  and  would  be  un- 
noticed by  the  casual  passerby.  The  bird  was  seen  on  the  nest 
June  17.  I  went  away  a  day  or  two  after  and  was  absent  most 
of  the  summer,  but  on  my  return  was  told  that  a  brood  had 
been  successfully  raised.  The  last  of  May  and  early  part  of 
June  the  male  bird  was  continually  singing,  being  heard  even 
in  the  night.  Not  another  Mockingbird  was  seen  in  that 
vicinity  until  May  7,  1913,  when  a  male  was  seen,  but  only  on 
that  one  occasion.  A  few  other  cases  have  been  known  of  its 
breeding  in  the  city,  and  for  two  or  more  years  in  succession 
at  the  respective  localities. 


592  Colorado  College  Publication 

Dumetella  caroUnensis.     Catbird. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  from  the  7th  to'  the 
14th  of  May.  Leaves  in  September,  the  16th  being  the  latest 
sure  date,  though  one  was  thought  to  have  been  seen  October 
2,  1913. 

The  Catbird  is  common  in  the  thickets  along  the  streams, 
but  does  not  penetrate  far  into  the  foothills  and  mountains. 
There  are  many  in  Monument  Valley  Park.  An  occasion  of 
special  abundance  was  June  1,  1907,  when  Aiken  estimated 
that  he  saw  100  at  the  Skinner  Ranch. 

Toxottoma  rufom.     Brown  Thrasher. 

Summer  resident;  not  common.  Arrives  about  the  first 
week  in  May,  from  the  4th  to  the  14th. 

The  Thrasher  is  found  along  the  valley  streams  and 
gulches  but  does  not  go  far  into  the  mountains.  It  is  of  rather 
letiring  habits  and  so  escapes  observation,  but  at  best  it  is 
not  at  all  common  in  El  Paso  County.  Aiken  noted  a  brood 
of  young  at  Ramah,  July  15,  1897. 

Toxottoma  bendireL     Bendire's  Thrasher. 

But  one  record  for  the  County,  and  possibly  for  the 
State,  a  specimen  taken  at  Austin's  Bluflfs,  May  8,  1882,  by 
Allen  and  Brewster. 

Salpinctes  obsoletut  obsoletus.     Rock  Wren. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  about  April  16-20. 
but  does  not  become  abundant  until  several  days  after.  Latest 
autumn  date,  September  23,  1907. 

Rock  Wrens  are  common  about  rocky  places,  and  are  also 
found  in  the  arroyos  with  steep  banks  on  the  plains.  They 
leach  an  altitude  in  the  mountains  of  some  9,000  feet.  They 
breed  wherever  found,  in  holes  in  the  banks  or  in  crevices  in 
the  rocks.  The  song  of  the  Rock  Wren  is  singularly  like  that 


The  BntDS  of  El  Paso  County,  G)lorado  593 

of  the  Mockingbird ;  as  might  be  supposed  it  lacks  the  power 
and  volume  of  the  larger  bird's  song. 

Catherpes  mexicaniis  conspersus.     Canon  Wren. 

Resident ;  not  common. 

The  Canon  Wren  is  unquestionably  a  resident  through  the 
year  in  El  Paso  County,  for  it  has  been  found  in  various 
months  during  the  winter,  and  breeding  in  the  summer. 

Minot,  June  8,  1880,  found  a  nest  near  Manitou,  which  he 
described  as  follows:  "The  nest  was  in  the  roof  of  a  cave, 
about  ten  feet  from  the  ground,  with  an  opening  so  narrow, 
vertically,  that  I  could  neither  look  in  nor  introduce  my  hand. 
Fortunately,  however,  the  rock  was  so  soft  that  I  easily  re- 
moved the  bottom  slab  on  which  the  nest  rested.  This,  as 
one  looks  down  upon  it,  suggests  the  Eastern  Wood  Peewee's. 
It  is  composed  of  twigs,  stalks,  and  bits  of  leaves,  surrounded 
by  a  few  loose  sticks,  and  thickly  felted  with,  down  silk,  and 
a  few  feathers.  The  hollow  is  2^  inches  long,  and  scarcely 
half  as  deep.  The  eggs  measured  about  .70x.50  of  an  inch, 
and  are  crystal  white  (rosy  when  fresh),  sparsely  speckled 
and  spotted,  chiefly  about  the  crown,  with  medium  dull  brown." 

In  the  summer  of  1912  Lloyd  Shaw  found  a  pair  nesting 
in  the  steep  rocks  at  the  Gateway  of  Crystal  Park.  One  of 
the  birds  was  seen  July  19  carrying  food  to  the  young.  The 
nest  was  located  under  an  overhanging  rock  in  the  cliff  and 
was  inaccessible.  Allen  found  the  species  in  the  Garden 
of  the  Gods  in  1871,  and  he  and  Brewster  found  it  there  in 
1882,  also  in  North  Cheyenne  Canon.  Olive  Thorne  Miller 
found  it  in  South  Cheyenne  Cafion,  where  it  apparently  had 
a  nest  in  or  near  the  Pillars  or  Hercules. 

The  Canon  Wren  has  a  habit  of  creeping  around  among 
the  rocks  is  such  a  fashion  that  when  one  gets  just  a  mere 
glimpse  of  the  creature  he  is  just  as  apt  to  think  it  is  a  chip- 
munk as  a  bird. 


594  CoLoftADo  College  Publicatioii 

ThryooMuies  bewidd  bdrdL     Baird's  Wren. 

But  one  record  from  El  Paso  County,  a  specimen  taken  by 
Aiken  at  Colorado  Springs,  May  1,  1879. 

TroflodytM  aSdon  parkmanL    Western  House  Wren. 

Summer  resident;  common.  Arrives  the  first  week  in 
Mi»y,  earliest  date  April  24,  1898.  Leaves  in  September,  the 
la^fst  date  being  September  25,  1907. 

Probably  found  all  over  the  County,  ranging  up  to  timbcr- 
hne,  and  abundant  wherever  found,  and  breeding  everywhere. 
Aiken  found  a  nest  with  7  fresh  ^;gs  in  a  cavity  in  a  rock 
ledge  near  Palmer  Lake,  June  26,  1907.  Their  favorite  nest- 
ing, places  are  natural  cavities  in  trees  or  old  woodpeckers' 
holes,  but  they  will  use  almost  any  hollow  they  can  find. 

Telmatodytet  palottm  pksiiit.     Western  Marsh  Wren. 

Summer  resident;  not  common. 

Arrives  in  April.  A  Marsh  Wren  seen  by  Aiken  near 
Skinner's  April  16,  1899,  was  probably  of  this  form.  One  was 
shot  not  far  from  the  same  locality  by  Allen  and  Brewster 
April  22,  1882.  The  scarcity  of  records  is  due  to  the  scarcity 
of  suitable  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  Colorado  Springs.  That  it 
breeds  in  the  County  is  only  presumptive ;  there  are  no  records. 

Telmalodytes  paluttris  Oiaciis.     Prairie  Marsh  Wren. 

Winter  resident ;  moderately  common  in  suitable  localities. 
Aiken  saw  several  at  Skinner's,  and  took  one,  January  15,  1908, 
which  was  examined  by  Oberholser  and  referred  to  this  sub- 
species. Probably  all  winter  residents  are  visitors  from  the 
north  and  should  be  so  classed. 

Certliia  familiaris  montanus.     Rocky  Mountain  Creeper. 
Resident  in  the  mountains;  not  common. 
The  Brown  Creeper  is  not  at  all  common  in  El  Paso 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso   County,   G>lorado  595 

County  and  it  is  rather  unusual  to  run  across  one.  It  seems  to 
be  nearly  confined  to  the  mountains  and  foothills,  but  it  has 
occasionally  been  seen  within  the  city  limits  of  Colorado 
Springs.  When  seen  it  is  usually  in  company  with  the  chicka- 
dees and  nuthatches.  It  ranges  as  high  as  there  is  timber ;  was 
noted  at  Lake  Moraine  December  11,  1906. 

SHta  carolinensis  nekonL     Rocky  Mountain  Nuthatch. 

Resident  in  the  mountains ;  common. 

This  representative  of  the  White-breasted  Nuthatch  is 
frequently  seen  in  the  foothills  and  mountains,  and  is  also 
common  on  the  Divide.  In  winter  it  drifts  somewhat  f.irther 
out  to  the  bluffs,  and  has  also  been  seen  in  Colorado  Springs. 
A  pair  seen  at  Buttes  May  12-20,  1908,  by  Aiken,  were 
t^iought  to  be  breeding. 

Silta  canadensis.     Red-breasted  Nuthatch. 

Resident  in  the  moimtains ;  not  common. 

This  is  by  far  the  least  common  of  our  three  species  of 
nuthatch,  and  sometimes  a  year  or  more  goes  by  without  seeing 
one,  and  again  it  may  be  seen  rather  frequently.  It  seems  to  be 
mainly  a  mountain  bird,  but  Aiken  noted  it  at  Fountain  June 
5,  1904,  and  May  7,  1905 ;  he  also  saw  it  at  St.  Peter's  Dome 
July  4, 1907. 

Silta  pygmsNu     Pygmy  Nuthatch. 

Resident;  common. 

This  little  fellow  is  the  most  abundant  of  our  nuthatches, 
seen  in  flocks  when  the  others  are  seen  singly.  Like  the  others 
it  is  essentially  a  mountain  bird,  but  in  the  winter  wanders 
somewhat  away  from  the  foothills.  It  is  found  on  the  Divide 
and  noted  at  Palmer  Lake  and  Eastonville;  also  seen  at 
Austin's  Bluffs  in  winter.  It  frequents  evergreen  trees  almost 
exclusively  and  is  but  rarely  found  in  other  kinds,  and  then 


596  Colorado  College  Publication 

the  evergreen  are  usually  not  far  away.  While  it  is  often  found 
associated  with  Chickadees  and  the  other  nuthatches  occa- 
sionally good-sized  flocks  which  seem  to  consist  solely  of  this 
species  are  seen. 

Baeolophus  inomatut  griteus.     Gray  Titmouse. 

Found  only  in  the  cedar  and  pifion  region  in  the  extreme 
southwestern  portion  of  the  County,  where  it  is  resident,  and 
was  found  hy  Aiken  to  be  common  in  winter  but  scarce 
in  summer.  It  was  less  common  in  December  and  January  than 
in  November  and  February,  in  which  months  they  were  most 
common.  In  winter  they  wander  about  in  small  flocks  but  in 
spring  separate  into  pairs. 

Penthestes  atricapillus  teptentrionalis.     Long-tailed  Chicka- 
dee. 

Resident ;  common. 

This  western  subspecies  of  the  common  Chickadee  of  the 
Kast  is  found  practically  everywhere  there  are  trees,  except 
that  possibly  it  does  not  range  as  high  in  the  mountains  as  the 
Mountain  Chickadee,  though  it  has  been  seen  at  the  Bison 
Reservoir,  Teller  County,  10,400  feet,  but  possibly  an  abundant 
food  supply  about  a  house  might  have  had  something  to  do 
with  its  presence  there.  It  frequents  willows  and  other 
deciduous  trees.  It  nests  in  the  valleys  as  well  as  in  the  hills 
and  Aiken's  notes  contain  the  following  description  of  a  nest 
he  found  on  the  Fountain  below  Colorado  Springs,  May  6. 
1899:  "I  saw  one  of  the  birds  fly  and  disappear  near  a  stump 
with  something  in  its  mouth.  At  first  I  discovered  no  hole  but 
soon  noticed  a  small  one  at  the  edge  just  inside  the  bark. 
Breaking  away  part  of  the  bark  I  found  a  considerable 
excavation,  about  10  inches  deep,  with  the  bird  sitting  closely 
at  the  bottom.  A  twig  that  I  reached  down  to  her  she  seized 
in  her  beak  and  allowed  herself  to  be  lifted  by  it  nearly  to  the 
top.    I  was  obliged  to  break  away  more  bark  to  reach  the 


The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  597 

bird,  took  her  in  hand  and  then  liberated  her.  The  nest  was 
but  half  finished,  only  a  mass  of  inner  bark  strips,  So  I 
plastered  the  pieces  of  bark  in  place  and  left  it/' 

While  each  of  our  species  of  chickadees  is  found  in  flocks 
associated  with  the  nuthatches  and  an  occasional  creeper,  yet 
they  seem  to  prefer  not  to  have  much  to  do  with  each  other  and 
are  not  very  often  found  in  the  same  flock,  though  they  do 
sometimes  thus  associate.  At  the  Bison  Reservoir  above  men- 
tioned both  species  came  about  the  house  for  the  scraps 
thrown  out. 

Penthestes  gambelL     Mountain  Chickadee. 

Resident  in  the  mountains ;  common. 

This  species,  easily  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by 
the  white  stripe  on  the  side  of  the  head,  seems  equally  common 
with  it,  but  is  confined  to  the  mountains  in  the  breeding  season, 
though  wandering  just  as  much  in  winter.  It  has  been  known 
to  nest  at  least  as  high  as  the  Strickler  Tunnel,  11,500  feet. 
Warren  saw  this  species  at  Lake  Moraine  in  January,  March. 
September,  and  December,  but  did  not  see  the  other  species 
at  that  place  on  any  of  his  visits.  Keyser  saw  a  pair  feeding 
young  in  the  nest  near  the  Half  Way  House.  It  prefers  to 
frequent  spruces  and  other  coniferous  trees. 

Ptaltripanis  plumbeus.     Lead-colored  Bush-Tit. 

Resident ;  locally  common. 

Like  the  Gray  Titmouse  this  species  is  found  about  the 
pifions  and  cedars,  which  constitute  its  breeding  range,  but 
unlike  the  other  it  wanders  away  from  those  trees  at  times 
and  is  occasionally  found  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  foot- 
hills, and  has  been  known  on  at  least  one  occasion  to  come 
about  houses  at  the  edge  of  Monument  Valley  Park.  Warren 
found  a  flock  of  40  or  50  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Garden 
of  the  Gods  in  January,  1910.   Aiken  took  a  nest  with  five 


596  COLOKADO  CotXEGE  PUBLICATION 

eggs  at  Red  Creek  Canon,  May  10,  1876.    C.  N.  Holden  took 
young  birds  on  Turkey  Creek  about  July  12,  1872. 

Regains  satrapa  oUvmoeot.    Western  Golden-crowned  King- 
let. 

Winter  resident ;  not  common. 

This  species  is  found  mainly  in  the  mountains  and  foot- 
hills, and  at  the  bluffs.  We  have  no  records  of  it  along  the 
valley  streams.  It  ranges  high  in  the  mountains,  Warren  find- 
ing it  at  Lake  Moraine  in  January,  and  Aiken  found  a  small 
flock  at  Clyde,  Teller  County,  January  12,  1908.  It  is  some- 
times found  in  flocks  consisting  of  the  one  species,  but  is  more 
often  in  company  with  chickadees  and  nuthatches. 

Regulus  calendula  calendula.     Ruby-crowned  Kinglet. 

Summer  resident  in  the  mountains;  not  uncommon.  A 
spring  and  autumn  migrant  in  the  valley  and  on  the  plains, 
arriving  early  in  April,  and  not  all  leaving  until  November. 

This  Kinglet  breeds  in  the  mountains  from  about  9,000 
feet  up,  having  been  seen  by  various  observers  in  the  summer 
season,  though  no  one  has  yet  taken  its  nest  in  this  region. 
The  bird  has  something  of  a  reputation  as  a  songster,  and  the 
volume  of  the  song  is  remarkable  when  the  small  size  of  the 
singer  is  considered.  Aiken  made  the  following  note  on  its 
song  at  Divide,  Teller  County:  "A  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet 
v/as  singing  vigorously  from  a  large  spruce  tree.  The  song 
as  I  took  it  down  after  carefully  listening  is  Tu-u-u-u-u-u 
Widdie  Widdie  Widdie  Widdie  IViddie  Widdie  IViddie.  The 
whole  uttered  rapidly  and  in  monotonous  key  except  the  last 
'Widdie'  which  had  rising  inflection." 

Polioptila  caerulea  obtcura*     Western  Gnatcatcher. 

Rare;  but  few  records  for  the  County.  "Seen  May  6,  and 
killed  May  7,  1872,  on  Turkey  Creek.    Rather  common  for  a 


The  Biw)s  of  El   Paso  County,  Colorado  599 

few  days."  Aiken,  in  note  book.  One  take  by  Aiken  north  of 
Roswell,  May  22,  1904,  is  the  only  record  for  El  Paso  County 
besides  the  preceding.  It  has  never  been  seen  in  the  breed- 
ing season  in  the  County  though  the  nest  was  taken  by  Nash 
at  Pueblo. 

Myadestes  towntenA.     Townsend's  Solitaire. 

Resident;  common. 

The  Solitaire  is  a  breeder  in  the  mountains  at  the  higher 
altitudes,  coming  lower  in  winter  and  spreading  all  over  the 
region.  A  solitary  bird  in  summer,  but  sometimes  they  con- 
gregate in  flocks  of  20  or  more  in  warm,  sheltered  canons  and 
gulches  in  winter.  Early  in  1911  Solitaires  were  seen  in  the 
residence  portion  of  Colorado  Springs  several  times,  which  is 
something  unusual. 

Solitaires  descend  from  the  mountains  about  September 
first,  and  soon  become  quite  plentiful  in  the  foothills.  As  the 
season  advances  they  seek  the  warmer  sheltered  nooks  and 
remain  there  through  the  winter,  often  in  small  scattered 
flocks.  Aiken  first  found  them  in  Barnes's  Canon,  November 
1,  1871,  frequenting  the  cedars  and  pinons  of  the  hillside. 
Their  flight  and  habit  of  alighting  on  the  topmost  twigs  likened 
them  to  bluebirds.  They  were  feeding  mostly  on  cedar  ber- 
ries, but  on  bright  warm  days  were  often  noticed  on  the 
ground  beneath  a  bush  or  tree  in  search  of  insect  food.  At 
this  season  they  seemed  in  full  song  and  their  notes  were 
varied  and  melodious  and  akin  to  such  famous  songsters 
as  the  Wood  Thrush,  Meadowlark  and  Oriole.  Later  they 
v^ere  less  musical  and  late  in  April  when  they  had  separated 
m  pairs  singing  had  ceased.  At  about  this  date,  unless  de- 
tained by  storms,  they  ascend  the  mountains  where  parent 
birds  with  flying  young  were  seen  late  in  July. 


600  Cof.oRADo  College  Publication 

Hylocichla  fuscescent  talicicoU.     Willow  Thrush. 

Migrant;  not  common.  Arrives  May  15.  We  have  no 
autumn  records. 

This  is  the  least  common  of  our  thrushes  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Alaska  Hermit  Thrush.  Henshavv,  Allen  and 
Keyser  report  it  from  the  lower  mountains,  8,000-8,500  feet. 

Hylocichla  ustulata  swainsonL     Olive-backed  Thrush. 

Migrant;  common.  Arrives  May  9-15,  and  is  abundant 
the  rest  of  the  month. 

At  Calhan  and  Ramah,  June  4-7,  1898,  Aiken  found  this 
species  very  numerous,  estimating  that  over  100  individuals 
were  seen. 

Hylocichla  guttata  guttata.     Alaska  Hermit  Thrush. 

Migrant ;  not  common.  Usually  arrives  the  first  week  in 
May,  earliest  date  April  20,  1907,  at  Red  Rock  Canon. 

Migrates  through  the  lower  foothills  and  on  the  plains; 
found  by  Aiken  along  Fountain  Creek  from  the  town  of  Foun- 
tain north,  in  the  vicinity  of  Colorado  City,  and  also  taken  at 
Linion,  Lincoln  County.  This  is  a  bird  of  somewhat  different 
habits  from  our  other  thrushes,  keeping  more  on  the  ground, 
and  in  its  flights  not  rising  so  high  in  the  air;  also  much  less 
shy  and  more  approachable. 

Hylocichla  guttata  auduboni.     Audubon's  Hermit  Thrush. 

Summer  resident  in  the  mountains ;  common.  Arrives 
early  in  May,  earliest  date  April  13.  1882,  Allen  and  Brews- 
ter.   A  common  migrant  along  the  foothills  and  on  the  plains. 

This  species  breeds  in  the  mountains  from  8,500  feet  up. 
for  Shaw  found  it  in  Crystal  Park  at  that  altitude  in  summer 
and  notes  that  their  songs  were  very  common  in  the  evening. 
Keyser  found  a  nest  with  4  eggs  near  Lake  Moraine,  in  the 
lower  limbs  of  a  spruce.     Aiken*s  notes  contain  a  reference 


The  Birds  of   El   Paso  County,  Colorado  601 

to  a  nest  found  on  Mount  Manitou,  July  6,  1872,  containing 
4  young;  this  was  in  a  tree  2^  feet  from  the  ground.  War- 
ren observed  it  at  Lake  Moraine,  September  2,  1905.  Aiken 
noted  it  July  9  and  10,  1899,  as  common  about  Strickler  Tun- 
nel and  at  intervals  down  to  the  Half-Way  House.  His  notes 
say :  "Song  not  as  musical  close  to  as  at  a  little  distance.  I  am 
reminded  by  the  song  of  a  musician,  idly  striking  chords  on  a 
harp  and  listening  after  each  chord  for  the  echoes  to  die  away." 

Planesticus  migralorius  propinquus.     Western  Robin. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  A  few  frequently  spend  the 
winter.  The  first  spring  arrivals  sometimes  come  as  early  as 
February  25,  but  they  do  not  become  common  until  some  time 
in  March,  usually  the  first  or  second  week.  The  majority  leave 
in  October. 

As  stated  above  a  few  Robins  frequently  winter  with  us. 
The  winter  of  1904-5  there  seemed  to  be  a  good  many  about 
Colorado  Springs,  and  they  were  often  noted  in  the  town 
from  November  through  the  winter  months  and  until  the 
spring  migrants  came  to  swell  their  numbers.  One  was  seen 
January  20,  1905,  in  a  sheltered  gulch  in  the  foothills  at  about 
7,000  feet.  They  do  not  seem  to  be  afraid  of  the  cold  for  they 
have  been  seen  in  zero  weather.  Aiken  saw  Robins  at  the 
Strickler  Tunnel,  11,500  feet,  April  22-23,  1899,  and  was  told 
they  had  just  arrived. 

This  species  is  found  all  over  the  County,  and  as  just 
stated,  ranges  high  into  the  mountains,  and  breeds  wherever 
found.  About  Colorado  Springs  they  pair  in  April  and  build 
immediately.  Monument  Valley  Park  had  many  nests  in  1913, 
10  being  discovered  in  a  small  area;  some  of  the  young  had 
left  the  nest  by  June  1.  A  young  bird  which  was  banded  in 
a  nest  May  27,  1913,  flew  through  glass  in  a  greenhouse  of 
the  Pikes  Peak  Floral  Co.,  June  23,  1913,  and  was  killed. 


602  Colorado  College  Publication 

SiaUa  sialis  fialb.     Bluebird. 

Rare;  but  one  record  for  the  County,  and  this  was  for 
many  years  the  only  record  for  Colorado.  July  15,  1872,  when 
C.  N.  Holden,  Jr.,  was  visiting  Aiken  at  the  Turkey  Creek 
ranch,  he  took  one  specimen,  an  adult  male. 

SiaUa  mencuia  bairdL     Chestnut-backed  Bluebird. 


Summer  resident ;  common.    Arrives  the  middle  of  March, 
leaves  in  October. 

While  this  species  is  common  almost  everywhere  in  migra- 
tion, though  probably  never  ranging  quite  as  high  as  the  next 
species,  it  breeds  mainly  in  the  yellow  pine  region  between 
7,000  and  8,000  feet,  where  it  outnumbers  the  Mountain  Blue- 
bird. July  17,  1899,  on  the  Divide  north  of  Peyton,  Aiken  saw 
20  Chestnut-backed  to  5  of  the  Mountain  Bluebirds,  and  it  i^ 
probably  more  numerous  on  the  Divide  than  anywhere  else  in 
the  County.  The  two  species  are  sometimes  found  in  mixed 
flocks  in  the  spring,  especially  when  the  weather  is  stormy. 
The  appearance  on  the  plains  of  this  Bluebird  during  the  sprinj^ 
migration  is  but  for  a  short  time,  as  it  goes  into  the  mountains 
and  onto  the  Divide  by  the  first  of  April,  but  the  storms  which 
usually  come  early  in  May  drive  the  birds  down  in  small  flocks 
which  remain  until  the  weather  clears  and  the  snow  melts. 
At  these  times  the  birds  often  become  much  emaciated  and 
some  die  from  starvation,  being  unable  to  obtain  food  while 
the  snow  is  on  the  ground. 

Aiken  found  a  nest  on  Turkey  Creek,  May  27,  1872,  in  a 
woodpecker's  hole,  with  young  half  fledged. 

Sialia  cumicoides.     Mountain  Bluebird. 

Summer  resident ;  common.  Arrives  from  the  first  to  the 
middle  of  March.    The  majority  leave  in  October. 

There  are  various  December  and  January  records,  as  well 
as  February.    It  had  just  arrived  at  the  Strickler  Tunnel  April 


The  Birds  or  El  Paso  County,  Colorado  603 

22-23,  1899.  It  is  very  generally  distributed,  breeding  where- 
ever  found,  on  the  plains  as  well  as  in  the  mountains  tp  timber- 
line.  It  often  uses  deserted  woodpeckers'  holes  for  nesting 
sites.  Aiken  found  a  nest  with  young  in  a  woodpecker's  hole 
on  Turkey  Creek,  May  29,  1872.  His  notebook  says  it  was 
seen  occasionally  (near  ranch  on  Turkey  Creek)  throughout 
the  winter  of  1872-3,  and  that  it  was  very  common  in  January, 
1873. 

In  the  early  days  of  Colorado  Springs  this  Bluebird  bred 
readily  in  houses  put  up  for  it,  but  nowadays  it  has  no  show 
against  the  omnipresent  English  Sparrow.  Like  the  preceding 
Fpecies  this  Bluebird  congregates  in  flocks  at  the  time  of  the 
May  storms. 


ADDENDA 

H.  C.  Oberholser  in  "A  Monograph  of  the  Genus  Chor- 
deiles  Swainson,  Type  of  a  New  Family  of  Goatsuckers,"  U. 
S.  National  Bulletin  No.  86,  1914,  has  described  a  new  sub- 
species of  Nighthawk,  ChordeUes  virginianus  howelli,  and  re- 
fers the  Colorado  bird  to  it.  If  the  form  proves  to  be  a  valid 
one  our  El  Paso  County  Nighthawks  should  be  known  by  that 
name. 

Regarding  two  other  species  Mr.  Oberholser  has  given  us 
the  following  notes : 

He  informs  us  that  he  now  considers  all  the  Homed  Larks 
breeding  in  Colorado,  and  most  of  the  winter  birds,  to  be 
Otocoris  alpestris  enthymia,  the  Saskatchewan  Horned  Lark,  a 
race  not  as  yet  admitted  to  the  A.  O.  U.  Check-List. 

He  also  finds  that  the  Savannah  Sparrows  of  Colorado 
are  not  Passerculus  sandwichensis  alaudinus,  but  P.  a,  neva- 
densis  Grinnell,  the  Nevada  Savannah  Sparrow. 


INDEX 


Acanthis  Hnaria  linaria,  556. 
Accipiter  cooperi,  499. 
Accipiter  velox,  498. 
Actitis  macularius,  489. 
Aeronautes  melanoleucus,  521. 
Agelaius  phoeniceus  fortis,  542. 
Aluco  pratincola,  506. 
Ammodramus  bairdi,  563. 
Ammodramus  savannarum  bimac- 

ulatus.  564. 
Anas  platyrhynchos,  478. 
Anthus  rubescens,  588. 
Aphelocoma  woodhousei,  535. 
Aquila  chrysaetos,  503. 
Archibuteo  ferrugineus,  502. 
Archibuteo  lagopus    sancti-johan- 

nis.  502. 


Archilochus  alexandri,  522. 
Ardea  herodias  herodias,  482. 
Asio  flammeus,  506. 
Asio  wilsonianus,  506. 
Astragalinus  psaltria  arizonae,  557. 
Astragalinus  psaltria  mexicanus, 

557. 
Astragalinus  psaltria  psaltria,  557. 
Astragalinus  tristis  pallidus,  557. 
Astragalinus  tristis  tristis,  557. 
Astur  atricapillus  atricapillus,    499. 
Asutr  atricapillus  striatulus,  499. 
Asyndesmus  lewisi,  518. 
Avocet,  485. 


Baeolophus  inornatus  griseus.  596. 
Baldpate.  479. 
Bartramia  longicauda,  488. 
Bittern,  482. 
Bittern,  Least,  482. 
Blackbird,  Brewer's,  545. 
Blackbird,  Rusty,  545. 
Blackbird,  Yellow-headed,  542. 
Blue-bill,  Little,  480. 
Bluebird.  602. 

Bluebird,  Chestnut-backed,  602. 
Bluebird,  Mountain,  602. 
Bombycilla  cedrorum,  579. 
Bombycilla  garrula,  579. 
Bobolink,  54L 
Bob-white,  49L 

Calamospiza  melanocorys,  576. 
Calcarius  lapponicus  alascensis,  56L 
Calcarius  ornatus,  56L 
Callipepla  squamata,  492. 
Camp  Bird,  536. 
Camp  Robber,  536. 


Botaurus  lentiginosus,  482. 
Branta  canadensis  canadensis,  481. 
Branta  canadensis  hutchinsi,  481. 
Bubo  virginianus  pallescens,  509. 
Bubo  virginianus  subarcticus,  510. 
Buffle-head,  480. 
Bull  Bat,  520. 
Bunting.  Indigo,  575. 
Bunting.  Lark.  576. 
Bunting,  Lazuli,  575. 
Bunting,  Snow.  561. 
Bush-Tit,  Lead-colored.  597. 
Buteo  borealis  calurus.  499. 
Buteo  borealis  krideri,  499. 
Buteo  swainsoni,  500. 
Buzzard.  Turkey.  497. 

Canvas-back.  480. 
Carpodacus  cassini.  547. 
Carpodacus  mexicanus  frontalis, 

548. 
Carthartes  aura  septentrionalis, 

497. 


INDEX 


Catbird.  592. 

Catherpes  mexicanus  conspersus, 

593. 
Catoptrophorus  semipaltnatus  inor- 

natus,  488. 
Centurus  carolinus,  518. 
Certhia  familiaris  montanus,  594. 
Ceryle  alcyon,  515. 
Chapparal  Cock.  513. 
Charadrius  dominicus  dominicus, 

489. 
Charitonetta  albeola.  480. 
Chat.  Long-tailed.  586. 
Chaulelasmus  streperus.  478. 
Chen  hypcrborcos  hypcrboreus,  481. 
Chen  hypcrboreus  nivalis.  481. 
Chickadee.  Long-tailed.  596. 
Chickadee.  Mountain.  597. 
Chondestes  grammacus  strigatus. 

564. 
Chordeiles  virginianus  henryi.  520. 
Cinclus  mexicanus  unicolor,  588. 
Circus  hudsonius.  497. 
Clangula  clangula  americana.  480. 
Coccyzus  americanus  americanus, 

515. 
Colaptes  cafer  collaris,  518. 


Colinus  virginianus,  491. 
Columba  fasciata  fasciata,  496. 
Colymhus   nigricollis   calif ornicus. 

476. 
Compsothlypis  americana  usneae, 

583. 
Coot.  484. 

Cormorant,  Double-crested.  477. 
Corvus  brachyrhychos.  540. 
Corvus  corax  sinuatus.  537. 
Corvus  cryptoleucus.  537. 
Cowbird.  542. 
Crane,  Little  Brown,  483. 
Crane,  Sandhill,  484. 
Creeper,  Rocky  Mountain.  594. 
Crossbill,  554. 
Crossbill,  Mexican,  554. 
Crow.  540. 
Crow.  Clarke's.  540. 
Cryptoglaux  acadica  acadica,  506. 
Cuckoo.  Yellow-billed,  515. 
Curlew,  Long-billed.  489. 
Cyanocephalus  cyanocephalus.  541. 
Cyanocitta  cristata.  534. 
Cyanocitta  stelleri  diademata.  534. 


Dafila  acuta.  480. 

Dendragapus    obscurus    obscurus. 

494. 
Dendroica  aestiva  acstiva,  584. 
Dendroica  auduboni.  584. 
Dendroica  coronata.  584. 
Dendroica  nigrescens.   585. 
Dendroica  striata,  585. 
Dichromanassa  rafescens,  483. 
Dickcissel.  575. 
Dipper.  588. 


Dolichonyx  oryzivorus.  541. 
Dove.  Western  Mourning.  496. 
Dowitcher,  Long-billed,  487. 
Dryobates  pubescens  homorus.  516. 
Dryobates  villosus  monticola.  516. 
Duck.  Gray.  478. 
Duck,  Lesser  Scaup.  480. 
Duck,  Ring-necked.  480. 
Duck.  Ruddy,  480. 
Dumetella  carolinensis,  592. 


Eagle,  Bald.  503. 
Eagle,  Golden.  503. 
Egret.  482. 
Egret,  Reddish,  483. 


Egret,  Snowy,  483. 
Egretta  candidissima,  483. 
Elanoides  forficatus.  497. 
Empidonax  difficilis,  528. 


INDEX 


Empidonax  griseus,  530. 
Empidonax  hammondi,  529. 
Empidonax  minimus,  528. 
Empidonax  trailli  trailli,  528. 
Empidonax  wrighti,  530. 

Falco  columbarius  columbarius,  504 

Falco  columbarius  richardsoni,  505. 

Falco  mexicanus,  504. 

Falco  peregrinus  anatum,  504. 

Falco  sparvcrius  sparverius,  505. 

Falcon,  Prairie,  504. 

Finch,  Cassin's  Purple,  547. 

Finch,  House,  548. 

Finch,  Pine,  559. 

Finch,  Black  Rosy,  555. 

Finch,  Brown-capped  Rosy,  556. 

Finch,  Gray-crowned,  554. 

Gadwall,  478. 
Gallinago  delicata,  486. 
Gallinula  galatea,  484. 
Gallinule,  Florida,  484. 
Gavia  arctica,  476. 
Gavia  immer,  476. 
Geococcyx  calif omianus,  513. 
Geothlypis  trichas  occidentalis,  586. 
Glaucidium  gnoma  pinicola,  512. 
Gnatcatcher,  Western,  598. 
Golden-eye,  480. 
Goldfinch,  557. 
Goldfinch,  Arizona,  557. 
Goldfinch,  Arkansas,  557. 
Goldfinch,  Mexican,  557. 
Goldfinch,  Pale,  557. 
Goose,  Canada,  481. 
Goose,  Greater  Snow,  481. 
Goose,  Hutchins's,  481. 


Ereunetes  pusillus,  487. 
Erismatura  jamaicensis,  480. 
Euphagus  carolinus,  545. 
Euphagus  cyanocephalus,  545. 


Finch,  Hepburn's  Rosy,  555. 
Flicker,  Red-shafted,  518. 
Fulica  americana,  484. 
Flycatcher,  Ash-throated,  526. 
Flycatcher,  Gray,  530. 
Flycatcher,  Hammond's,  529. 
Flycatcher,  Least,  528. 
Flycatcher,  Olive-sided,  527. 
Flycatcher,  Traill's,  528. 
Flycatcher,  Western,  528. 
Flycatcher,  Wright's,  530. 


Goose,  Snow,  481. 
Goshawk,  499. 
Goshawk,  Western,  499. 
Grackle,  Bronzed,  546. 
Grebe,  Eared,  476. 
Grebe,  Pied-billed,  476. 
Grosbeak,  Black-headed,  574. 

Grosbeak,  Rocky    Mountain    Pine, 

547. 
Grosbeak,  Western  Blue,  575. 
Grosbeak,  Western  Evening,  546. 

Grouse,  Columbian  Sharp-tailed, 

494. 
Grouse,  Dusky,  494. 
Grus  canadensis,  483. 
Grus  mexicana,  484. 
Guiraca  caerulea  lazula,  575. 
Gull,  Bonaparte's,  477. 
Gull,  Ring-billed,  477. 


Halixtus  leucocephalus,  503. 
Hawk,  Bullet,  504. 
Hawk,  Cooper's,  499. 
Hawk,  Duck,  504. 


Hawk,  Fish,  505. 
Hawk,  Krider's,  499. 
Hawk,  Marsh,  497. 
Hawk,  Pigeon,  504. 


INDEX 


Hawk,  Richardson's  Pigeon.  505. 
Hawk.  RoUKh-legged,  502. 
Hawk,  Sharp-shinned,  498. 
Hawk,  Sparrow,  505. 
Hawk,  Squirrel.   500. 
Hawk,  Swainson's,   500. 
Hell  Diver,  476. 

Helodromas  solitarius  cinnamo- 
meus,  488. 

Herodias  egretta,  482. 

Heron,  Black-crowned  Night,  483. 

Heron,  Great  Blue,  482. 

Hesperiphona  vespertina  montana, 
546. 


Hirundo  erythrogastra,  578. 
Hummingbird,  Black-chinned.  522. 
Hummingird,  Broad-tailed.  523. 
Hummingbird,  Calliope,  524. 
Hummingbird,  Rufous,  523. 
Hydrochelidon  nigra  surinamensis. 

477. 
Hylocichla  fuscescens  salicicola, 

600. 
Hylocichla  guttata  auduboni.  600. 
Hylocichla  guttata  guttata,  600. 
Hylocichla  ustulata  swainsoni,  600. 


Icteria  virens  longicauda,  586. 
Icterus  bullocki,  545. 
Ictinia  mississippiensis,  497. 
Ibis,  White-faced   Glossy,  482. 


Ibis,  Wood,  482. 
Iridoprocne  bicolor,  578. 
Ixobrychus  exilis,  482. 


Jay,  Blue,  534. 

Jay,  Long-crested,  534. 

Jay,  Pifion,  541. 

Jay,  Rocky  Mountain,  536. 

Jay,  Woodhouse's,  535. 

Junco  aikeni,  568. 

Junco  hyemalis  hyemalis,  568. 

Junco  hyemalis  connectens,  568. 

Junco  mearnsi,  570. 

Junco  montanus,  569. 


Junco  oreganus  shufeldti,  569. 
Junco  phaeonotus  caniceps,  570. 
Junco,  Aiken's,  568. 
Junco,  Gray-headed,  570. 
Junco,  Intermediate,  568. 
Junco,  Montana,  569. 
Junco,  Pink-sided,  570. 
Junco,  Shufeldt's,  569. 
Junco,  Slate-colored,  568. 
Junco,  White-winged,  568. 


Killdeer,  490. 
Kingbird,  524. 
Kingbird,  Arkansas,  525. 
Kingbird,  Cassin's,  526. 
Kingfisher,  Belted,  515. 


Kinglet,  Ruby-crowned,  598. 
Kinglet,  Western  Golden-crowned, 

598. 
Kite,  Mississippi,  497. 
Kite,  Swallow-tailed,  497. 


Lanius  borealis.  580. 

Lanius  ludovicianus  excubitorides, 
580. 

Lanivireo  solitarius  cassini,  582. 
Lanivireo  solitarius  plumbeus,  582. 
Lark,  Desert  Homed,  530. 
Larus  delawarensis,  477. 
Larus  Philadelphia,  477. 


Leucosticte  atrata,  555. 
Leucosticte  australis,  556. 
Leucosticte  tephrocotis  tephrocotis, 
554. 

Leucosticte  tephrocotis  littoralis, 

555. 
Linnet,  Pine,  559. 
Lobipes  lobatus,  484.     ' 


INDEX 


Lophodytes  cucullatus,  478. 
Lophortyx  calif ornica,  493. 
Longspur,  Alaska,  561. 
Longspur,  Chestnut-collared,  561. 
Longspur,  McCown's,  562. 

Macrorhamphus  griseus  scolopac- 

eus,  487. 
Magpie,  532. 
Mallard,  478. 
Mareca  americana,  479. 
Marila  affinis,  480. 
Marila  americana,  480. 
Marila  collaris,  480. 
Marila  valisineria,  480. 
Meadowlark,  Western,  543. 
Mclanerpes  erythrocephalus,  517. 
Meleagris  gallopavo  merriami,  495. 
Melospiza  georgiana,  572. 
Melospiza  lincolni  lincolni,  572. 
Melospiza  melodiajuddi,  572. 

Nettion  carolinense,  479. 
Night  Hawk,  Western,  520. 
Nucifraga  columbiana,  540. 
Numenius  americanus,  489. 
Nutcracker,  Clarke's,  540. 
Nuthatch,  Pygmy,  495. 

bidemia  deglandi,  480. 

Olor  columbianus,  481. 

Oporornis  tolmiei,  586. 

Oreoscoptes  montanus,  590. 

Oreospiza  chlorura.  573. 

Oriole,  Bullock's,  545. 

Osprey,  505. 

Otocoris  alpestris  leucolaema,  530. 

Otus  asio  aikeni,  507. 

Otus  asio  maxwellia,  506. 

Otus  flammeolus,  508. 

Ousel,  Water,  588. 

Oven-bird,  586. 

Owl,  Aiken's  Screech,  507. 


Loon,  476. 

Loon,  Black-throated,  476. 
Loxia  curvirostra  minor,  554. 
Loxia  curvirostra  stricklandi,  554. 


Melospiza  melodia  montana,  571. 
Merganser,  American,  478. 
Merganser,  Hooded,  478. 
Mergus  americanus,  478. 
Micropalma  himantopus,  487. 
Mimus  polyglottos  leucopterus,  591. 
Mniotilta  varia,  582. 
Mockingbird,  Mountain,  590. 
Mockingbird.  Western,  591. 
Molotrus  ater,  542. 
Mud-hen,  484. 
Myadestes  townsendi,  599. 
Mycteria  americana,  482. 
Myiarchus  cinerascens,  526. 
Myiochanes  richardsoni,  528. 

Nuthatch,  Red-breasted,  495. 
Nuthatch,  Rocky  Mountain,  495. 
Nuttallornis  borealis,  527. 
Nyctea  nyctea,  510. 
Nycticorax  nycticorax  naevius,  483. 


Owl,  Arctic  Horned,  510. 

Owl,  Barn,  506. 

Owl,  Burrowing,  511. 

Owl,  Flammulated  Screech,  508. 

Owl,  Long-eared,  506. 

Owl,  Prairie  Dog,  511. 

Owl.  Rocky  Mountain  Pygmy,  512. 

Owl.  Rocky  Mountain  Screech,  503. 

Owl,  Saw-whet,  506. 

Owl,  Short-eared,  506. 

Owl,  Snowy,  510. 

Owl,  Spotted,  506. 

Owl,  Western  Horned,  510. 

Oxyechus  vociferus,  490. 


INDEX 


Pandion  haliaetus  carolinensis,  505. 
Passer  domesticus,  560. 
Passerculus  sandwichensis  alaudi- 

nus,  562. 
Passerina  amoena,  575. 
Passerina  cyanea,  575. 
Pedioecetes  phasianellus  columbia- 

nus,  494. 
Peewee,  Western  Wood,  528. 
Pelccanus  erythrorhynchos,  477. 
Pelican,  White,  477. 
Penthestes  atricapillus  septentrio- 

nalis,  596. 
Penthestes  gambeli  gambeli,  597. 
Perisoreus  canadensis  capitalis,  536 
Petrochelidon  lunifrons  lunifrons, 

577. 
Phalacrocorax  auritus  auritus,  477. 
Phalaenoptilus  nuttalli  nuttalli,  520. 
Phalarope,  Northern,  484. 
Phalarope,  Wilson's,  484. 
Phasianus  torquatus,  495. 
Pheasant,  Mongolian,    495. 
Pheasant,  Ring-necked,  495. 
Pliilohela  minor,  486. 
Phoebe,  Say's,  527. 
Pica  pica  hudsonia,  532. 
Picoides  americanus  dorsalis,  516. 
Pigeon,  Band-tailed,  496. 

Quail,  Blue,  492. 
Quail,  California,  493. 
Quail,  Mexican,  492. 
Quail,  Scaled,  492. 


Pinicola  enucleator  montana,  547. 
Pintail.  480. 

Pipilo  fuscus  mcsoleucus,  573. 
Pipilo  maculatus  arcticus,  572. 
Pipilo  maculatus  montanus,  573. 
Pipit.  588. 

Piranga  erythromelas,  577. 
Piranga  ludoviciana,  577. 
Pisobia  bairdi,  487. 
Pisobia  fuscicollis,  487. 
Pisobia  minutilla,  488. 
Planesticus     migratorius     propin- 

quus,  601. 
Plectrophenax  nivalis,  561. 
Plegadis  guarana,  482. 
Plover,  Black-bellied.  489. 
Plover,  Golden,  489. 
Plover,  Mountain,  490. 
Plover,  Upland,  488. 
Podasocys  montanus,  490. 
Podilymbus  podiceps,  476. 
Polioptila  caerulea  obscura,  598. 
Pooecetes  gramineus  confinis,  502. 
Poor-will,  520. 
Porzana  Carolina,  474. 
Protonotaria  citrea,  582. 
Psaltriparus  plumbeus,  597. 


Querquedula  cyanoptera,  479. 
Querquedula  discors,  479. 
Quiscalus  quiscula  aeneus,  546. 


Rail,  Virginia,  484. 

Rallus  virginianus,  484. 

Raven,  537. 

Raven,  White-necked,  537. 

Recurvirostra  americana,  485. 

Redhead,  480. 

Redtail,  Western,  499. 

Redpoll,  556. 

Redstart.  587. 


Redwing,  Thick-billed,  542. 
Regulus  calendula  calendula,  598. 
Regulus  satrapa  olivaceus,  598. 
Rhyncophanes  mccowni,  562. 
Riparia  riparia,  578. 
Road  Runner,  513. 
Robin,  Western,  601. 
Rough-leg,  Ferruginous,  502. 


INDEX 


Salpinctes  obsoletus  obsoletus,  592. 
Sand  Martin,  578. 
Sandpiper,  Baird's,  487. 
Sandpiper,  Bartramian,  488. 
Sandpiper,  Least,  488. 
Sandpiper,  Semi-palmated,  487. 
Sandpiper,  Spotted,  488. 
Sandpiper,  Stilt,  487. 
Sandpiper,  Western  Solitary,  488. 
Sandpiper,  White-nimped,  487. 
Sapsucker,  Red-naped,  517. 
Sapsucker,  Williamson's,  517. 
Sayomis  sajrus,  527. 
Scoter,  White-winged,  480. 
Seiurus  aurocapillus,  586. 
Selasphorus  platycercus,  523. 
Selasphorus  nifus,  523. 
Setophaga  niticilla,  587. 
Sheldrake,  478. 
Shoveller.  479. 
Shrike,  Northern,  580. 
Shrike,  White-rumped,  580. 
Sialia  curnicoides,  602. 
Sialia  mexicana  bairdi,  602. 
Sialia  sialis  sialis,  602. 
Siskin,  Pine,  559. 
Sitta  canadensis,  495. 
Sitta  carolinensis  nelsoni,  495. 
Sitta  pygmaea,  495. 
Snipe,  Jack,  486. 
Snipe,  Wilson's,  486. 
Solitaire,  Townsend's,  599. 
Sora,  484. 

Sparrow,  Baird's,  563. 
Sparrow,  Brewer's,  567. 
Sparrow,  Clay-colored,  567. 
Sparrow,  Dakota  Song,  572. 
Sparrow,  English,  560. 
Sparrow,  Gambel's,  565. 
Sparrow,  Harris's,  564. 


Sparrow,  House,  560. 
Sparrow,  Lincoln's,  572. 
Sparrow,  Mountain  Song,  571. 
Sparrow,  Swamp,  572. 
Sparrow,  Western  Chipping,  566. 
Sparrow,  Western  Grasshopper, 

564. 
Sparrow,  Western  Lark,  564. 
Sparrow,  Western  Savannah,  562. 
Sparrow,  Western  Tree,  566. 
Sparrow,  Western  Vesper,  562. 
Sparrow,  White-crowned,  564. 
Spatula  clypeata,  479. 
Speotyto  cunicularia  hypogaea,  511. 
Sphyrapicus  thyroideus,  517. 
Sphyrapicus  varius  nuchalis,  517. 
Spinus  pinus,  559. 
Spiza  americana,  575. 
Spizella  breweri,  567. 
Spizella  monticola  ochracea,  566. 
Spizella  pallida,  567. 
Spizella  passerina  arizonx,  566. 
Spoonbill,  479. 
Squatarola  squatarola,  489. 
Steganopus  tricolor,  484. 
Stelgidopteryx  serripennis,  579. 
Stellula  calliope,  524. 
Sterna  forsteri,  477. 
Strix  occidentalis  occidentalis,  506. 
Stumella  neglecta,  543. 
Swallow,  Bank,  578. 
Swallow,  Bam,  578. 
Swallow,  Cliff,  577. 
Swallow,  Eave,  577. 
Swallow,  Rough-winged,  579. 
Swallow,  Tree,  578. 
Swallow,  Violet-green,  578. 
Swan,  Whistling,  481. 
Swift,  504. 
Swift,  White-throated,  521. 


Tachycineta  thalassina  lepida,  578. 
Tanager,  Louisiana,  577. 


Tanager,  Scarlet,  577. 
Tanager,  Western,  577. 


INDEX 


Teal,  Blue-winged,  479. 
Teal,  Cinnamon,  479. 
Teal,  Green-winged,  479. 


Tern,  Black,  477. 
Tern,  Forster's,  477. 
Thrasher,  Bendire's,  592. 


Telmatodytes  palustris  iliacus,  594.        Thrasher,  Brown,  592. 
Telmatodytes  palustris  plesius,  594.       Thrasher,  Sage,  590. 


Thrush,  Alaska  Hermit,  600. 
Thrush,  Audubon's  Hermit,  600. 
Thrush,  Olive-backed,  600. 
Thrush,  Willow,  600. 
Thryomanes  bewicki  bairdi,  594. 
Titmouse,  Gray,  596. 
Totanus  flavipes,  488. 
Totanus  melanoleucus,  488. 
Towhee,  Arctic,  572. 
Towhee,  Canon,  573. 


Towhee,  Green-tailed,  573. 
Towhee,  Mountain,  573. 
Toxostoma  bendirei,  592. 
Toxostoma  rufum,  592. 
Troglodytes  aedon  parkmani,  594. 
Turkey,  Merriam's,  495. 
Turkey,  Wild,  495. 
Tyrannus  tyrannus,  524. 
Tyrannus  verticalis,  525. 
Tyrannus  vociferans,  526. 


Vermivora  celata  celata,  583. 
Vermivora  peregrina,  583. 
Vermivora  virginiae,  582. 
Vireo,  Cassin's,   582. 
Vireo,  Plumbeous,  582. 


Vireo,  Swainson*s,  581. 
Vireo,  Western  Warbling,   581. 
Vireosylva  gilva  swainsoni,  581. 
Vulture,  Turkey,  497. 


Warbler,  Audubon's,  584. 
Warbler,  Black  and  White,  582. 
Warbler,  Black-poll,  585. 
Warbler,  Black-throated  Gray,  585 
Warbler,  MacGillivray's,  586. 
Warbler,  Myrtle,  584. 
Warbler,  Northern  Parula,  583. 
Warbler,  Orange-crowned,  583. 
Warbler,  Pileolated,  587. 
Warbler,  Prothonotary,  582. 
Warbler,  Tennessee,  583. 
Warbler,  Virginia's,  582. 
Warbler,  Yellow,  584. 
Waxwing,  Bohemian,  579. 
Wax  wing.  Cedar,  579. 
Widgeon.  479. 
Wild  Canary,  557. 
Willet,  Western,  488. 


Wilsonia  pusilla  pileolata,  587 

Woodcock,  486. 

Woodpecker,  Alpine  Three-foed, 

517. 
Woodpecker,  Batchelder's,  516. 
Woodpecker,  Downy,  516. 
Woodpecker,  Hairy,  516. 
Woodpecker,  Lewis's,  518. 
Woodpecker,  Red-bellied,  518. 
Woodpecker,  Red-headed,  517. 
Woodpecker,  Rocky  Mountain 

Hairy.  516. 
Wren,  Baird's,  594. 
Wren,  Canon,  593. 
Wren,  Prairie  Marsh,  594. 
Wren,  Rock,  592. 
Wren,  Western  House,  594. 
Wren,  Western  Marsh,  594. 


INDEX 

Xanthocephalus  xanthocephalus,        Zamelodia  melanocephala,  574. 
542.  Zenaidura  macroura  marginella, 

496. 
Zonotrichia  leucophrys  leucophry^. 
Yellow-legs,  488.  564. 

Yellow-legs,  Greater,  488.  Zonotrichia  leucophrys  gambeli,  565 

Yellow-throat,  Western,  586.  Zonotrichia  querula,  564. 


■    ! 


Colorado  College  Publication 

GENERAL  SERIES  No.  87 
SQENCE  SERIES.  VOL.  XI L  No.  14.   Pp.  615-637. 


No.  14.     Soil  Fertility »     -     -      -      -      Cuy  Wendell  Clark* 


COLORAtX)  SPRINGS.  COLORADO 
-  MAY.  1916. 

Published  by  authority  of  the  Board  of  Trusteea  of  Colorado  College  ev<ery  six  weeks 
during  the  Academic  Year. 

Entered  ••  •eeond-claM  mat^ef.  September  23.'  1905.  at  the  Pott  Ofifiee  in  CqIotmIo Sprint*. Colorado.  ^ 
under  Act  ol  Concreet  ol  July.  1904. 


It 
it 


Editor-in-Chief WrLLiAM  F.  ShocJiu,  LL.  D. 

Managing  Editor     .-..-..-  Florian  Cajobi,  Ph.  D. 

IE.  C.  Hills,  Ph.  D. 
G.  M.  Howe,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary. 
E.  C.  Schneider;  Ph.  D. 

SCIENCE  SERIES 

Nm.  1-29  Soiencfi  SeriM,  1-4  Social  Science  Series  and  1-14  Language  Series,  have  appeared  in  C^kroit 
CctU§$  PubUeaiimi,  Vob.  1-10  inclusive.  Kos.  1-17  Seienoo  Series,  1-3  Social  Science  Series  and  1-0  LaBgasfi 
Series,  ftrt  out  of  print. 

SCIENCE  SERIES— Vol.  XII. 

No,  1.  The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado. — W.  C.  Sturgis, 
"  2.  Stellar  Variability  and  Its  Causes.— F.  H.  Loud. 
"      3.     On   the   Transformation  of  Algebraic   Equations,    by  Erland 

Samuel  Bring  (1786). — Translated  arui  Annotated  by  Florian 

Cajori. 
"      4.     A  Comparison  of  Temperatures  (1906)  Between  Colorado  Springs 

and  Lake  Moraine. — F.  H,  Loud, 

5.  Meteorological  Statistics  for  1907.^-F.  H.  Loud. 

6.  The  Distribution  of  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pike's  Peak  Region.— 
E,  C.  Schneider. 

7.  A  History  of  the  Arithmetical  Methods  of  Approximation  to  the 
Roots  of  Numerical  Equations  of  One  Unknown  Quantity.— 
Florian  Cajori, 

8.  The  Succession  of  Plant  Life  on  the  Gravel  Slides  in  the  Vicinity 
of  Pike's  Peak. — Edward  C.  Schneider. 

The  History  of  Colorado  Mammalogy.— ^dirard  R.  Warren. 

The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado. — Maurice  C.  HaU. 

A  Guide  to  the  Botanical  Literature  of  the  Myxomycetes  from 

1875  to  1912.— William  C.  Sturgia. 
The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado,  IL — W.  C.  Sturgis. 
The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado,  I  and  II.— Charles  E. 

H.  Aiken  and  Edward  R.  Warren. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE  SERIES— Vol.  II. 

The  Cripple  Creek  Strike,  1893-4.— J5.  Af.  Raetall. 

Tributes  to  the  Late  General  William  J.  Palmer  from  his  Felloif 

Citizens  of  Colorado  Springs. — Edited  by  Mary  O.  Slocum. 
The  Nation's  Guarantee  of  Personal  Rights-^ — WitUamF.  Slocum. 
Phi  Beta  Kappa  Address:  The  Academic  Career. — George  Lincoln 

Hendrickson. 
Baccalaureate  Sermon.^ — WiUiam  F.  Slocum. 
Historical  Address:  A  Liberal  Education. — WiUiam  T.  Foster. 
Address  at  the  Alumni  Dinner. — David  F.  Matched. 
Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  President  of  Colorado  College. 

(June  10th,  1913.)— TfiZKam  F.  Slocum. 

9.  and  10.  The  Frederick  H.  Cossitt  Memorial  of  Colorado  College. 
— William  F.  Slocum- 

11.  The  Present  Status  and  Probable  Future  of  the  College  in  the 
West. — William  F.  Slocum. 

12.  The  Relation  of  Scholarship  to  Partial  Self-Support  in  College— 
Guy  Harry  Albright. 


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SOIL  FERTILITY. 


By  Guy  Wendell  Clark. 


Part  I — Historical. 

Among  the  earliest  attempts  made  to  solve  the  problem 
of  plant  growth  experimentally,  was  that  made  by  Van 
Helmont,^  who  believed  that  he  had  proved  by  experiment 
that  all  of  the  products  of  vegetables  were  capable  of  being 
generated  from  water.  Another  of  the  early  theories  which 
created  considerable  interest  when  it  was  first  published  was 
that  of  Jethro  TulP.  The  chief  value  of  TulFs  contribution 
to  agricultural  science  was  the  fact  that  he  emphasized  the 
importance  of  tillage  operations  by  putting  forward  a  theory 
to  explain  the  fact  that  the  more  thoroughly  a  soil  was  tilled, 
the  more  luxuriant  the  crops  would  be.  In  1804,  De 
Saussure'  made  the  most  important  contribution  to  science 
that  had  been  received  up  to  this  time.  He  was  the  first 
to  draw  attention  to  the  niineral  or  ash  constituents  of  the 
plant,  thus  anticipating,  to  some  extent,  the  "mineral 
theory"  of  Liebig.  He  showed  that  by  far  the  largest 
portion  of  the  plant's  substance  was  derived  from  air  and 
water,  and  that  the  ash  portion  was  alone  derived  from  the 
soil.  This  was  the  first  statement,  in  any  definite  way,  of 
the  sources  of  the  plant's  food.  During  the  years  1802-12, 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy*  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  before 
the  English  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  which  he  sums  up  and 
attempts  to  connect  in  a  systematic  manner,  the  practices 
and  theories  of  that  time.  In  1834,  Boussingault^,  a  famous 
agricultural  chemist,  established  the  first  real  experiment 
station  and  began  a  series  of  brilliant  chemical  and  agri- 

>Jean  Baptiste  Van  Helmont,  OrtuB  medicinae,  vel  opera  et  opuacula  omnia,  pub- 
lished by  bis  son,  Frans  Merourius,  in  1668. 

^Jethro  Tull,  Horse-hoeing  Husbandry,  1731. 

*Theodore  de  Saussure.  Reoherches  chimiques  sur  la  v^6tation,  1804. 

<8ir  Humphrey  Davy,  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  in  a  course  of  Lectures 
for  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  London,  1813. 

»Jean  B.  J.  D.  Boussingault,  Traits  d'6conomie  rurale,  1844,  translated  by  George 
Law,  London,  1845.  Also  Agronomie,  chimie  agricole,  et  physiologie,  seven  vols.,  I860- 
1884. 


616  Colorado  College  Publication. 

cultural  experiments,  the  results  of  which  have  added  much 
to  agricultural  science.  He  was  the  first  observer  to  study 
the  scientific  principles  underlying  the  system  of  crop 
rotation  and  was  the  first  chemist  to  carry  out  experiments 
with  a  view  to  deciding  the  question  of  the  assimilation  of 
free  nitrogen  by  plants.  Even  a  brief  sketch  of  the  his- 
torical side  of  agricultural  chemistry  would  not  be  acceptable 
if  it  failed  to  pay  tribute  to  the  great  work  done  by  Liebig*, 
who  earned  for  himself  the  title  of  ''Father  of  Agricultural 
Chemistry."  Liebig's  claim  to  the  rank  of  the  greatest 
agricultural  chemist  of  the  time  does  not  rest  upon  the 
number  or  value  of  his  actual  researches,  but  on  the  for- 
mative power  he  exercised  in  the  evolution  of  science.  His 
great  mind  was  able  to  assemble  the  many  isolated  facts 
and  to  supply  the  necessary  connections  between  them,  the 
result  being  a  large  part  of  our  modern  agricultural  chem- 
istry. The  indirect  results  of  Liebig's  work  were  as  valuable 
as  his  real  work  in  that  they  had  the  effect  of  giving  a  gen- 
eral interest  to  questions  which,  up  to  that  time,  had 
possessed  only  a  special  interest,  and  that  for  comparatively 
few.  It  was  in  Germany  that  Liebig's  work  manifested  its 
greatest  and  most  immediate  results.  Here  many  agri- 
cultural research  stations  were  founded,  the  first  being  the 
now  famous  one  of  Mockern,  near  Leipzig,  in  1851.  Soon 
after  Liebig's  first  work  appeared,  the  second  oldest  ex- 
perimental station  was  established  at  Rothamstead  by  Sir 
J.  B.  Lawes.*  The  fame  of  the  Rothamstead  experiments 
is  now  world-wide,  and  no  single  experiment  station  has 
ever  produced  such  an  amount  of  important  work  as  has 
this  splendidly  equipped  station  at  Rothamstead.  Prob- 
ably the  greatest  service  the  Rothamstead  experiments  have 
rendered  agricultural  chemistry  have  been  the  valuable 
contributions  they  have  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
function  of  nitrogen  in  agriculture;  its  relation,  in  its  dif- 

U.  von  Liebig.  Die  Chemie  in  ihrer  Anwendung  auf  Agrikultur  und  Phyaiologie,  1840. 
Also  Die  Grundftfttie.der  Asrikultur-Chemie,  1855. 

<Sir  John  Lawes;  the  Rothamstead  station  was  started  in  1843,  although  Sir  John 
Lawes  was  engaged  in  field  ezperimenu  tenyears  previous  to  that  date.  It  was  in  1843 
that  Lawes  secured  the  services  of  Sir  J.  H.  Gilbert,  a  distinguished  chemist. 


Soil  Fertility.  617 

ferent  chemical  forms,  to  plant  life,  and  the  sources  of  the 
nitrogen  found  in  plants. 

It  has  long  been  believed  that  the  constant  cropping  of 
soils  resulted  in  the  removal  of  such  large  quantities  of  the 
plant  food  constituents^  that  the  subsequent  decrease  in 
crops  was  due  to  a  dearth  of  these  plant  food  constituents. 
This  belief  led  to  the  early  and  rather  extensive  use  of  the 
various  fertilizers,  but  the  problem  of  keeping  up  soils  and 
the  reclamation  of  depleted  lands  by  the  use  of  fertilizers 
did  not  meet  with  success  in  many  cases,  failing  to  give  the 
estimated  results  even  when  properly  applied. 

From  a  study  of  the  ashes  of  plants  we  know  that  certain 
mineral  substances  are  always  present  in  plants  and  are 
essential  to  them  as  nutrients.  It  is  evident  that  these 
mineral  elements  are  derived  from  the  soil  but  the  amounts 
in  which  they  may  be  present  in  the  plants  have  not  gen- 
erally been  found  to  bear  any  definite  relation  to  the  size 
of  the  crop,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  or  to  its  manurial  require- 
ments. It  is  often  found  that  a  poor  crop  has  a  higher 
percentage  of  ash  and  removes  larger  amounts  of  mineral 
matter  from  the  soil  than  a  good  crop  of  the  same  variety. 
With  the  knowledge  that  plants  obtain  their  necessary 
mineral  nutrients  from  the  soil,  came  the  idea  of  ''available 
plant  food.^'*  This  idea,  while  it  led  to  much  work,  had 
little  practical  value.  It  was,  however,  the  guiding  prin- 
ciple in  most  of  the  early  chemical  work  done  upon  soils 
and  undoubtedly  gave  us  much  valuable  information. 

It  was  hoped  that  by  the  various  methods  of  analyzing 
soils  the  fertilizer  requirements  could  be  determined  but, 
in  general,  the  amounts  of  the  several  mineral  fertilizers, 
which  have  been  shown  by  experience  to  be  necessary  to 
produce  marked  or  maximum  differences  in  crop  yield,  are 
far  too  small  to  appear  in  the  results  of  a  chemical  analysis. 
All  soil  extraction  methods  are  purely  empirical  and  have 
failed  to  a  large  extent.     The  one  in  which  an  extracting 

^Phosphorus,  nitrogen,  potassium  and  calcium  compounds  are  the  most  essential  of 
the  plant  food  constituents. 

*That  portion  of  the  total  amount  of  mineral  nutrients  which  may  be  used  by  a  crop 
or  a  succession  of  crops. 


618  Colorado  College  Publication. 

solution  of  a  certain  concentration  is  selected,  so  that  the 
amount  of  mineral  substances  taken  into  solution  would 
equal  the  amount,  or  a  factor  of  the  amount,  that  a  crop 
would  remove  from  the  soil,  has  failed,  because  different 
crops,  or  the  same  crop,  under  slightly  different  conditions, 
remove  not  only  different  amounts,  but  vastly  different 
relative  proportions  of  mineral  matter  from  the  soil. 

The  idea  that  soils  may  contain  substances  which  retard 
plant  growth  is  not  new  but,  until  quite  recently,  has  not 
taken  any  noticeable  part  in  the  modern  literature  of  soil 
fertility.  De  Candolle's  **Vegetable  Physiology"*  furnishes 
the  most  important  consideration  of  the  subject  among 
the  earlier  writers.  The  theory  was  put  forth  that  the 
grouping  of  naturally  growing  plants  into  what  are  now 
termed  plant  societies,  might  often  be  due  to  substances 
given  off  by  the  roots  of  plants  inhabiting  that  area,  the 
substances  being  injurious  to  other  plants.  De  Candolle 
also  reasoned  that  agricultural  plants  might  produce  root 
excretions  which  were  injurious  to  the  plants  excreting  them. 
At  his  suggestion  Macaire'  made  a  study  of  this  question 
and  published  a  review  of  this  work  up  to  1831.  In  con- 
nection with  this  publication  he  carried  on  a  number  of 
original  experiments  and  from  the  results  of  these  De  Can- 
dolle was  led  to  consider  that  practically  all  plants  give  off 
excretions  from  their  roots,  the  excretion  being  much  more 
rapid  in  some  forms  than  in  others.  He  also  expressed  the 
belief  that  certain  plants  excrete  from  their  roots  substances 
which  alter  the  soil  in  which  the  roots  lie.  With  these  ide^ 
as  a  starting  point,  De  Candolle  formed  a  theory  to  explain 
the  well-known  fact  that  continuous  cropping  by  the  same 
plant  species  often  resulted  in  a  decreased  growth,  while 
a  good  growth  of  every  crop  might  be  obtained  if  proper 
rotation  were  resorted  to.  He  distinguished  between  true 
exhaustion  of  the  soil,  in  which  case  the  soil  may  be  con- 
sidered as  depleted  in  respect  to  the  soluble  salts  necessary 
for  plant  growth,  and  what  may  be  termed  as  false  exhaus- 

»A.  P.  De  Candolle.  Physiologie  v6g6tale.  Paris,  1832. 

'Macaire-Prinnep,  Memoire  pour  servir  k  rhiatoire  des  amolemens,  M^m.,  de  la  aoc.  de 
physique  et  I'histoire  nat.  de  G6n6ve.  5,  pages  282-302.  1832. 


Soil  Fertility.  .  619 

tion,  in  which  case  the  cause  of  the  poor  crop  is  to  be  looked 
for  in  injurious  excretions  left  by  former  crops.  His  theory 
of  crop  rotation  was  then,  that  crops,  through  their  root 
excretions,  render  the  soil  unsuitable  for  the  same  or  closely 
related  plants  but  that  these  root  excretions  are  harmless 
or  even  beneficial  to  distantly  related  plants.  He  also  ex- 
pressed the  belief  that  careful  experimentation  would  prove 
that  plants  of  certain  families  give  off  excretions  which 
are  very  marked  in  their  toxic  action  and  that  those  of 
other  families  are  so  feebly  active  in  this  respect  that  their 
effect  is  not  noticeable.  The  above  serves  to  clearly  bring 
out  the  fact  that  to  such  a  pioneer  worker  in  the  realm  of 
plant  physiology  as  De  Candolle,  the  idea  that  infertility 
might  be  caused  by  the  presence  of  toxic  or  deleterious 
substances  in  the  soil,  appeared  to  be  the  simplest  and  most 
direct  means  of  explaining  many  of  the  known  facts  of 
plant  distribution  and  agriculture.  Since  the  work  of 
Macaire  and  others,  cited  by  De  Candolle,  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  real  evidence  in  the  light  of  modern  methods  of 
experimentation,  the  theory  of  De  Candolle  comes  to  rest 
upon  an  inadequate  foundation  of  actually  observed  facts. 
There  seems  to  have  been  no  other  serious  discussion  of 
this  question  until  the  publication  of  the  work  of  Bedford 
and  Pickering,  carried  on  at  the  Woburn  Experimental 
Fruit  Farm*,  near  Bedford,  England.  These  reports^  in- 
clude accounts  of  the  most  interesting  observations  of  the 
effect  of  one  plant  upon  another  through  the  apparent 
intervention  of  toxic  substances.  In  the  report  for  1897 
it  was  observed  that  when  the  soil  surrounding  their  young 
apple  trees  was  allowed  to  be  occupied  by  weeds,  or  was 
sown  to  grass,  the  trees  very  soon  showed  a  much  poorer 
growth  than  that  exhibited  by  other  trees,  around  which 
the  soil  was  properly  cultivated,  and  that  the  effect  was 
more  pronounced  in  the  case  of  grass  than  in  that  of  weeds. 
Three  years  later,  in  1900,  the  statement  was  made  that 

'Report  of  the  Woburn  Experimental  Fruit  Farm  for  1897.     An  account  of  thia  work 
also  appeared  in  the  Jour.  Roy.  Acr.  Soc.  Eng.,  64,  pages  365-376,  by  Spencer  U.  Pickering. 

^Reports  of  Woburn  Experimental  Fruit  Farm,  1897-1905,  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford 
and  Spencer  U.  Pickering. 


620  Colorado  College  Publication. 

about  the  worst  treatment  to  which  young  apple  trees  could 
be  subjected  was  that  of  sowing  the  surrounding  soil  to 
grass.  In  their  report  for  1903  it  was  stated  that  the  action 
of  grass  seemed  to  be  just  as  harmful  to  old  as  to  young 
trees  and,  that  the  injury  produced  was  independent  of 
variety  or  root  stock.  In  view  of  all  evidence,  the  authors 
conclude  in  this  report  that  this  action  of  grass  is  not  merely 
a  question  of  starvation  in  any,  form,  nor  of  any  simple 
modifications  of  the  conditions,  under  which  a  tree  could 
thrive,  but  that  grass  has  some  actively  harmful  effect 
upon  the  tree,  the  action  being  similar  to  direct  poisoning. 

That  substances  detrimental  to  plant  growth  might 
exist  in  the  soil  has  also  been  indicated  by  the  work  of 
Woods*,  who,  in  a  study  of  the  mosaic  disease  of  tobacco, 
found  evidence  for  believing  that  this  disease  might  be 
favored  by  the  action  of  a  substance  apparently  derived 
from  the  decay  of  tobacco  roots  in  the  soil. 

In  Bulletin  23,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Soils,  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  good  or  bad  properties 
of  certain  agricultural  soils  were  transmitted  to  their 
aqueous  extracts  and  that  differences  in  the  content  of 
mineral  salts  of  these  extracts  did  not  explain  the  differences 
observed  in  cultures  of  wheat  seedlings  grown  in  them. 
These  facts  are  assumed  to  favor  the  idea  that  soils  ex- 
perimented upon  contained  injurious  substances  which  were 
suflSciently  soluble  in  water  to  be  present  in  the  extract  in 
amounts  adequate  to  produce  a  marked  effect  upon  the 
growth  of  wheat  seedlings.  Further  evidence  in  this  direc- 
tion was  brought  forward  in  Bulletin  28,  Bureau  of  Soils, 
where  it  was  observed  that  the  unproductiveness  of  a  very 
poor  soil  from  Takoma  Park,  Maryland,  was  largely  due  to  the 
presence  of  injurious  substances  which  checked  the  growth 
of  plants.  In  the  experiments  on  Takoma '  soil,  certain 
cultivated  plants,  such  as  wheat  seedlings,  red  and  white 
clover,  showed  marked  stunting,  both  of  roots  and  tops. 
The  work  was  done  with  aqueous  extracts  of  the  soil  which 

>A.  F.  Woods.  Observations  on  the  mosaic  disease  in  tobacco,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bui.  18,  1902. 


Soil  Fertility.  621 

were  prepared  by  treating  five  parts,  by  weight,  of  soil  with 
six  parts  of  distilled  water;  this  mixture  was  stirred  for  three 
minutes,  allowed  to  settle  twenty  minutes,  filtered  and 
aerated,  and  was  then  used  as  the  culture  medium.  By 
experiment  it  was  found  that  the  addition  of  stable 
manure,  calcium  carbonate,  pyrogallic  acid,  ferric  hydrate 
and  carbon  black,  ^  all  brought  about  a  great  improvement 
in  the  soil  extract. 

The  so-called  "acid  soils"  of  the  Eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  have  been  found  to  turn  blue  litmus  paper 
red  and  this  has  been  interpreted  by  some  as  denoting  the 
presence  of  soluble  acids  in  these  soils. ^  It  was  supposed  by 
some  workers  in  agriculture  that  the  unproductiveness  of 
many  poor  soils  is  due  to  acidity,  such  soils  being  spoken  of 
as  *'acid'^  or  ''sour."  It  might  then  be  supposed  that  the 
toxic  substances  considered  are  acid  in  their  nature  and  that 
the  toxic  properties  are  due  to  the  presence  of  free  acids. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  toxic  bodied  may  be  acid 
in  their  reaction  and  yet  this  acidity  may  not  be  the  cause 
of  their  harmful  effects  upon  the  plants.  For  example,  take 
the  case  of  hydrocyanic  acid,  a  very  powerful  poison.  If 
the  toxicity  of  this  chemical,  to  plants  and  animals,  were 
due  to  the  hydrogen  ion,  that  is  to  its  acidity,  this  substance 
should  not  be  more  toxic  than  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acids. 
Since  it  is  so  much  more  poisonous,  it  follows  that  the  acid- 
ity of  the  compound  is  not  the  main  factor  in  its  toxic  action 
but  that  the  cyanogen  is  the  active  agent.  This  conclusion 
is  also  supported  by  the  fact  that  potassium  or  sodium 
cyanide  possess  about  the  same  toxic  properties  as  the  acid 
and  yet  have  no  free  hydrogen  ions.  It  thus  appears  pos- 
sible that  the  toxic  bodies  of  these  poor  soils  may  be  acid  in 
their  reaction  but  that  this  acidity  may  have  practically 
nothing  to  do  with  their  toxic  action.  In  a  series  of  ex- 
periments', a  number  of  acids  were  used;  namely,  nitric, 
sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  phosphoric,  acetic  and  oxalic.  The 
soil  extracts  were  made  just  as  acid  as  the  soil  with  each  of 

>See  Bulletin  28.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr..  Bureau  of  Soils,  pages  15-24. 

^Articles  by  H.  J.  Wheeler  in  the  Bulletins  of  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 

•Bulletin  36.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bureau  of  Soils,  pp.  38-40. 


622  Colorado  College  Publication. 

the  above  acids  and  it  was  found  that  none  of  the  acids  had 
as  marked  a  depressing  effect  upon  growth  as  the  toxic 
bodies  of  the  soil  extract.  Some  retardation  was  apparent 
in  the  case  of  all  of  the  acids  used,  nitric  showing  the  greatest 
retarding  effect  and  oxalic  the  least.  It  is  well  to  note  that 
the  acids  of  the  soil  are  more  apt  to  be  of  an  organic  than 
an  inorganic  nature,  therefore  the  results  just  given  should 
be  considered  as  additional  evidence  that  the  toxic  bodies 
are  active  through  some  other  property  than  their  acidity. 
A  soil  whose  solution  is  perfectly  neutral  to  litmus  may 
exhibit  this  reaction  through  the  difference  in  the  absorptive 
powers  of  the  soil  and  the  paper.  ^  The  soil,  on  account  of 
its  high  absorptive  power  for  bases,  removes  the  OH  ions 
from  the  blue  or  nearly  neutral  litmus  paper,  leaving  the 
H  ions  on  the  paper  and  thus  causing  it  to  be  red.  The 
only  way  of  obtaining  accurate  evidence  in  this  regard 
would  be  to  work  with  an  aqueous  soil  extract  and  a  very 
sensitive  solution  of  the  indicator.  It  seems  probable  that 
where  the  soil  is  actually  acid,  the  acidity  is  to  be  regarded 
rather  as  an  indicator  of  the  presence  of  injurious  bodies, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  acid,  than  as  evidence  that  free 
acids  are  the  direct  cause  of  the  poor  growth  of  crops.  The 
term  '*sour  soil,"  often  spoken  of  by  gardeners,  probably 
refers  to  the  smell  of  the  soil  and  to  its  influence  on  plants 
rather  than  to  any  actual  chemical  property. 

It  was  thought  that  the  method  of  studying  the  soil 
extracts,  rather  than  the  soils  themselves,  would  eliminate 
the  influences  of  physical  conditions.  It  therefore  appeared 
that  if  a  soil  extract  exhibited  the  unproductiveness  of  the 
soil  from  which  it  was  prepared,  the  cause  of  the  poor 
growth  was  due,  to  some  extent  at  least,  to  the  chemical 
properties  of  the  soil  solution,  rather  than  to  the  physical 
properties  of  the  soil. 

There  are  various  reasons  advanced  by  the  authors  of 
Bulletin  36^  why  a  nutrient  medium  may  be  unfit  for  the 
proper  growth  of  plants,  the  most  important  of  which  are: 

>Bulletin  30,  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
^Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Soils,  by  B.  E.  Livingston,  assist^  by 
J.  F.  Breaseale,  C.  A.  Jensen,  F.  R.  Pember  and  J.  J.  Skinner. 


Soil  Fertility.  623 

first,  that  it  may  be  deficient  in  nutrient  salts;  second,  that 
it  may  have  too  high  a  concentration  of  non-injurious  dis- 
solved substances;  third,  that  it  may  contain  toxic  sub- 
stances in  such  amounts  that  injury  to  the  plant  is  actually 
brought  about.  In  the  experiments  upon  Takoma  Lawn 
soils  the  writers  state  that  the  unproductiveness  of  that 
soil,  (and  the  soil  solutions),  could  be  due  only  to  the  third 
possible  reason,  because  they  obtained  better  growths  in 
distilled  water  and  in  solutions,  to  which  nutrient  salts  had 
been  added,  than  from  the  soil  extracts. 

That  infertility  is  not  due  to  a  lack  of  plant  nutrients  is 
also  shown  by  the  fact  that  highly  enriched  market  gardens 
often  become  unproductive.  The  chemical  analyses  of  such 
soils  show  that  they  are  abundantly  supplied  with  plant 
nutrients  and  yet  there  is  a  noticeable  failure  in  the  attempt 
to  grow  crops  which  at  one  time  flourished  on  these  soils. 
Experiments  have  been  conducted*  which  afforded  evidence 
that  the  growth  of  a  second  crop  is  not  a  question  of  plant 
nutrients  and  the  same  experiments  agreed  in  indicating  that 
the  first  crop  leaves  behind  substances  which  are  toxic  to  the 
following  crops.  There  is  not  only  a  deleterious  effect  of  a 
given  plant  upon  its  own  kind  but,  in  certain  cases,  upon 
different  plants.  Such  successions  are  to  be  avoided  in 
crop  rotation  as  much  as  the  growth  of  a  single  crop.  It 
has  been  observed  that  rye  grass  and  tares  seem  to  poison 
wheat  and  that  thistles  seem  to  poison  oats.  Quite  recently 
an  antagonism  between  peach  trees  and  several  herbaceous 
plants,  commonly  used  as  cover  crops  in  orchards,  has  been 
reported.  It  was  found  that  young  peach  trees  planted  in 
large  pots  in  which  oats  was  also  planted,  shed  their  leaves 
and  matured  early.  The  foliage  of  these  trees  was  not  as 
abundant  as  that  of  other  trees  and  before  falling  turned 
yellow.  The  trees  grown  in  ppts  associated  with  tomatoes 
and  potatoes  were  found  to  be  next  in  order  of  injury  but 
the  yellow  color  of  the  foliage  was  not  as  marked  as  when 

iBuUetio  28.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Soils.  Studies  on  the  Properties  of  an 
Unproductive  Soil. 

sBulletin  40.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Soils.  Some  Factors  Influencing  Soil 
Fertility. 


624  Colorado  College  Publication. 

grown  with  the  oats.  Growth  in  pots  with  beans  and  crimson 
clover  was  not  affected.' 

It  was  found  in  the  cases  of  the  soil  extracts  studied  that 
they  were  greatly  benefited  by  the  treatment  with  carbon 
black.'  A  comparison  of  the  acidity  of  the  treated  and  the 
untreated  soil  extracts  showed  no  decrease  in  that  property 
after  the  carbon  treatment.  Furthermore,  all  of  the  extracts 
studied  as  well  as  the  soils  themselves  were  noticeably 
improved  by  treatment  with  calcium  carbonate.  This  salt 
being  only  slightly  soluble  in  water,  may  be  beneficial 
through  its  absorbing  action  or  through  the  small  amount 
of  soluble  substance  added  to  the  extract.  The  dissolved 
portion  may  show  an  accelerating  action  in  three  ways; 
first,  through  the  nutrient  value  of  the  calcium,  which  is 
very  improbable  on  account  of  the  small  amount  of  this 
element  necessary  for  the  development  of  most  plant  species; 
second,  through  some  physiological  property  of  this  salt 
which  counteracts  the  harmful  effects  of  the  poisons;  third, 
through  some  effect  of  the  calcium  carbonate  upon  the  toxic 
materials.  It  might  be  supposed,  as  has  commonly  been 
done  by  agriculturists  working  with  lime,  that  it  owes  it.s 
beneficial  effects  mainly  to  its  alkalinity  which  enables  it  to 
neutralize  the  acidity  of  the  soil  extract.  It  was  shown  that 
other  alkalies,  such  as  the  hydroxide  and  carbonate  of 
sodium,  do  not  have  the  same  beneficial  effect  as  does  the 
calcium  carbonate.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  action 
of  this  salt  takes  place  through  some  other  channel  and  also 
furnishes  evidence  that  the  toxic  bodies  are  not  mainly 
active  through  their  acidity. 

In  the  case  of  certain  soils  it  has  been  shown  that  if  the 
aqueous  soil  extracts  are  evaporated  to  dryness  and  charred 
to  decompose  the  organic  matter,  and  the  residue  then  taken 
up  again  in  distilled  water,  an  increase  in  plant  growth  is 
obtained.'  Since  the  inorganic  salts,  aside  from  nitrates 
and  hydrated  salts,  are  not  changed  by  this  treatment,  the 

•Hedripk.  Proc.  Soc.  Hort.  Sci.,  1905.  pp.  72-82. 

'Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr..  Bureau  of  Soils,  pp.  22-25.  Also  Bulletin  28.  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Aifr..  Bureau  of  Soils,  pp.  32-37. 

•Bulletin  28,  V.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr..  Bureau  of  Soils,  pp.  29-30. 


Soil  Fertility.  625 

indicatiQns  are  that  the  harmful  properties  of  the  extracts 
are  due  to  organic  substances. 

Summing  up  the  various  lines  of  evidence  on  the  nature 
of  the  toxic  substances  so  far  studied,  it  may  be  said  that 
they  appear  to  be  slightly  soluble  in  water;  that  in  some 
soil  extracts  they  are  volatile  with  steam  and  in  other  ex- 
tracts non- volatile;  that  they  are  usually  accompanied  by 
an  acid  reaction  of  the  soil  extract  but  the  hydrogen  ion  does 
not  appear  to  be  the  direct  cause  of  their  toxicity;  and  that 
they  are  probably  organic  in  nature,  being  absorbed  by 
finely  divided,  insoluble  bodies,  such  as,  ferric  hydroxid, 
aluminum  hydroxid,  carbon  black,  etc.*  The  evidence 
concerning  the  origin  of  these  toxic  substances  is  very 
incomplete. 

When  the  majority  of  soils  are  kept  in  good  productive 
condition,  by  proper  cultivation  and  the  proper  rotation  of 
crops,  it  is  not  probable  that  toxic  products  will  accumulate 
to  an  extent  which  would  be  harmful,  but  when  one  crop 
succeeds  another  of  the  same  kind,  these  excretions  may  not 
be  destroyed  as  rapidly  as  the  best  conditions  for  plant 
growth  require.  Especially  is  this  the  case  if  the  soil  be 
in  a  poor  physical  condition,  unusually  wet  or  dry,  poor  in 
organic  matter,  etc.  If  any  of  the  toxic  bodies  in  the  soil 
result  from  the  decay  of  roots  it  is  evident  that  aeration 
would  be  beneficial,  since  it  favors  the  destruction  of  organic 
matter  by  promoting  the  activities  of  the  soil  organisms  and 
the  processes  of  oxidation.  In  some  types  of  soil,  in- 
fluenced perhaps  by  certain  climatic  environments,  there 
appear  to  exist  conditions  which  are  unusually  favorable  to 
the  rapid  destruction  of  the  toxic  bodies;  such  soils,  when 
planted  year  after  year  to  the  same  crop,  may  not  only 
maintain  their  original  productive  powers,  but  even  in- 
crease them  with  continued  cultivation. 

Part  II — Experimental. 

As  a  part  of  the  investigations  which  form  the  basis  of 
this  paper,  two  sets  of  experiments  were  conducted;  one  set 

'Bulletin  30.  U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Soils,  pages  42  and  46. 


626  Colorado  College  Publication. 

dealing  with  the  growth  of  wheat  seedlings  in  the  soils,  see 
Tables  2,  3  and  4,  and  a  second  set  dealing  with  the  growth 
in  soil  extracts,  see  Tables  5,  6,  7  and  8.  The  experiments 
with  the  soils  were  carried  on  at  one  of  the  greenhouses  of 
the  Pikes  Peak  Floral  Company,  in  Colorado  Springs,  Colo- 
rado. The  wheat  seedlings  were  grown  in  earthenware 
pots,  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  four  to  seven 
seedlings  per  pot,  and  in  shallow  wooden  trays,  known  to 
florists  as  ''flats,"  holding  about  sixty  pounds  of  soil  and 
containing  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  seedlings.  The 
experiments  at  the  greenhouse  were  confined  to  two  soils, 
designated  as  3  and  4.  Number  3  is  a  black,  gravelly  loam, 
found  northeast  of  Colorado  Springs,  and  is  used  by  the 
Floral  Company  as  a  stock  soil  for  their  various  plant  beds. 
Number  4  is  a  sample  of  3,  in  which  carnations  had  been 
grown  for  more  than  one  year. 

Three  crops  of  wheat  seedlings  were  grown  in  each  soil, 
using  a  new  portion  of  3  each  time  for  control.  The  crops 
were  grown  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-four  days,  at 
optimum  water  content  and  at  an  average  temperature  of 
55^  to  65^  Fahrenheit.  At  the  end  of  each  growing  period, 
the  soil  and  plants  were  carefully  removed  from  the  pots  and 
"flats,"  and  the  soil  was  crumbled  and  washed  away  from 
the  roots  and  the  average  plant  and  root  growth  determined.' 
In  each  of  the  experiments  the  seedlings  of  the  controls  and 
of  the  pots  and  "flats"  were  grown  under  the  same  con- 
ditions of  temperature,  moisture  and  sunshine.  The 
chemical  analyses*  showed  that  4  possessed  1.66%  more  of 
acid  soluble  mineral  constituents  than  3,  the  percent  of 
phosphoric  acid  (PjOJ  being  much  higher.  The  high 
phosphorus  content  of  4  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  ground 
bone  was  added  to  the  soil  while  growing  carnations  in  it. 
The  seedlings  in  the  "flats"  showed  greater  development 
of  stems  throughout  the  entire  set  of  experiments  than  did 
,  those  grown  in  the  pots. 

>In  determining  the  pUnt  and  root  growth  the  primmry  stem  and  the  main  root  were 
measured.    Growth  expressed  in  inches  and  in  percents  of  the  growth  of  the  control. 

*For  the  chemical  analyses  of  these  soils  see  Table  I,  page  627. 


Soil  Fertility. 


627 


The  following  Table  shows  the  constituents  determined 
in  the  acid  extracts  of  the  four  soils.  The  soils  were  ex- 
tracted with  hydrochloric  acid,  specific  gravity  1.116,  for 
seventy-two  hours'  at  an  average  temperature  of  TO'-SO" 
Centigrade.  The  methods  of  analysis  were  those  adopted 
by  the  Associated  Agricultural  Chemists  in  1907.^ 

Table  1. 


CoNSTITnENTS  DETERMINED        SoiL  1  SoiL  2  SoiL  3  SoiL  4 


Insoluble  Residue 

Ferric  oxide 

Aluminum  oxide 

Calcium  oxide 

Magnesium  oxide 

Sodium  oxide 

Potassium  oxide 

Phosphoric  acid  (P,0,) 

Sulphur 

Nitrogen  (total) 


.488% 

.360 

,740 

.320 

,810 

,791 

,512 

,255 

,177 

,232 


72.487% 
3.200 
6.920 
2.530 
0.100 
1.512 
0.079 
0.249 
1.040' 
0.116 


78. 
3. 
6. 
1. 
0. 
0. 
0. 
0. 
0. 
0. 


170% 

510 

080 

510 

690 

425 

515 

279 

060 

238 


510% 

,690 

620 

,360 

,650 

,581 

.571 

.410 

.050 


The  results  obtained  from  the  experiments  with  the 
wheat  seedlings  in  the  soils,  both  in  the  pots  and  "flats," 
as  shown  in  Tables  2,  3  and  4,  indicate  that  the  previous 
growth  of  carnations  in  4  affected  that  soil  in  such  a  way 
that  it  yielded  a  much  inferior  growth  of  seedlings.  It  was 
also  evident  that  the  growth  of  one  crop  of  wheat  seedlings 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  some  substance,  or  substances, 
which  retarded  the  growth  of  following  crops,  even  when 
grown  only  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-four  days. 

As  to  the  causes  of  the  effects  produced  by  the  growth 
of  carnation  plants  upon  wheat  seedlings  and  also  the  effect 
of  one  crop  of  seedlings  upon  a  following  one,  the  writer  has 
no  experimental  evidence  to  offer.     That  the  effects  were 

^Official  eztractioD  period  is  ten  hours. 

'See  Bulletin  107  (revised),  V.  S.  Dept.  of  Acr.,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Official  and 
Provisional  Methods  of  Analysis,  pp.  13-20. 

'High,  contaminated  by  iron,  determination  not  repeated. 

'Determination  not  made. 


628 


Colorado  College  Publication. 


due  to  the  removal  of  the  available  supply  of  plant  foods  is 
not  probable,  for  the  plants  were  grown  only  a  short  time 
and  chemical  analyses,  before  and  after  three  crops  of  seed- 
lings were  grown  in  the  soil,  gave  the  same  percentages  of 
the  various  constituents.  The  acid  extractions  of  3  and  4 
show  that  4  possesses  1.66%  more  of  acid  soluble  material 
and  indicated  that  the  poor  growth  was  not  due  to  a  dearth 
of  the  necessary  plant  foods. 

The  following  tables  indicate  the  results  obtained   in 
growing  wheat  seedlings  in  the  soil. 


Table  2.      Wheat  Seedlings  Grown  in  Pots. 


CuLTUREH  Grown  in 

Number  of  daya 
grown. 

Number  of  plant, 
•tudied. 

is 

II 

< 

i! 

•< 

J 

< 

l| 
1- 

£"5 

< 

Soil  3 

24a 

34 

8.5 

100.00 

5.9 

lOO.OO 

Soil  4 

24 

28 

7.0 

82.35 

10.4 

176.27 

Soil<  1 

24 

8 

4.7 

55.30 

4.6 

77.96 

Soil'  3 

236 

21 

9.6 

100.00 

7.3 

100.00 

Soil' 3 

23 

21 

8.7 

90.62 

8.7 

119.17 

SoilM 

23 

24 

8.1 

84.38 

9.1 

124.66 

Soil' 3 

21c 

12 

7.8 

100.00 

6.9 

100.00 

Soil'  3 

21 
21 

12 
11 

6.9 
6.6 

88.46 
84.36 

11.3 
11.5 

163.76 

SoilM 

166.66 

'Virgin  soil,  fresh  sample  used  each  time, — controls. 

'Second  crop  of  seedlinffs  in  the  same  soil. 

'Third  crop  of  seedlings  in  the  same  soil. 

*The  physical  condition  of  this  soil  was  such  that  it  packed  very  solid  and  baked  on 
top.     Only  the  one  attempt  made  with  the  seedlings  in  this  soil. 

aGrown  from  February  2  to  26,  1914. 

fcGrown  from  Februar>'  26  to  March  21,  1914. 

rClrown  from  March  21  to  April  11,  1914. 


Soil  Fertility.         '  629 

Table  3.     Wheat  Seedlings  Grown  in  ''Flats.*' 


Cultures  Grown  in 

1 

O 

s 
S 

"ft 

i« 

Ma 

If 

1 

e 
l.S 

^1 

3  • 

ll 

So 

|| 

Ȥ 

h 

z 

Z 

< 

■< 

-< 

•< 

Soil    3 

24o 

36 

10.0 

100.00 

4.5 

100.00 

Soil   4 

24 

37 

7.8 

78.00 

6.0 

133.33 

Soil' 3 

236 

33 

12.2 

100.00 

4.4 

100.00 

Soil«3 

23 

33 

11.5 

94.26 

5.0 

113.63 

Soil'  4 

23 

32 

8.0 

65.57 

6.0 

136.36 

Soil' 3 

21c 

22 

8.7 

100.00 

4.1 

100.00 

Soil' 3 

21 
21 

10 
10 

6.9 
5.4 

79.31 
62.05 

4.8 
4.4 

117.07 

Soil'  4 

107.31 

Table  4. 


Soil   3 

Soil   4 

....      24a 
....      24 

36 
37 

10.0 

7.8 

100.00 
78.00 

4.5 
6.0 

100.00 
133.33 

Soil   3 

Soil   4 

....      47rf 
....      47 

15 
14 

17.4 
14.4 

100.00 
82.76 

4.6 
4.3 

100.00 
93.48 

Soil   3 

Soil   4 

....      68e 
....      68 

14 
9 

24.0 
15.6 

100.00 
65.00 

7.0 
5.0 

100.00 
71.43 

Much  work  has  been  done  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  of 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  in  attempting  to  show 
that  plants  secrete  toxic  substances,  of  an  organic  nature, 
which  have  a  retarding  effect  upon  plant  growth^.     A  num- 

*  Virgin  soil,  fresh  sample  used  each  time,  controls. 

'Second  crop  of  seedlings  in  the  same  soil. 

'Third  crop  of  .seedlings  in  the  same  soil. 

<See  Bulletins  23,  28,  36,  40,  V.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr..  Bureau  of  Soils. 

aGrown  from  February  2  to  26.  1914. 

feGrown  from  February  26  to  March  21.  1914. 

rGrown  from  March  21  to  April  U,  1914. 

r/Grown  from  February  2  to  March  21.  1914. 

«'Grown  from  February  2  to  April  11.  1914. 


630  Colorado  College  Publication. 

ber  of  organic  substances  have  been  isolated  from  soils  and 
some  experiments  conducted  to  ascertain  their  effects  upon 
growing  plants.*  The  idea  that  substances,  having  a 
deleterious  effect  upon  plant  growth,  are  produced  in  the 
soil,  seems  plausible,  but  the  theory  that  these  substances 
are  the  result  of  plant  excretion,  does  not  seem  to  be 
acceptable,  nor  is  it  sufficiently  supported  by  experimental 
evidence.  In  some  cases  we  are  led  to  believe  that  harm- 
ful substances  are  produced  in  the  soil  by  the  decay  of  plant 
roots  and  we  may,  in  the  years  to  come,  find  conclusive 
evidence  that  some  plants  do  secrete  substances,  toxic  to 
themselves  and  to  closely  related  plants,  but  does  it  not 
seem  more  probable  that  the  many  kinds  of  soil  organisms 
might  play  a  more  important  part  than  either  of  the  above, 
in  the  formation  of  complex  organic  substances,  some  of 
which  are  toxic  to  the  various  forms  of  plant  life?  It  has 
been  found^  that  the  use  of  certain  volatile  antiseptics,  such 
as  toluene  and  chloroform,  improve  the  productiveness  of 
some  soils.  Partial  sterilization  by  heating  the  soil  has  also 
given  some  beneficial  results. ^ 

Along  this  same  line,  L.  H.  Bolley*,  in  speaking  of 
soil  sanitation  with  regard  to  certain  cereal  crops  says: 
**Our  older  wheat  soils  are  'sick'  in  large  areas  in  exactly 
the  same  sense  as  certain  cotton  lands  are  sick  with  root 
rots  *  *  *  ;  in  the  same  sense  as  old  potato  lands  which 
produce  rot  and  scab;  in  the  same  sense  as  the  Germans 
recognized  when  they  spoke  of  flax  being  a  bad  crop  to 
raise  because  it  produced  ^Bodenmuedigkeit,'  *  flax-sick' 
conditions.  I  am  now  able  to  recognize  such  wheat-sick 
areas  *  *  *  .  How  many  distinct  parasitic  organisms  it 
takes  to  make  a  typical  wheat-sick  soil,  we  cannot  yet 
affirm,  but  our  experiments  are  sufficiently  extensive  for  us 
to  state  that  at  least  five  such  parasites  are  persistent 
internally  in  most  seed  wheat,  parasites  which  enter  the 

^See  Bulletin  88.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Soib;  alao  see  an  artiole  by  O. 
ScbreiDer.  in  Science,  36,  pp.  577-587.  Same  in  Circular  74,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bureau  of 
Soils,  1913. 

>A.  D.  Hall,  Nature.  89,  1912.  pp.  648-651. 

«L.  H.  Bolley.  North  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  Science,  32,  1910.  pp.  529-541. 


Soil  Fertility.  631 

seed  before  it  matures  and  which  are  carried  over  to  the 
next  generation  *  *  *  .  All  of  these  types  of  diseased' 
grain  breed  true,  that  is,  a  diseased  grain  will  carry  diseases 
to  the  soil,  *  ♦  *  and  the  disease  will  be  manifested  in  the- 
seed  of  the  progeny,  and  will  persist  in  the  soil  so  as  to  attacks 
the  following  crop  of  wheat.  These  conditions  may  be 
bettered  by  seed  and  soil  sterilization  but  the  methods  are 
not  applicable  to  farm  operations.  Large  arfas  of  the 
world's  wheat  soils  are  not  depleted  chemically  but  rather 
contaminated  with  many  diseases  that  wheat  is  heir  to,  and 
a  number  of  these  diseases  are  transmissible  to  nearly 
related  crops.'* 

The  soil  extracts  used  in  the  experiments  were  prepared 
by  treating  two  hundred  parts,  by  weight,  of  soil  with  five 
hundred  parts  of  carbon  treated*  hydrant  water;  this  mix- 
ture was  stirred  five  minutes,  allowed  to  settle  twenty 
minutes  and  filtered  through  a  thick  layer  of  finely  shredded 
asbestos.  This  solution,  after  shaking  several  minutes  to 
aerate,  was  placed  in  salt-mouth,  glass  jars  of  about  eighty 
cubic  centimeters  capacity.  Corks,  with  suitable  notches 
for  the  plants,  were  fitted  closely  so  that  practically  all  loss 
*  of  moisture  was  that  of  plant  transpiration.  (There  was 
undoubtedly  loss  by  evaporation  but  the  jars  had  the  same 
sized  openings  and  the  corks  were  fitted  in  the  same  way  to 
all.)  Three  wheat  seedlings  of  uniform  size  were  placed  in 
each  of  the  jars,  which  were  then  wrapped  in  black  paper  to 
protect  the  roots  from  strong  sunlight.  Two  and  three 
jars  were  prepared  from  each  extract  and  each  jar  designated 
as  a  ''culture.''  After  weighing  at  room  temperature,  the 
jars  were  placed  in  a  sunny  room  and  kept  at  a  temperature 
averaging  55°-70°  Fahrenheit  for  eleven  to  sixteen  days. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  the  jars  were  again  weighed,  the 
transpiration  determined,  and  the  length  of  the  primary 
stem  and  root  determined.  (By  transpiration  is  meant  the 
amount  of  water  given  off  by  a  plant  or  a  number  of  plants.) 

The  wheat  seedlings  used  in  these  experiments  were 
sprouted  on  floating  disks,  of  paraffined  iron  wire,  until  the 

>Iq  treating  the  water  with  carbon  black,  ten  grams  of  carbon  were  used  for  each 
litre  of  water;  this  solution  was  stirred  five  minutes  and  filtered  at  the  end  df  thirty  minutes. 


632  Colorado  College  Publication. 

first  leaf  broke  through  the  sheath,  fresh  water  being  added 
every  twenty-four  hours. 

The  soil  extracts  were  neutral  to  litmus  and  methyl 
orange  but  faintly  acid  to  phenolphthalein.  No  change 
could  be  determined  in  their  reaction  after  the  seedlings  had 
been  grown  in  the  extracts,  eleven  to  sixteen  days. 

The  chemicals  used  were  of  the  very  best  quality  and 
every  precaution  was  taken  to  see  that  they  were  free  from 
impurities.  In  testing  the  carbon  black  it  was  found  to 
contain  .118%  ash,  which  proved  to  be  oxides  of  iron  and 
aluminum. 

The  problem  of  obtaining  distilled  water  suitable  for 
plant  culture  is  one  which  remains  to  be  solved.  In  the 
literature  upon  this  subject  there  seems  to  be  wide  differ- 
ences of  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of  the  apparent  toxicity  of 
distilled  water  for  plants.  Lyon,*  in  a  study  of  distilled 
water  and  its  toxic  properties,  at  the  Wood's  Hole  Experi- 
ment Station,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  toxicity 
observed  in  his  experiments  might  be  due  to  the  presence  of 
traces  of  ammonia. 

The  hydrant  water  in  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado,  con- 
tains forty  to  fifty  parts  per  million  of  solid  matter.  The 
average  ammonia  content  is  .0005  parts  per  million.  The 
water  distilled  from  potassium  dichromate  and  sulphuric 
acid  was  found  to  contain  .00013  parts  of  ammonia  per 
million  and  the  hydrant  water  after  carbon  treatment  con- 
tained .00044  parts  of  ammonia  per  million.  Since  the 
hydrant  water  and  the  carbon  treated  hydrant  water  pro- 
duced better  plant  growth  than  did  the  distilled  water,  it 
does  not  seem  possible  to  attribute  the  inferior  growth  in 
the  distilled  water  to  the  presence  of  ammonia. 

The  results  obtained  from  the  work  with  the  soil  ex- 
tracts were;  first,  that  ordinary  hydrant  water  was  a  better 
medium  for  the  growth  of  wheat  seedlings  than  distilled 
water,  also  that  carbon  treated  hydrant  water  was  a  better 
medium   for   plant   growth   than   carbon   treated   distilled 

»E.  P.  Lyon,  A  Biological  Examination  of  Distilled  Water,  Biol.  Bull.  6,  1904. 


Soil  Fertility.  633 

water  ;^  second,  that  water,  in  contact  with  sprouting  wheat 
for  twenty-four  hours,  yielded  the  poorest  growth  obtained 
and  that  the  above  solution  was  not  materially  benefited 
by  carbon  treatment  nor  by  five  minutes  boiling.  ^  No 
other  satisfactory  results  were  obtained  from  the  study  of 
the  soil  extracts,  for  under  the  same  conditions,  vastly 
dififerent  figures  for  transpiration,  plant  and  root  growth, 
were  obtained  with  the  different  sets  of  cultures.  As  a 
result  of  the  experiments  with  the  soil  extracts,  it  would 
seem  that  to  study  the  fertility  of  soils  by  this  method,  the 
experiments  must  be  conducted  for  a  longer  period  of  time. 
E.  J.  Russel,*  in  discussing  the  experiments  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Soils^  makes  the 
point  that  the  experiments  were  not  conducted  for  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  and,  that  even  if  it  were  proven  that 
the  wheat  seedlings  secreted  toxic  substances,  there  were  no 
reasons  why  it  should  be  assumed  that  such  would  be  the 
case  with  maturfe  plants.  As  is  shown  in  Table  4,  page 
629,  some  of  the  wheat  seedlings  were  grown  for  68  days 
and  still  the  retarding  effect  of  the  carnation  soil  on  the 
wheat  seedlings  was  clearly  shown. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  wishes  to  make  acknowledg- 
ment to  the  many  writers  on  agricultural  chemistry,  both 
to  the  writers  of  articles  appearing  in  the  current  scientific 
papers  and  to  those  who  have  published  their  writings  in 
book  form,  for  the  many  ideas  gained  from  them.  Wherever 
possible,  full  reference  has  been  made  in  the  footnotes  to  the 
source  of  the  quoted  article.  No  startling  claims  are  made 
in  this  paper  but  the  writer  hopes  to  have  indicated,  by 
experiments  with  the  soils,  that  the  growing  of  carnation 
plants  in  a  soil  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  does  result 
in  the  formation  of  substances  which  retard  the  growth  of 
other  plants,  and  that  the  present  plan  of  using  soil  ex- 
tracts as  a  means  of  determining  the  productiveness  of  soils 
does  not  seem  to  yield  any  definite  or  valuable  results. 

iSee  Table  5.  page  634,  and  Table  6,  page  635. 
sSee  Table  6.  page  635. 

*E.  J.  Ruasel.  of  Rothamstead  Experiment  Station,  "Alleged  excretion  of  toxic 
substances,"  Nature,  78,  1908.  pp.  402-3. 

♦Previously  mentioned  in  the  historical  part  of  this  paper,  pp.  615-625. 


634 


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t4  ^  ^  ti^  t^  t^ 

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.  15. 

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tt 

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30. 

LANGUAGE  SERIES— Vol.  11. 

A  Note  Upon  Dryden's  Heroic  Staiizas  on  the  Death  of  Crom- 
well.— Edward  S.  Parsons. 

Some  Defects  in  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages. — Starr 
WillardCiUHng,  University  of  Chicago. 

A  Plea  for  More  Spanish  in  the  Schoob  of  Colorado. — Elijah 
Clarence  Hills. 

The  Evolution  of  Maeterlinck's  Dramatic  TheoTy.-r-Elijdh  dor- 
-ence  HiUsj 

A  Study  of  English  Blank  Vei^se,  1568-1632.— PrisciZia  Fletcher, 

Lowell's  Conception  of  Poetry. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 

The  Church  and  Education^— jBdte^ord  S.  Parsons. 

Litetature  as  a  Force  in  Character  Building. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 

Relation  of  the  Some  to  the  Critninal. — Edward  S.  Parsons.     ^ 

Jonson  and  Milton  on  Shakespeare. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 

Rousseau  and  Wordsworth. — Homer  E.  Woodbridge. 

The  Supernatural  iii  Hawthorne  and  Toe.^-Benjamin  Mather 
Woodbridge. 

"Much  Ado  About  Nothing"  and  Ben  JonsonV  "The  Case  is 
Altered."— flomer  jB.  Woodbridge. 

A  Note  on  "Henry  Y."— Homer  E.  Woodbridge. 

The  Pike's  Peak  Region  in  Song  and  Myth. — Elijah  Clarence  Hills. 

Some  Spanish-American  Votis.— Elijah  Clarence  Hills. 

ENGINEERING  SEfelES— Vol.  L 

No.  L  The  Fusibility  and  Fluidity  of  Titanif erous  Silicates. — L.  C.  Len- 
nox and  C.  N.  Cox,  Jr. 

"      2.    The  Design  of  a  Low-Tension  Switch-Board.— F^non  T.Brigham* 

"      3.    The  Roasting  of  Telluride  Ores.— 12.  L.  Mack  and  G.  H.Scibird. 

*'      4.     Further  Notes  on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado. — Edward  B.  Warren. 

"      5.    The  Movement  of  Light  in  Crystids. — Oeorge  I.  Finlay. 

"      6;    Aaron  Palmer's  Computing  Scale. — Florian  Cajori. 

**     7.    John  E.  Fuller's  Circular  Slide  Rules. — Florian  Cajori. 

"  8. ,  A  Proposed  list  of  Experiments  for  a  Course  in  Electrical  Engi- 
.      neering  Laboratory.— rJoAn  Mitts. 

'*      9.    An  Outline  of  Mineralogy. — Oeorge  I.  Finlay    ' 

"    10.    On  the  Invention  of  the  Slide  l^xxle.— Florian  Cajori. 

'*  11.  A  Study  of  the  Advisability  of  Electrification  of  the  Arkansas 
"  Junction-Basalt  Division  of  the  Colorado  Midland  Railroad. 
— Abstract  by  Oeorge  B.  Thomas. 

"  12.  Notes  on  a  Graphical  Method  of  Dealing  with  Water  Supply, — 
William  A.  BartiettJ 

'[  13.  The  Effect  of  Altitude  on  the  Heating  of  Electrical  Machines.^— 
George  B.  Thomas. 

"    14.    Field  Practice  in  Surveying. — Frank  M.  Okey.  ^ 

"    15.    Shop  Courses  in  Technical  Education.r— i^Tckon  R.  Love. 

/'    16.     Notes  on  the  Early  History  of  the  Slide  Rule. — Florian  Cajori. 


6 


COLORADO  COLLEGE  PUj^lfe^TO)N 

GENERAL  SERIES  NO.  Kij/    '%      %;-^^ 
SQENCE  SERIES.  Vol.  XH.  No.  15.  P^ga^e^g^Ss!  ^  ^,  ^^>A?^ 


^. 


ON  NON-RULED  OCTIC  SUltFACES  WHOSE 
PLANE  SECTIONS  ARE  ELUPTIC 

—By- 
Charles  H.  SiSAM,  PH.  D. 


COLORADO  SPRINGS.  COLORADO 
NOVEMBER.  1919. 

Published  by  Authority  of  the  Board  oi  Trustees  of  Colorado  College 
Every  Six  Weeks-  Daring  the  Academic  Year. 

SnUred  u  second-cl«n  matter.  September  n.  1$0S,  at  the  Post  OfQce  In  Colonido  Sprins*, 
Colorado,  under  Act  of  Consresg  of  July.  190<<. 


Editor-in-Chief ;.._„ C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D. 

S.  F.  BEMis,  PH.  D. 

Committee  on  Publications       )   5'  ^'  P^'TTEE,  A.  M. 

a  H.  SiSAM,  PH.  D. 
S.  Thompson 

-  P        ■  •  -<m  .  ■  ■  ■  ■ ■       ■    " 

SCIENCE  SERIES— Vol.  XII. 

Noc  1-29  Sei«nc«  S«rl«a,  1-4  Social  Sci«nc«  S«riM  and  l'-14  Lan«rxias«  Sert«s.  hikv«  appeared 
lo  Colorada  Callet«  PoUicaUoBt,  Vols.  1-10  Inclusive.  Nos.  1-17  Scicnc*  S«rlcs.  1^  Sbciml  SHcsce 
Saries  and  1-0  LaatfUAtfe  $«ii««  arc  out  of  print. 

No.     1.    The  Myxomycetes  of  Ck)lorado. — W.  C.  Sturgis. 
"      2.    Stellar  Variability  and  its  Causes. — F.  H.  Loud. 
"      3.    On  the  Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations,  by  Erland 

Samuel   Bring    (1786), — Translated  and  Annotated   by 

Florian  Cajori. 
'*      4.    A  Comparison  of  Temperatures  (1906)  Between  Colorado 

Springs  and  Lake  Moraine* — F.  H.  Loud. 
5.    Meteorological  Statistics  for  1907.— F.  H.  Loud. 
"      6.    The   Distribution   of  Woody  Plants   in   the   Pikes    Peak 

Region. — E.  C.  Schneider. 
''      7.    A  History  of  the  Arithmetical  Methods  of  Approximation 

to  the  Roots  of  Numerical.  Ekiuations  of  One  Unknown 

Quantity. — Florian  Cajori. 
"      8.    The  Succession  of  Plant  Life  on  the  Gravel  Slides  in  the 

Vicinity  of  Pikes  Peak. — E.  C.  Schneider. 
"      9.    The  History  of  Colorado  Manmialogy. — Edivard  R.  Warren. 
"     10.    The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado.— 3/attrice  C.  Hail. 
"     11.    A  Guide  to  the  Botanical  Literature  of  the  Myxomycetes 

from  1875  to  1^X2.— William  C.  Sturgis. 
"     12.    The  Myxomycetes  of  C61orado,II.— IF.  C.  Sturgis. 
•*     13.    The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado,  I  and  XL — Charles 

E.  H.  Aiken  and  Edward  R.  Warr^cn. 
"     14.     Soil  Fertility.— Giei/  Wendell  Clark. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE  SERIES— Vol.  II. 

No.  11,    The  Present  Status  and  Probable  Future  of  the  College  in 
the  West. — William  F.  Sloeum. 
"     12.    The  Relation  of  Scholarship  to  Partial  Self-Suport  in  Col- 
lege.— Guy  Harry  Albright. 
"     13.     The  Growth  of  Colorado  College.— Edited  by  Jessie   B. 

Motten. 
'*     14.    Report  on  College  and  University  Administration.    Part  I: 
"     15.     Report  on  College  and  University  Administration,    Part  IL 


»*AftrARO  CCLLLGi  LIBRAIT 

ClfTOf  THE 

a^fACUAU  SCHCOl  CF  eatiCATiti 

U$U  mSTITUTt  CHUCTItt 

•iv.  1^  itn 


ON  NON-RULED  OCTIC  SURFACES 

WHOSE  PLANE  SECTIONS 

ARE  ELLIPTIC 

-By- 
CHARLES  H.  SISAM.  Ph.  D. 


SCIENCE  SERIES 


Volume  XII 

Number  15 

Colorado  Springs.  Colo. 


ON  NON-RULED  CCTIC  SURFACES  WHOSE  PLANE 
SECTIONS  ARE  ELLIPTIC 

By  Charles  H.  Sisam 


1 .  The  genus  of  the  plane  sections  of  a  non-ruled  surface 
of  order  greater  than  four  has  been  shown  by  Picard*  to  be  at 
least  equal  to  unity.  Castelnuovo  has  shownf  that,  if  the 
genus  of  the  plane  sections  does  not  exceed  two,  the  surface  is 
rational.  It  follows  further,  from  results  obtained  by  del 
PezzoJ  that,  if  the  rational  surface  is  of  order  eight  and  is 
intersected  by  a  generic  plane  in  an  elliptic  curve,  it  belongs  to 
one  q{  two  types.  Those  of  the  first  type  can  be  birationally 
represented  on  a  plane  in  such  a  way  that  the  plane  sections 
correspond,  to  a  linear  system  of  quartic  curves  having  two 
fundamental  double  points.  They  are  characterized  by  the 
property  that  two  conies  which  lie  entirely  on  the  surface  pass 
through  each  point  of  the  surface.  The  surfaces  of  this  type 
were  discussed  by  the  author  in  an  article  in  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Pure  and  Applied  Mathematics,  Vol.  47  (1916). 
They  will  not  be  considered  further  here.  The  surfaces  of  the 
second  type  can  be  represented  on  a  plane  in  such  a  way  that 
the  plane  sections  correspond  to  a  linear  system  of  cubic  curves 
through  a  fixed  point  P.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to 
point  out  the  fundamental  properties  of  the  surfaces  of  this 
second  type. 

2.  If  we  take  the  point  P  as  the  vertex  (0,0, 1)  of  the  tri- 
angle of  reference  in  the  representative  plane,  the  parametric 
equations  of  the  surface  take  the  form 

1=1.2.3.4 

with  the  restriction  that  a^  =  0. 

3.  To  the  directions  through  the  point  P=  (0,0, 1)  cor- 
respond points  on  a  line  g  on  the  surface  defined  parametrically 
by  the  equations 

*Crelle*s  Journal,  Vol.  100,  pg.  71 . 
tRendeconti  dei  Lincei,  Series  V,  Vol.  3. 
tRendiconti  de  Palermo,  Vol.  1. 


<i 

19. 

ti 

20. 

ti 

21. 

it^ 

22, 

41 

23.. 

it 

24. 

tt 

25. 

«f 

26. 

It 

27. 

it 

28. 

<( 

29. 

<( 

30. 

LANGUAGE  SERIES— Vol.  11. 

No.  15.    A  Nx)te  Upon  Dry  den's  Heroic  Staxizae  on  the  Death  of  Crom- 
well.— Edward  S,  Parsons. 
"     16.    Soma  Defects  in  the  Teaching  of  Modem  Languages. — Starr 

WiUard  CiUHng,  University  o/  Chicago. 
"     17.    A  Plea  for  More  Spanish  in  the  Schools  of  Colorado. — Elijah 

Clarence  Hills. 
"    18.    The  Evolution  of  Maeterlinck's  Dramatic  Theory .T-^KjaA  Clar- 
-ence  Hitls^ 

A  Study  of  English  Blank  Verse,  1558-1632.— PrwciZIa  Fletcher, 

Lowell's  Conception  of  Poetry. — Edward  S,  Parsons. 

The  Church  and  Education^ — Edward  S.  Parsons. 

Literature  as  a  Force  in  Character  Building. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 

Relation  of  the  Home  to  the  Criminal. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 

Jonson  and  Milton  on  Shakespeare. — Edward  S.  Parsons. 

Rousseau  and  Wordsworth. — Homer  E.  Woodbridge. 

The  Supernatural  in  Hawthorne  and  Poe, — Benjamin  Mather 
Woodbridge. 

^'Much  Ado  About  Nothing"  and  Ben  Jonson's'  "The  Case  is 
Altered."— Bomcr  E.  Woodbridge. 

A  Note  on  ''Henry  V." — Homer  E.  Woodbridge. 

The  Pike's  Peak  Region  in  Song  and  Myth. — Elijah  Clarence  Hills. 

Some  Spanish-American  Poets. — Elijah  Clarence  Hills. 

ENGINEERING  SERIES— Vou  I. 

No.    L     The  Fusibility  and  Fluidity  of  Titaniferous  Silicates. — L.  C,  Len- 
nox and  C.  N.  Cox,  Jr. 

"      2.    The  Design  of  a  Low-Tension  Switch-Board.— y^rnon  T.  Brigham. 

''      3.     The  Roasting  of  Telluride  Ores.— fl.  L.  Mack  and  G.  H.  Sdbird. 

"      4.     Further  Notes  on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado. — Edward  R.  Warren. 

"      5.    The  Movement  of  Light  In  Crystals. — George  I.  Finlay. 

"      6.     Aaron  Palmer's  Computing  Scale. — Florian  Cajori. 

"      7.    John  E.  Fuller's  Circular  Slide  Rules. — Florian  Cajori. 

"      8. ,  A  Proposed  List  of  Experiments  for  a  Course  in  Electrical  Engi- 
neering Laboratory.— rJaAn  Mills. 

"      9.     An  Outline  of  Mineralogy. — George  I.  Finlay    ' 

"    10.     On  the  Invention  of  the  Slide  'Rule.— Florian  Cajori. 

*'    11.     A  Study  of  the  Advisability  of  Electrification  of  the  Arkansas 
'    Junction-Basalt  Division  of  the  Colorado  Midland  Railroad. 
— Abstract  by  George  B.  Thomas. 

"    12.  '  Notes  on  a  Graphical  Method  of  Dealing  with  Water  Supply, — 
William  A.  BatUetL 

*'    13.    The  Effect  of  Altitude  on  the  Heating  of  Electrical  Machines.^— 
George  B.  Thomas. 

*'    14.  ^  Field  Practice  in  Surveying.— Frani  ilf.  Okey.  "^ 

"    15.    Shop  Courses  in  Technical  Education.— iVekon  R.  Love. 
, "    16.     Notes  on  the  Early  History  of  the  Slide  Rule.— Florian  Cajori. 


COLORADO  COLLEGE  PUj^!i&^^ 

GE^^ERAL  SERIES  NO.  lOfr;     ^^    v '^"^ 

?.  Vol.  xn.  No.  15.  ptga^jb^^sl^^/  -y,/:^ 


SCIENCE  SEEUES. 


ON  NON.RULED  OCTIC  SURFACES  WHOSE 
PLANE  SECTIONS  ARE  ELUPTIC 

— By-^ 
Charles  H.  Sisam,  PH.  D. 


COLORADO  SPRINGS.  COLORADO 
NOVEMBER,  1919. 

Published  by  Authority  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  Colorado  College 
Every  Six  Weeks- During  the  Academic  Year. 

SnUrdd  aa  Beeon<^cI«n  matter.  September  2S.  1905.  at  the  Post  Office  In  Colorado  Sprinfff, 
Colorado,  under  Act  of  Conorreis  of  July.  IdO^I. 


644      Colorado  College  Publication 


Q,  also  contains  the  point  corresponding  to  Q?.  Conversefy 
every  nodal  cubic  on  the  surface  corresponds  to  a  right  line 
joining  two  corresponding  points  of  C/.  We  conclude  that 
there  is  a  unique  cubic  on  the  surface  which  has  a  node  at  a 
given  point  of  the  double  curve,  that  the  double  curve  is  of 
genus  six  (Art.  9)  and  that  the  locus  of  the  lines  joining  cor- 
responding points  of  C>  coincides  with  the  locus  corresponding 
to  plane  cubic  curves. 

The  points  at  which  Q,  and  Qt  coincide  correspond  to 
pinch-points.  There  are  twenty  such  points  (Art.  7).  Each 
pinch-point  is  a  cusp  on  a  plane  cubic  on  the  surface. 

Since  the  arithmetic  genus  of  the  surface  is  zero,  the  nodaf 
curve  has  twenty  triple  points  w  hich  are  also  triple  points  on 
the  surface.  The  corresponding  twenty  trios  of  points  in  the 
\-plane  are  double  points  on  C  which  is  thus  of  genus  twenty- 
one. 

12.  1  he  equation  of  the  conic  on  the  surface  defined  by 
the  equation  /.  i  =  k  Xo  (Art.  4)  is  found  by  substituting  this 
value  of  Xi  into  ( I )  and  eliminating  Xj  and  X3.     The  result  is 

X,  a^^k  +  aJ,^  a^\lk'  +  a^};,k+''^  a^uk'+ a i\.k^ + a\^k+ a'^  \(b) 

Xo  ai^  +  a^  ajfak^-hai'ijk -f-aia  amk^+axlk^+a^Vk  +  a-^j  ' 

Xi  ai^i  +  a^  a;i,k^+a'i,k+a:l,  ai?,k»-ha,?:k2-hai?.k-f aii    -O 

\*  ailak  +  a-^  amk'-haiak  +  a.^  aitik^-fajtsk^-hai-J^k-hayJ.  ' 

As  the  line  Xi  =  k  X?  describes  the  pencil  with  vertex  at 
(0,0, 1 ),  it  is  seen  from  the  above  equation  that  the  planes  of  the 
corresponding  conies  generate  a  developable  of  class  six.  Five 
planes  of  this  de\cIopable  contain  the  line  g  (Art.  10). 

13.  Let  the  equation  of  the  system  of  planes  (6)  be  written 
in  the  form 

Lo  k«+L,  k^+L,  k^-fLa  k'-f L,  k*+L,  k-hL«=o      (7) 
wherein  Li  =  o  (i  =  o.  I..  .  .t>)  is  the  equation  of  a  plane.     The 
conic  on  the  surface  in  the  plane  k  =  const,  is  the  curve  of  inter- 
section of  this  plane  with  the  quadric  defined  by  the  same  value 
of  k  of  a  system  of  quadrics 

Q.  k^+Q,  k*+Q,  k^+Q.  k=+Q,  k+Q,  =  o  (8) 

wherein  Q,  =  0  is  the  equation  of  a  quadric* 

*Cf.  the  author,  American  Journal  of  Mathematics,  Vol. 
30,  pg.  103. 


OcTic  SuitPACEs  With  Elliptic  Surfaces     645 


Since  the  given  surface  is  of  order  eight,  nine  quadrics  of 
this  system  have  the  corresponding  planes  (7)  as  components. 
It  is  no  restriction  to  suppose  that  these  nine  quadrics  are  con- 
secutive at  for  k  infinite.  For,  if  the  plane  k=^a  is  a  com*ponent 
of  the  corresponding  quadric,  then 
Qo a^+Qi  a^+Q,  a^+Qa a^+Q, a+Q.-L'  (L« a«+Li  a^+L, a^+ 

Laa'+L^a^+L,  a+Le) 
Hence  k  — a  is  a  factor  of  the  left  member  of  the  identity 
U  (Lo  kHL,  kHL,  k^+L,  k'+L.  k=+L,  k+L.)-(Qo  k^+Q, 

k*+Q.  kHQ.  k^+Q4  k-f  Q.)  =  o. 
If  we  remove  the  factor  k  — a,  we  determine  the  equation  of  a 
system,  of  quadrics  which  is  intersected  by  the  planes  (7)  in  the 
given  system  of  conies  and  such  that  Lo  is  a  CvO^/iponent  of  the 
corresponding  quadric.  If  we  replace  the  system  (8)  by  this 
new  system  and  repeat  the  above  operation  successively,  we 
determine  a  system  of  quadrics  whose  equation  can  be  written 
in  the  form 
Lo  L\  k^+(L,  L',+L«  L';)  k*+  (L,  L\-f  L,  L':+L«  L'e)  k^+ 

(L,  L«.+  L.  L't+L,  L'.4Lo  L\)  k^  (9) 

+  (L,  L'.+L,  L%+L,  L',  +  L,  L'a  L„  L',)  k+  (L^  L'h+ 
L,  L';+La  L\+L,  L%+L,  L'aLo  L%)  =  o/ 

wherein  the  linear  functions  Ln,  L*; satisfv  the  identities 

L.  L\+U  L';+L.  L'.+L,  L',+L,  L\+L,  LS+Lo  L%  =  o 
L«  LS+Li  U,+L,  L'.+La  L'^+L,  L',+L,  L',+Lo  L',  =  o  (10) 
Le  L'.+Ls  L'.+L.  L\+L,  L%+L,  I/.+L,  L',+Lo  L'.  =  o. 

From  (7),  (9)  and  the  identities  (10)  it  follows  that  the 
system,  of  conies  on  the  surface  is  also  determined  as  the  inter- 
section of  (7)  with  any  one  of  the  svstems  of  quadrics 
LoL'.k*+(L,L'.+L.L',)k^+(L,L%+L,L'.+  LoL\)k'-h 

(Lal.'.+L.L'.,+L,L',+L.,L',)k^-(L.L\-hL,L':)k-L*L';  =  o 
LoL'>+(L.L%+L.L\)k^+(L,L',+L.L',+LoL',)k-^- 

(L.L'.+  LJ/;+L,L'e)k»-(L,L';+L..L'«)k-L«L%  =  o 
LoL\kH(L,L',+LoL'a)k^+(L,L',-hL,L',+LoL',)k*- 

(LeL%+L.L\+L4L'.)k^-(La.'c+L.L',)k-L.L'3  =  o 
LoL'ak^+(LiL',+L„L%)k^+(L2L'3+LiL%+LoL',)k'-         (II) 

(L.L'«+L,L\+L,L'4)k^-(LoL'.+  L,L',)k-L,L',=o 
LoL',kH(L,L',+  LoL'Jk^-(Lr.L'e+L,L',+L,L',)k'- 

(La.%+L,L\+L,L'3)k^-(L*L\+L,L'.)k-LeL',  =  o 
LoL',kH(L,L\+L„L'o)k^-(L.L',+UL\+L.L',)k*- 

(LeL\+L,L',+L,L%)k^-(L,L'3-hL,L%)k-L,L',  =  o. 

If  we  eliminate  k  between  equations  (II)  and  remove  the 
extraneous  factor  L^  L%.  we  obtain  as  the  equation  of  the 
given  surface 


1 


646  Colorado  College  Publication 


o 
i 


-1 

+ 

^*         tf        IW        «        «         ^ 

++++++ 

^*    I-    •    -    •»    * 

i:++++t 
r  ^ 

Zj  J  J  J  j-^ 

^zj  J^  J^ 
^  J  Zi  J  J  •^ 

r 

•*     *     *r     «•     —     o» 


OcTic  Surfaces  With  Elliptic  Surfaces     647 


For  points  on  the  double  curve,  equations  (11)  have  two 
solutions  in  common.  Hence  the  surfaces  determined  by 
putting  the  first  minors  of  the  left  member  of  (12)  equal  to  zero 
are  ad  joints  to  the  given  surface.  The  unique  adjoint  of  order 
five  (Art.  11)  is  determined  from  the  minor  of  the  last  term  in 
the  last  row  as  the  locus  of  the  equation 

L^7   L^eL^(L^4   I"! 
LcL^ftL^4L.:iL.2 


=  0 

(13) 


At  the  triple  points,  similarly,  all  the  second  minors  of 
( 1 2)  are  zero.  These  points  are  double  points  of  ( 1 3)  and  make 
all  its  first  minors  zero. 

14.  The  complete  linear  system  of  cubic  curves  to  which 
the  system  (3)  belongs  is  of  eight  dimensions.  Hence,  the  given 
surface  is  the  projection  of  a  surface  of  the  same  order  bebnging 
to  a  space  of  eight  dimensions.  The  parametric  equations  of  a 
surface  in  eight  dimensions  of  which  (1)  is  a  projection  can,  by 
a  suitable  choice  of  co-ordinate  system,  be  reduced  to  the  form 

X,==\»iX,=*\^XiX,  =  \,\«2X4==X*2X5=*\«iA.aX«=*XlXi\j 

X;  =  \^\,  x,  =  X,\«,  xA=»X*i  (14) 

15.  If  an  hyperquadric  contains  five  cubics  on  the  surface 
(14)  it  contains  the  surface,  since  it  has  five  points  in  common 
with  each  conic  on  it.  Since  any  two  cubics  on  the  surface  (14) 
have  a  point  in  common,  the  hyperquadric  contains  the  surface 
if  it  contains  7+6+5+4+3=*  25  suitably  chosen  points  on  the 
surface.  Since  the  equation  of  an  hyperquadric  in  eight  dimen- 
sions contains  forty-five  homogeneous  constants,  there  are 
twenty  linearly  irxdependent  hyperquadrics  which  contain  the 
surface. 

The  planes  of  the  conies  on  the  surface  (14)  generate  a 
sextic  three-spread  Vj*.  The  residual  intersection  of  V/  with 
an  hyperquadric  which  contains  the  surface  (14)  degenerates  into 
four  planes,  since  any  plane  of  V,*  which  has  a  point  not  lying 
on  the  surface  in  common  with  such  an  hyperquadric  lies  on  the 
hyperquadric.  There  are  fifteen  linearly  independent  hyper- 
quadrics which  contain  Vj*,  since  an  hyperquandric  which  con- 
tains the  surface  and  one  p)oint  in  each  of  five  planes  of  V/  con- 
tains these  planes  and  hence  contains  the  three-spread. 


648  Colorado  College  Publication 


lb.  The  fives  thread  generated  by  the  bisecant  lines  of  the 
surface  is  of  order  ten.  For,  its  section  by  a  four  space  which 
contains  five  generic  on  the  surface  clearly  contains  the  lines 
joining  these  points.  There  is  no  residual  intersection,  since 
the  projection  of  the  surface  from  this  four-space  is  a  cubic 
surface  with  no  multiple  points.  Denote  this  five-spread  by 
V5»«.  The  given  surfece  is  a  four-fold  locus  on  V,*'^.  since  the 
section  of  Vi»«  by  the  above  four-space  has  a  four-fold  point  at 
each  intersection  >\  ith  the  surface. 

The  five-spread  V^'o  is  generated  by  the  double  infinity  of 
three-spaces  determined  by  the  cubics  on  the  surface.  For.  the 
line  of  Vi"*  w  hich  joins  two  given  points  Qi  end  Q?  of  the  surface 
is  a  bisecant  of  the  cubic  defined  by  these  points  and  lies  \n  the 
three-space  of  the  cubic.  Conversely,  every  point  in  such  a 
three-space  lies  on  a  bisecant  of  the  cubic  and  hence  of  the 
surface. 

Any  two  three-spaces  of  Vj'"  have  a  point  in  common  at 
the  intersection  of  the  cubics  lying  in  them.  No  two  have  a 
line  in  common.  Otherw  ise,  they  would  lie  in  a  five-space  and. 
since  each  conic  on  the  surface  intersects  each  cubic,  an  hyper- 
plane  which  contains  the  five-space  and  a  point  on  each  of  two 
conies  would  contain  the  conies  and  the  cubics  and  would  thus 
contain  the  surface. 

1  he  surface  has  no  trisecant  lines.  Otherwise,  its  pro- 
jection from  such  a  line  would  be  a  non-ruled  quintic  surface 
belonging  to  six  dimensions.  Similarly  it  has  no  quadrisecant 
planes  nor  quinquesecant  three-spaces. 

17.  A  generic  point  of  the  eight  dimensional  space  defined 
by  the  given  surface  lies  on  a  unique  trisecant  plane  to  the  surface. 
That  at  least  one  trisecant  plane  passes  through  each  point  of 
the  space  defined  by  the  surface  (14)  follows  from  a  theorem 
hy  Palatini*    Let,  then,  Q'  be  generic  point  of  the  given  space 

and  Q,,  Q.,  Q^  be  the  points  of  intersection  of  a  trisecant 
through  Q'.  Through  Q,,  Q^,  Qj  and  a  given  point  R  on  the 
right  line  on  the  surface  there  passes  a  unique  quintic  curve  on 
the  surface  (CT.  Art.  4).  The  given  trisecant  plane  lies  in  the 
five-space  defined  by  this  quintic  curve  since  Qi,  Q2,  Q,.  lie  in 
the  five-space.  No  other  trisecant  plane  to  this  quintic  curve 
passes  through  Q'.  Otherwise,  the  quintic  would  lie  in  a  four- 
space  defined  by  the  two  trisecant  planes. 
*Atti  di  Torino.  Vol.  41  (1906). 


OcTic  Surfaces  With  Elliptic  Surfaces      649 


The  required  number  of  trisecant  planes  is,  then,  the 
number  of  quintic  curves  through  R  which  lie  in  a  five-space 
through  Q'.  Let  R  be  chosen  so  that  the  quintics  through 
Q'  are  defined  by  the  conies  in  the  X-plane  whose  equations 
are  of  the  form  X,  X3  =  a  V,  +  b  \i  X-i+cX^.  The  equations  of 
the  quintic  corresponding  to  such  a  conic  are,  from  (14), 

X6  =  X^X2cr  (Xi.12)  X7  =  XiXScr(X,X2)  X8  =  Xi<7*  X9  =  X2cr2 

wherein    cr(XiX2)  =  aXi2+b\iX2+cX*2.        The    condition    that 

the  point  Q'  =  (yi,  y2, .  .y^)  lies  in  the  five-space  of  this  quintic 

is  that  there  exists  six  numbers  1,,  I2,  . . . ,  U  such  that 

yi  =  li  y2=l2y3  =  l8y4  =  l4y5=a  1,+b  U+c  I3y6  =  a  U+b  U+c  h 

y,  =  a  U+b  I4+C  I5  VH  =  a^  I,+2ab  I2+  (b=^+2ac)  U+lbc  h+c^  U 

y.  =  a='  l2+2ab  la+  (b+2ac)  l4+2bc  U+c^  l«. 

If  we  substitute  from  the  first  four  of  these  equations  into  the 

next  three,  we  obtain 

ay,+by2+cy3  =  yi   ay2+by3+cy4  =  y6   ay3+by4+c  l6  =  y7 

On  substituting  from  these  equations  into  the  eighth  equation, 

we  obtain 

ay5+by6+cy7  =  ys. 
These  equations  determine  a  unique  set  of  values  of  a,  b  and  c, 
and  hence  a  unique  quintic  curve  on  the  surface  whose  five- 
space  passes  through  Q'. 

18.  The  remainder  of  this  pai^er  is  devoted  to  a  classifi- 
cation of  the  surfaces  (1)  for  which  the  multiple  curve  has  a 
component  of  multiplicity  not  less  than  three  on  the  surface. 
To  effect  this  classification,  we  must  first  consider  the  nodal 
and  cuspidal  double  right  lines  which  may  exist  on  the  surface. 

19.  If  the  surface  (1)  has  a  nodal  double  right  line,  a 
pencil  of  cubics  of  the  system  (3)  must  degenerate  into  a  fixed 
right  line  through  P  and  a  pencil  of  conies.  Such  a  surface  is 
the  projection  of  (14)  from  a  four-space  which  intersects  the 
plane  of  a  conic  on  that  surface.  The  nodal  line  is  thus  a 
degenerate  conic  on  the  surface  (1).  If  k  =  a  is  the  parameter 
of  such  a  degenerate  conic,  then  k  — a  is  a  factor  of  the  left 
member  of  (6)  so  that  the  class  of  the  developable  of  the  planes 
of  the  conies  is  reduced  by  unity  for  each  nodal  line.  Con- 
versely, if  the  class  of  the  developable  of  the  planes  of  the 
conies  is  6— q,  then  the  surface  has  q  nodal  lines.  Since 
6— q  is  not  less  than  unity,  the  surface  cannot  have  more  than 
five  nodal  lines. 


650  Colorado  College  Publication 


The  surface  has  four  triple  points  on  each  nodal  line. 
These  points  correspond  to  the  basis  points  of  the  pencil  of 
conies  corresponding  to  the  residual  intersections  of  the  planes 
through  the  nodal  line.  Two  pinch-points  (Art.  7)  lie  on  each 
nodal  line. 

20.  If  the  surface  has  a  cuspidal  double  right  line,  all  the 
cubics  of  the  system  (3)  that  belong  to  certain  a  pencil  degener- 
ate intothree  right  lines  through  P.  Such  a  surface  is  the  project  ion 
of  (14)  from  a  four-space  which  has  a  plane  in  common  with 
the  four-space  which  contains  the  tangent  planes  to  the  surface 
(14)  along  the  right  line  on  the  surface.  Each  tangent  plane 
intersects  the  four-space  of  projection  in  a  point. 

The  residual  intersection  of  a  plane  through  the  cuspidal 
line  degenerates  into  three  conies.  Each  conic  touches  the 
cuspidal  line  at  a  point  and,  conversely,  each  point  of  the  line 
is  the  point  of  tangency  of  one  conic.  Six  pairs  of  coplanar 
conies  are  ccxisecutive.  Since  the  developable  of  the  planes  of 
the  conies  is  a  pencil  counted  thrice,  the  surface  has  also  three 
nodal  double  lines  (Art.  19). 

21.  If  the  surface  contains  a  six-fold  right  line,  the  resid- 
ual sections  by  the  planes  through  this  line  constitute  the 
pencil  of  conies  on  the  surface.  Since  the  developable  of  the 
planes  of  these  conies  is  of  class  one,  the  surface  has  five  nodal 
lines  which  form,  with  the  six-fold  line,  the  complete  multiple 
curve  on  the  surface.  Oie,  or  at  most,  two,  of  the  five  nodal 
lines  may  coincide  with  the  six-fold  line.  In  the  former  case 
the  six-fold  line  is  formed  by  the  superposition  of  a  triple  line, 
the  simple  line  g  and  the  nodal  line.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is 
formed  by  the  superposition  of  two  nodal  lines  and  a  cuspidal 
line. 

22.  If  the  surface  contains  a  five-fold  right  line,  it  has  a 
six-fold  point  on  the  five-fold  line.  The  residual  double  curve 
of  order  ten  has  a  five-fold  p>oint  at  the  six-fold  point  of  the 
surface  and  intersects  the  five-fold  line  in  four  other  p>oints. 
The  adjoint  quintic  surface  (Art.  1 1)  is  the  cone  projecting  this 
double  curve  from  the  six-fold  pHDint.  One  conic  on  the  surface 
is  coplanar  with  the  five-fold  line. 

If  the  residual  double  curve  on  this  surface  has  a  triple 
component,  this  comp>onent  is  composed  of  right  lines  inter- 
secting the  five-fold  line.  Otherwise,  a  generic  plane  section 
through  the  five-fold  line  would  be  composed  entirely  of  right 
lines.  The  double  curve  may  degenerate  into  a  triple  line 
through  the  six-fold  point  and  a  double  curve  of  order  seven. 


OCTic  Surfaces  With  Elliptic  Surfaces      651 


which  has  a  triple  point  at  the  six-fold  point  and  intersects  the 
triple  line  in  one  and  the  five-fold  line  in  three  other  p>oints. 
It  may  also  degenerate  into  two  triple  lines. through  the  six-fold 
point  and  a  quartic  which  touches  the  plane  of  the  plane  of  the 
triple  lines  at  the  six-fold  point  and  intersects  each  triple  line  in 
•one  and  the  five-fold  line  in  two  other  points. 

23.  Since  the  surface  cannot  contain  a  non-multiple  curve 
of  order  four  (Art.  4),  the  residual  sections  of  the  surface  (1)  by 
the  planes  through  a  four-fold  line  on  it  degenerate  into  pairs 
of  conies.  The  corresponding  pencil  of  cubics  of  the  system  (3) 
consists  of  a  fixed  line  1  and  a  pencil  of  pairs  of  lines  through  P. 
If  the  line  1  does  not  pass  through  P,  the  four-fold  line  is  formed 
by  the  superposition  of  a  triple  line  and  the  simple  line  g;  if  1 
passes  through  P,  it  is  formed  by  the  superposition  of  a  nodal 
and  a  cuspidal  line.  In  either  case,  since  the  developable  of 
the  planes  of  the  conies  is  a  pencil  counted  twice,  there  are  four 
nodal  lines  on  the  surface. 

The  residual  double  curve  cannot  have  a  component  of 
multiplicity  higher  than  two.  For.  such  a  component  must 
clearly  be  composed  of  right  lines  intersecting  the  four-fold  line, 
since,  otherwise,  a  generic  conic  on  the  surface  would  be  com- 
posite. But  the  surface  cannot  contain  a  second  four-fold  line 
since  it  contains  only  one  pencil  of  conies.  Neither  can  it  con- 
tain a  three-fold  line  since  no  conic  of  the  pencil  is  composite. 

24,  On  a  surface  (1)  which  contains  a  three-fold  line  there 
are  three  four-fold  points  which  lie  on  the  triple  line  and  cor- 
respond to  the  basis  p)oints,  other  than  P,  of  the  pencil  of  conies 
in  the  \-plane,  which  correspond  to  the  residual  intersections 
of  the  planes  through  the  triple  line.  The  residual  double  curve 
is  of  genus  five.  It  has  a  triple  point  at  each  four-fold  point, 
intersects  the  triple  line  in  two  other  points,  and  has  ten  other 
triple  points.  Three  conies  on  the  surface  are  coplanar  with 
the  triple  line. 

In  case  the  surface  has  two  triple  lines,  these  lines  inter- 
sect at  a  point  which  is  five -fold  on  the  surface.  The  double 
curve  is  of  genus  four.  It  has  a  four-fold  point  at  the  five-fold 
point  of  the  surface,  a  triple  point  and  two  simple  points  on  each 
triple  line  and  has  four  other  triple  p>oints. 

When  the  surface  has  three  triple  lines,  these  lines  intersect 
at  a  six-fold  point  of  the  surface.  The  double  curve  is  of  genus 
three,  has  a  six-fold  point  at  the  six-fold  point  of  the  surface 
and  intersects  each  triple  line  in  two  other  points.  The  adjoint 
quintic  is  the  cone  projecting  this  curve  from  the  six-fold  p>oint. 


652     Colorado  College  Publication 


The  surface  may  have  four  triple  lines.  These  concur  at  a 
point  which  is  six-fold  on  the  surface  and  triple  on  the  residua! 
double  curve.  The  surface  cannot  have  more  than  four  triple 
lines.  Otherwise,  it  would  contain,  in  the  four  planes  defined 
by  any  one  triple  line  and  each  of  the  others,  four  conies  co- 
planar  with  a  given  triple  line,  which  is  impossible. 

25.  The  multiplicity  of  a  non-rectilinear  multiple  curve 
on  a  surface  (1)  cannot  exceed  four.  Otherwise,  the  line  joining 
any  two  p>oints  on  the  curve  would  lie  on  the  surface.  Neither 
can  the  multiplicity  of  such  a  curve  equal  four,  if  such  a  four- 
fold curve  were  a  space  curve  it  would  have  an  apparent  double 
point.  Then  through  a  generic  point  on  the  surface  we  could 
draw  a  line  which  would  have  nine  points  in  common  with  the 
surface  and  would  lie  on  it.  If  the  four-fold  curve  were  a  conic 
C,  then  through  a  generic  point  of  the  surface  there  would  pass 
five  plane  cubics  on  the  sun'ace  having  their  nodes  on  C.  Hence 
(Cf.  Art.  9),  the  residual  multiple  curve  would  degenerate  into 
two  double  lines  and  two  triple  lines  which  intersect  at  a  five- 
fold pHDint  Q.  Then  the  cone  with  Q  as  vertex  and  C  as  direc- 
trix, would  be  a  component  of  the  surface. 

26.  Suppose,  now,  that  the  surface  has  a  triple  curve 
which  does  not  degenerate  entirely  into  right  lines.  Through 
a  generic  point  of  this  curve  no  trisecant  to  the  curve  can  be 
drawn,  since  such  a  line  would  have  nine  points  in  common  with 
the  surface  and  would  lie  on  it.  It  follows  that  the  surface  can- 
not have  a  triple  curve  of  order  greater  than  four.  For,  if  the 
curve  were  a  proper  or  composite  sextic,  it  would  have  a  four- 
fold point  and  lie  on  a  quadric  cone  which  would  have  an  inter- 
section of  order  eighteen  with  the  surface.  Similarly,  if  it  were 
a  proper  or  composite  quintic,  this  quintic  would  lie  on  a 
quadric  cone  having  the  simple  line  g  for  its  residual  inter- 
section with  the  surface.  Then  to  the  triple  quintic  there 
would  correspxjnd,  in  the  X-plane,  a  sextic  C  having -a  triple  point 
at  P.  But  the  locus  of  lines  joining  points  of  C  which  corre- 
spond to  the  same  point  of  the  surface  would  then  be  of  order 
six  (at  least),  which  is  impossible  (Art.  9). 

27.  If  the  surface  contains  a  triple  quartic,  this  quartic 
cannot  ha\e  infinitely  many  trisecants  and  is  thus  the  basis 


OcTic  Surfaces  With  Elliptic  Surfaces      653 


curve  of  a  pencil  of  quadrics.  The  residual  intersections  of  the 
quadrics  of  this  pencil  degenerate  into  pairs  of  conies,  since  the 
surface  is  not  ruled  and  does  not  contain  a  proper  quartic 
(Art.  4).  The  surface  is  thus  determined  by  a  (2,  1)  corre- 
spondence between  the  quadrics  of  this  pencil  and  the  system  of 
planes  of  the  conies  on  the  surface. 

If  the  triple  quartic  is  not  composite,  then  no  quadric  of  the 
pencil  defined  by  it  can  degenei*ate  into  two  planes  of  which  at 
least  one  coincides  with  a  corresponding  plane  of  the  develop- 
able of  the  planes  of  the  conies  (Cf.  Art.  13).  There  are.  then, 
three  conies  which  degenerate  into  nodal  lines  (Art.  19).  To 
the  triple  quartic  cor  responds,  in  the  \-plane,  a  quartic  C  which 
does  not  pass  through  P.  To  each  nodal  line  corresp>onds  a  line 
through  P  which,  since  the  nodal  line  cannot  intersect  the  triple 
curve  thrice,  is  a  double  line  of  the  locus  of  lines  joining  points  of 
C  which  correspHDnd  to  the  same  point  on  the  surface.  Hence, 
the  locus  of  these  lines  is  of  class  six,  which  is  impossible.  There 
exists,  then,  no  such  proper  triple  quartic.  It  is  seen  in  a  sim- 
ilar way  that  the  surface  cannot  have  a  triple  cubic  and  a  triple 
line. 

If  the  triple  quartic  has  a  conic  as  a  component,  it  will  be 
shown  (Art.  29)  that  the  developable  of  the  planes  of  the  conies 
is  of  class  four.  There  are  thus  two  nodal  lines.  Since  the 
quadrics  of  the  pencil  defined  by  the  triple  curve  contain  two 
simple  conies,  the  surface  is  the  locus  of  the  conic  of  intersection 
of  corresponding  surfaces  of  the  systems 
L,  k*+U  k'-f-L,  k«-f-L4  k-f-Ls  =  o  L,  Ls  k«+Qk-f  Li  L5=o 
The  triple  conies  are  defined  by  Li  =  Q="0  and  L6=Q=o. 
The  surface  has  two  nodal  lines  provided 

Q=L«,4-Li  U+U  U 
The  triple  conic  L8=Q  =  o  degenerates  into  two  triple  lines  in 
case  the  four  planes  Li  =  o,  L,=o,  L4=o,  L5  =  o,  have  a  point 
in  common. 

28.  When  the  surface  contains  a  triple  cubic  curve,  the 
curve  C  in  the  \-plane  corresponding  to  this  cubic  is  of  order 
three  and  does  not  pass  through  P.  Each  conic  on  the  surface 
passes  through  the  three  intersections  of  the  cubic  with  its 
plane,  since  the  corresponding  line  in  the  X-plane  meets  C  in 
three  points.     It  follows  that  the  developable  of  the  planes  of 


654      Colorado  College  Publication' 


the  conies  is  of  class  three,  since,  if  P  is  a  point  of  the  triple  cubic, 
every  conic  whose  plane  passes  through  P  passes  itself  through 
P.  There  are  thus  three  nodal  lines  on  the  surface.  Each  nodaf 
line  intersects  the  triple  curve  in  two  points  of  which  one  is 
four-fold  on  the  surface.  The  residual  double  octic  is  rational. 
It  has  a  node  at  a  point  on  each  nodal  line  which  is  triple  on  the 
surface,  a  node  at  each  four-fold  point  and  intersects  the  triple 
curve  in  six  other  points.  This  surface  is  the  projection  of  the 
surface  (14)  from  a  four-space  which  is  three-fold  on  a  cubic 
six-spread  which  contains  a  curve  of  order  nine  lying  on  the 
surface  (14). 

29.  If  the  surface  contains  a  triple  conic,  the  curve  in  the 
X-plane  corresponding  to  this  conic  is  a  conic  C  which  does  not 
pass  through  P.  The  lines  in  the  \-plane  joining  points  of  C 
which  correspond  to  the  same  px)int  of  the  triple  conic  envelope 
a  conic,  since,  through  each  point  of  C,  there  are  just  tw^o  such- 
lines.  Two  of  these  lines  pass  through  P  and  correspxwid  to 
conies  which  degenerate  into  double  lines. 

In  the  six-space  defined  by  a  generic  sextic  curve  on  the 
surface  (14)  there  are  infinitely  many  hyperquadrics  which  have 
a  double  three-space  and  contain  the  sextic  curve.  The  pro- 
jection of  the  surface  (14)  from  such  a  three-space  is  an  octic 
surface  F«.  which  belongs  to  a  space  of  four  dimensions  and 
contains  a  triple  conic  and  two  nodal  lines.  Through  a  generic 
point  of  F«  there  pass  two  nodal  cubics  on  the  surface,  the  node 
lying  on  the  triple  conic. 

The  projection  of  F*  from  a  generic  point  of  its  space  is  an 
octic  surface  having  a  triple  conic,  two  double  lines  and  a 
double  curve  of  order  twelve,  which  has  two  triple  points  on  the 
triple  conic  which  are  four-fold  points  on  the  surface  and  three 
double  points  on  each  nodal  line,  which  are  triple  points  on  the 
surface. 

The  projection  of  F»  from  a  point  in  the  plane  of  a  cubic 
lying  on  it  is  an  octic  surface  having  a  triple  conic,  a  triple  and 
two  double  lines  and  a  double  curve  of  order  nine,  which  has  a 
triple  px)int  at  a  four-fold  point  on  the  triple  conic,  a  node  at 
the  intersection  of  the  triple  line  with  each  double  line  and  an 
additional  node  on  each  double  line. 


OcTic  Surfaces  With  Elliptic  Surfaces      655 


Index. 

Page 
No.  1    The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado — W,  C.  Sturgis 1 

2  Stellar  Variability  and  Its  Causes — F.  H.  Loud 45 

3  On  the  Transformation  of  Algebraic  Equations,  by 
Erland  Samuel  Bring  (1786) — Translated  and  An- 
notated by  Florian  Cajori 63 

4  A  Comparison  of  Temperatures  (1906)  Between  Colo- 
rado Springs  and  Lake  Moraine — F,  H.  Loud 92 

5  Meteorological  Statistics  for  1907 — F,  H,  Loud 101 

6  The  Distribution  of  Woody  Plants  in  the  Pikes  Peak 
Region — E,  C.  Schneider 137 

7  A  History  of  the  Arithmetical  Methods  of  Approxima- 
tion to  the  Roots  of  Numerical  Equations  of  One 
Unknown  Quantity — Florian  Cajori 171 

8  The  Succession  of  Plant  Life  on  the  Gravel  Slides  in 
the  Vicinity  of  Pikes  Fe&k— Edward  C.  Scheider....  289 

9  The  History  of  Colorado  Manmialogy — Edtvard  R, 
Warren  312 

10  The  Parasite  Fauna  of  Colorado-^MauWce  C.  Hall...  329 

11  A  Guide  to  the  Botanical  Literature  of  the  Myxomyce- 
tes from  1875  to  1912— W^t7/iaw  C.  Sturgia 385 

12  The  Myxomycetes  of  Colorado,  II — W,  C.  Sturgis 435 

13  The  Birds  of  El  Paso  County,  Colorado,  I  and  II— 
Charles  E,  H.  Aiken  and  Edward  R,  Warren 497 

14  Soil  Fertility— Gm2/  Wendell  Clark 615 

15  On  Non-Ruled  Octic  Surfaces  Whose  Plane  Sections 

16  Are  Elliptic— C/tar/es  H,  Sisam 16 


J 


LANGUAGE  SERIES— V0L.  II. 
"    20.    Lowell's  Conception  of  Poetry.— i^dward  S-  Paraons. 
"    21.      The  Church  and  Education.— £;dt(;ard  S.  Par«on«. 
"22,    Literature  as  a  Torce  in  Character  Building.— £^dwar<i  S. 

Paa-sona. 
"    23*    Relation  of  the  Home  to  the  Criminal. — Edward  S,  Parsons. 
"    24.    Jonson  and  Milton  on  Shakespeare. — Edward  S;  Parsons. 
"    25.    Rousseau  and  Word&worth. — Homer  E.  Woodbridge. 
''    26.    The   Stipematural    in    Hawthorne    and    Poe.—Benjamin 

Mather  Woodbridge. 
"    27.     ''Much  Ado  About  Nottiing"  and  Ben  Jonson's  "The  Case  is 

Altered.** — Homer  E.  Woodbridge'. 
''    28.    A  Note  on  *'Henry  V r— Homer  E.  Woodbridge. 
"    29.     The    Pikes    Peak    Region    in    Song    and    Myth. — Elijah 

Clarence  Hills. 
"    30.     Some  Spanish-American  Poets. — Elijah  Clarence  Hilh. 
"     31.    The  Value  of  Poetry   in   the   Schools.— /Jofjrer  Henwood 

Motten. 
"     32.     Matthew    Arnold's   Poetry— An    Appreciation. — Atherton 

Noye$: 
"     33.    St.  Severinus  and  the  Province  of  Noricum. — Charles  C. 

Mierow. 
"     34.     European  Tales  Among  the   North   American   Indians. — 

Stith  Thompson. 

ENGINEERING  SERIES— VoL.  I. 

"       3.    The  Roasting  of  Telluride  Ores.— /J.  L.  Mack  and  G.  H.^ 
Scibird. 

"       4.    Further  Note§  on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado. — Edward  R. 
Warren. 

"       5.    The  Movement  of  Light  in  Crystals. — George  I.  Finlay. 

"       6.     Aaron  Palmer's  Computing  Scale. — Florian  Cajori. 

•*    ^  7.    John  E.  Fuller's  Circular  Slide  Rules.— Florian  Cajori. 

"       8.    A  Proposed  List  of  Experiments  for  a  Course  in  Electrical 
Engineei7ng  Laboratory. — John  Mills. 

"       9.     An  Outline  of  Mineralogy, — George  I.  Finlay. 

"     10.     On  ihe  Invention  of  the  Slide  Rule. — Florian  Cajori. 

'*     11.     A  Study  of  the  Advisability  of  Electrification  of  the  Ar- 
kansas Junction-Basalt  Division  of  the  Colorado  Midland 
"^  Railroad. — Abstract  hyGeorge  B.  Thomas. 

"     12.    Notes  on  a  Graphical  Method  of  I>ealing  with  Water  Sup- 
ply.— William  A.  Bartlett. 

"     13.    The  Effect  of  Altitude  on  the  Heating  of  Electrical  Ma- 
chines.— George  B.  Thomas. 

^'     14.     Field  Practice  in  Surveying. — Frank  M.  Okey. 

'•     15.     Shop  Courses  in  Technical  Education. — Nelson  R.  Love. 

*'     16.     Notes  on  the  Early  History  of  the  Slide  Rule.— F/or/an 
Cujori. 

EDUCATION  AND  PSYCHOLOGY  SERIES— Vol.  I. 
No.     1.     The  Present  Status  of  Vsychology.— -John  A.  McGeoch. 


N  6.HCf  liiEcuui; 


( 


COLORADO  COLLEGE  PUBLICATION 


GEhERAL  SERIES  NO.  108 
SCIENCE  SERIES.  Vol.  XII.  No.  16. 


A  STUDY  m  VARIATION 

B.J.  GiLMOBE. 


•  ; 


COLORADO  SPRINGS.  COLORADO 
JUNE.  1921 

Published  by  Authority  of  die  Board  of  Trustees  of  Colorado  College 
Every  Six  Weeks  During  the  Academic  Year.  . 

IS^tmwA  mi  laeond-elaM  matttr.  SejpUnhm  IM,  190(.  ft  tbm  Pott  OfBet  In  Gatondo  Sprlagfl. 
GolonidOv  under  Aet  of  CongriM  of  Jnlr,  1904. 


4 

1~  Soc  4-4^1. lo.  2. 


COLORADO  COLLEGE  PlJj3i|fe|^^ 

GENERAL  SERIES  NO.  lOf?;     '^Js    ^  W;> 


SCIENCE  SERIES,  Vol.  XH,  No.  15.  P^W63§r655,^  >  ^  '^a. 


V 


ON  NON-RULED  OCMC  SURFACES  WHOSE 
PLANE  SECTIONS  ARE  ELLIPTIC 

Charles  H.  Sisam,  PH.  D. 


COLORADO  SPRINGS,  COLORADO 
NOVEMBER,  1919. 

Published  by  Authority  of  the  Board  <A  Trustees  of  Colorado  College 
Every  Six  Weeks.  Daring  the  Academic  Year. 

BnUred  u  accond-elws  matter,  .Septanbcr  IS,  190S.  tk  the  Post  OfOce  in  Oolorado  Sprinst, 
Colorado,  under  Act  of  Consreaa  of  July,  1904. 


658  Colorado  College  Publication 

*  METHODS 

In  order  that  the  group  observed  might  be  represen- 
tative of  the  entire  population,  specimens  were  taken 
from  widely  separated  regions  and  at  different  times  of 
the  year.  Formaldehyde  was  used  as  a  killing  and  pre- 
serving agent.  The  puboischium  and  legs  were  turned 
aside  so  that  the  X-ray  photograph  might  show  the  true 
relation  of  the  ilia  to  the  vertebral  column.  The  great 
value  of  the  X  ray  lies  in  the  fact  that  large  numbers  of 
specimens  may  be  examined  in  a  short  time  and  that  the 
specimen  is  not  injured  for  dissection. 

THE  PELVIC  GIRDLE 

The  pelvic  girdle  consists  of  a  flat  ventral  plate,  the 
puboischium,  the  anterior  or  pubic  portion  of  which  ex- 
tends forward  as  a  slender  stalked  Y  shaped  cartilage, 
the  epipubis.  Two  lateral  pieces,  the  ilia,  attach  the  pubo- 
ischium to  the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  verte- 
bra. The  ilia  stand  vertically  to  the  vertebral  axis,  the 
distal  end  slanting  slightly  forward.  They  do  not  meet 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra  to  form 
a  definite  joint  but  are  attached  to  the  anterior  surfaces 
by  firm  connective  tissues.  In  a  normal  girdle  the  two 
ilia  are  attached  to  the  transverse  processes  of  the  same 
vertebra.  In  an  asymmetrical  or  "skew"  girdle  one  ilium 
is  attached  to  one  vertebra  and  the  other  to  another. 

OBSERVATIONS 

In  all,  1235  specimens  of  Diemyctylus  were  photo- 
graphed by  X  ray.  Of  these  1068  had  girdles  attached  to 
the  fifteenth  vertebra ;  13  to  the  fourteenth ;  107  to  the 
sixteenth;  9  to  tiie  fourteentii  on  one  side  and  the  fif- 
teenth on  the  other;  38  to  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth.  In 
the  following  tables  "sacral  vetebra"  refers  to  the  serial 


A  Study  in  Vakiation 


659 


number  of  the  sacral  vertebra  counting  from  the  head^ 
Asymmetrical  sacra  are  indicated  by  the  serial  number 
of  each  of  the  vertebrae  to  which  an  ilium  is  attached. 


Sacral 

Vertebra 

Male 

Female 

Total 

%  of  total 

14 

4 

9 

13 

1.05 

14-15 

4 

5 

9 

.72 

15 

589 

479 

1068 

86.48 

15-16 

23 

15 

38 

3.48 

16 

43 

64 

107 

8.66 

X-ray  Protograph  of  Diemyctylus  viridescens. 


660 


Colorado  College  Publication 


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A  Study  in  Vakiation  661 

ANURA 

In  Rana  and  Bufo  the  normal  sacral  vertebra  seems 
to  to  be  the  ninth. 

FOSSIL  AMPHIBIANS 


Branchiosaurus 

27 

Amphibamus 

26 

Archigosaurus 

25 

Micropeton 

21 

Hyloplesion 

20 

Keratepeton 

20 

Eoserpeton 

17 

THEORETICAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

To  explain  variations  in  the  position  of  the  pelvic 
girdle  four  theories  have  been  advanced :  »- 

1.  The  theory  that  variations  in  the  length  of  the 
presacral  region  are  due  to  a  movement  of  the  pelvis 
along  the  spinal  column  and  that  asymmetrical  sacra 
result  from  and  inequality  of  movement  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  body. 

Rosenberg,  ('76,  '99)  from  a  study  of  human  em- 
bryos and  adult  skeletons  of  monkeys,  apes,  and  man 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  both  onogenetically  and  phy- 
•  genetically  there  has  been  a  forward  movement  of  the 
pelvic  girdle  with  relation  to  the  vertebral  column.  He 
finds  that  in  man  at  different  stages  the  sacrum  is  com- 
posed of  different  morphological  components — in  the 
early  stages,  vertebrae  26-30,  and,  in  the  later  stage,  25- 
29.  He  therefore  interprets  reduction  in  the  number  of 
presacral  vertebrae  as  a  progressive  step  and  increase  in 
the  number  as  atavism. 


662  Colorado  College  Publication 

From  studies  of  Pipa  and  Xenopus,  Ridewood  ('97) 
concludes  that  ''When  variation  in  the  number  of  pre- 
sacral vertebrae  does  occur,  the  explanation  is  to  be 
sought  not  in  the  intercalation  or  excalation  of  vertebrae, 
which  as  Parker  ('98)  has  pointed  out  are  to  be  looked 
upon  as  very  rare  occurrences,  but  rather  in  the  shifting 
of  the  ilium  forward  or  backward  onto  the  vertebrae  in 
front  of  or  behind  the  normal. 

Slipping  is  accepted  as  an  explanation  by:  Solger 
(*76),  Furbinger  (79),  Claus  (76),  Credner  •  ('86), 
Paterson  ('89),  Baur  ('91),  Eisler  ('92),  Bolk  ('94), 
Bumpus  ('97),  Adolphi  ('98),  and  Dwight  ('01). 

Bumpus  ('97)  from  studies  on  Necturus  arrives  at 
these  conclusions :  "Of  course  the  easiiest  way  of  dispos- 
ing of  this  question  is  to  look  upon  the  variation  as.  ata- 
vistic. The  "ancestral  type"  was  possessed  of  a  larger 
number  of  presacral  vertebrae  and  the  mud-puppy  of  to- 
day, by  its  anatomical  variation  kindly  indicates  in  ap- 
proximately thirty-five  per  cent,  of  its  represen^tives, 
the  character  of  its  quasi-progenitor. 

"But,  if  thirty-five  per  cent,  of  the  present  indivi- 
duals tend  toward  presacral  multiplication,  that  is,  tend 
to  assume  ancestral  characters,  we  must  not  deny  to 
these  potentially  progenitorial  individuals,  the  same  ten- 
dency to  vary  that  is  possessed  by  their  young,  that  is, 
thirty-five  per  cent,  of  thie  thirty-five  should  have  an 
added  increase  of  the  presacral  region,  that  thus  about 
twelve  specimens  should  have  sacral  ribs  on  the  21st  and 

22nd  vertebrae."     (the  19th  being  normal). 

» 

It  should  be  noted  that  Bumpus  drew  his  conclusions 
from  an  examination  of  100  specimens  and  makes  no 
attempt  to  explain  forward  migration.  He  offers  an  ex- 
planation of  asymmetrical  sacra  based  on  the  lateral  cur- 


A  Study  in  Vakiation  663 

vature  of  the  embryo.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  embryo 
has  assumed  the  straight  position  long  before  the  first 
evidence  of  the  girdle  has  appeared. 

To  account  for  the  greater  frequency  of  displace- 
ment caiidad,  Bumpus  offers  the  following:  "Since  the 
transverse  processes  to  which  the  sacral  ribs  are  attached 
lie  nearer  the  caudal  limit  of  the  vertebrae  it  seems  more 
probable  that  variations  occurring  in  the  course  of  onto- 
genetic development  will  fall  on  the  side  of  nearer  proxi- 
mity, that  is,  into  the  next  segment  caudad,  and  having 
once  invaded  the  territory  of  this  new  segment,  the. ribs 
will  be  adjusted  to  the  proper  position  within  that  seg- 
ment" 

He  accounts  for  the  variation  of  the  position  of  the 
sacrum  by  assuming  that  its  appendage  has  a  locus, 
fixed  at  a  point  whose  linear  distance  from  the  cranium 
is  a  definite  and  constant  proportion  of  the  entire  length 
of  the  animal.  The  change  in  position  of  .the  girdle  is 
then  affected  by  compressing  the  vertebrae,  making  each 
shorter  and  diminishing  their  combined  length,  thus 
bringing  a  vertebra  caudad  to  the  normal,  opposite  the 
stationary  appendage  locus. 

THEORY  2 

That  variations  in  the  length  of  the  presacral  region 
and  asymmetrical  sacra  are  the  results  of  the  intercala- 
tion or  excalation  of  one  or  more  whole  or  partial  verte- 
brae. 

This  theory  was  first  advanced  by  H.  V.  Ihering 
(78)  accepted  by  Albrecht  ('83),  Bourne  ('94),  Benham 
('94),  Adolphi  ('96)  and  others.  Baur  ('91)  claims  in- 
tercalation as  an  actual  ontogenetic  process.  He  says, 
"My  opinion  is  that  in  the  increase  of  the  number  of  seg- 


664  COLORADO  College  Publication 

ments  not  only  in  vertebrates,  but  also  in  invertebrates, 
intercalation  has  played  a  much  ^eater  role  than  is  gene- 
rally admitted.  At  the  same  time,  I  admit  addition  of 
segments  at  the  distal  end,  as  well  as  occasional  slight 
migration  of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  pelvis  in  both  direc- 
tions." 

Parker  ('96)  says,  "Baur  has  shown  very  conclu- 
sively that,  in  place  of  one  vertebra,  two  or  parts  of  two, 
may  arise,  the  process  evidently  being  a  partial  division 
of  the  material  from  which  a  single  vertebra  ordinarily 
arises.  This  process  which  I  should  call  the  multiplica- 
tion rather  than  the  intercalation  of  vertebrae  may  in 
some  cases  account  for  the  increase  of  presacral  elements, 
but  I  am  not  inclined  to  ascribe  to  it  the  wide-spread  im- 
portance that  Baur  does." 

Waite  ('97)  working  on  the  nerve  plexuses  of  Nec- 
turus  found  "variations  in  the  brachial  plexus  are  inde- 
pendent of  variation  in  the  position  of  the  pelvic  girdle ; 
and  since  there  is  not  posterior  displacement  of  the  bra- 
chial plexus,  nor  any  change  of  topography  in  cases  where 
the  pelvic  girdle  is  placed  on  the  20th  vertebrae,  we  have 
evidence  that  there  has  been  no  interpolation  of  vertebrae 
in  the  part  of  the  column  anterior  to  the  posterior  limit  of 
the  brachial  plexus."  He  therefore  concludes  that  no  in- 
tercalation has  taken  place  for  "since  serial  variation 
tends  to  be  at  one  end  of  the  series,  it  is  more  to  be  ex- 
pected in  the  prebrachial  region  than  in  the  postbrachial- 
presacral  region. 

"An  actual  increase  in  number  of  vertebrae,  and  also 
an  indicated  increase  by  grooving  and  partial  splitting  of 
vertebrae,  and  by  bifurcation  of  transverse  processes, 
have  been  noticed  by  Bourne  ('84),  Benham  ('94),  and 
others.  The  cases  of  actual  increase  described  in  Anura, 
are  results  from  separation  of  the  anterior  portion  of 


A  Study  in  Vakiation  665 

the  urostyle  as  a  supernumerary  vertebra.  Adolphi  ('95) 
has  recorded  forty-three  cases  of  fusion  in  Bufo,  Pelo- 
bates,  and  Rana,  and  has  determined  the  nerve  relations. 
He  finds  that  in  such  cases  of  fusion  the  spinal  nerves  are 
not  suppressed,  but  emerge  through  foramina  in  the 
fused  mass :  they  are,  however,  likely  to  be  weaker  than 
normal. 

"Such  supposed  direct  evidence  of  intercalation  and 
excalation  is  capable  of  being  interpreted  as  pathological, 
rather  than  as  a  disturbance  tending  primarily  to  alter 
the  serial  number  of  metameres,  especially  since  it  is 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  skeleton,  without  involv- 
ing musculature  or  nerves  beyond  the  narrow  limits 
necessitated  by  local  acconmiodation  to  the  distorted  ver- 
tebrae." 

In  1235  specimens  of  Diemictylus  viridescens,  I  have 
found  one  specimen  only  which  showed  any  evidence  of 
fusion.  In  this  case  the  two  vertebrae  were  only  partial- 
ly fused,  each  maintaining  its  own  identity.  Both  lateral 
spines  were  present. 


THEORY  3 

Variations  in  the  length  of  the  presacral  region  are 
due  to  an  initial  variation  in  the  serial  number  and  posi- 
tion of  centers  of  metamerism. 

This  theory  was  first  advanced  by  Welcker  ('78) 
and  later  by  Bateson  ('95).  Regarding  it,  Winslow  ('04) 
says,  "No  attempt  is  made  to  explain  asymmetrical  sacra 
by  this  theory  alone,  but  it  is  regarded  by  its  advocates 
as  offering  the  only  admissible  explanation  for  such  vari- 
ations as  that  between  the  pigeon's  neck  with  15  verte- 
brae and  that  of  the  swan  with  26  and  similar  cases  in 
the  necks  of  the  Plesiosauria  mentioned  below."  (taken 
fromBaur  ('97). 


20-21 

28 

20 

2 

50 

30 

20 

2 

52 

30 

26 

2 

58 

31 

23 

2 

56 

31 

23 

2 

56 

35 

20 

2 

57 

38 

22 

2 

61 

38 

22 

2 

62 

41 

21 

2 

64 

44 

72 

20 

2 

94 

666  Colorado  College  Publication 

Cervicals  Dorsals  Sacrals  Total 
Pliosaurus  evansi  19-20 

Pelonesustes  philarchus 
Plesiosaurus  rostratus 
Plesiosaurus  macrocephalus 
Thaumatosaurus  megacephalus  30 
Plesiosaurus  hawkinsi 
Cryptoclidus 
Plesiosaurus  guilelmi 

imperatoris 
Plesiosaurus  conybeari 
Plesiosaurus  homalospondylus 
Plesiosaurus  dolichodeirus 
Muraenosaurus  plicatus 
Elasmosaurus  platyurus 

This  theory  is  more  acceptable  than  intercalation  or  ex- 
calation  as  a  morphological  process,  since  it  preserves  the 
integrity  of  the  metameres. 

Howes  and  Dwight  accept  this  theory,  but  Waite  ob- 
jects on  the  ground  that:  "It  has  no  observational  evi- 
dence to  support  it  and  further  is  insufficient  to  account 
for  unsymmetrical  sacra  and  supernumerary  sacral 
ribs." 

Kingsley  ('10)  suggests  an  hypothesis  based  on  the 
ability  of  worms  and  allied  forms  to  reproduce  asexually 
by  fission  and  subsequent  growth  of  new  parts  from  the 
somites  directly  in  front  of  and  behind  the  point  of  divi- 
sion. "At  least  certain  somites  in  the  body  have  the  poten- 
tialities of  forming  material  for  additional  somites  and 
must  contain  within  them  the  same  possibilities  as  the 
original  teloblasts  from  which  they  arise.  In  other  words 
in  the  annelid,  before  the  beginning  of  the  transverse 
division,  the  capacity  for  producing  new  tissues  was 
located  at  more  than  one  point  in  the  body,  but  it  was  not 
exercised  until  after  the  asexual  reproduction  was  well 
advanced. 


A  Study- IN  Variation  667 

In  the  same  way  the  assumption  that  there  are  simi- 
lar budding  zones  at  various  points  in  the  vertebrate  body 
will  explain  certain  skeletal  variations. 

In  the  vertebrates  there  is  a  continuous  addition  of 
new  somites  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  as  in  the 
arthropods  and  annelids,  implying  the  existence  of  the 
equivalent  of  teloblasts  at  the  posterior  end.  In  the  same 
way  we  may  explain  the  varying  number  of  vertebrae  in 
the  different  regions  and  allow  at  least  one  of  the  pelvic 
vertebrae  to  be  regarded  as  a  fixed  point,  and  we  may  be 
relieved  of  any  assumption  of  a  shifting  of  the  girdles. 
It  will  also  explain  many  anomalies  such  as  the  attach- 
ment of  two  halves  of  the  pelvis  to  different  vertebrae 
and  the  increased  number  of  lumbar  or  thoracic  verte- 
brae in  man.  So  far  as  I  am  aware  no  one  has  seen  such 
zones  in  any  vertebrate.  In  fact  it  is  extremely  probable 
that  there  is  no  such  well  defined  zone  as  is  found  in  the 
teleblasts  of  inverterbrates." 

THEORY  4 

Variations  in  the  number  of  presacral  vertebrae  and 
asjonmetrical  sacra  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sacral 
region  has  the  power  of  developing  sacral  ribs  and  pelves 
at  several  points  on  both  right  and  left  sides. 

This  theory  was  proposed  by  Parker  ('96)  and 
Waite  ('97) .  Waite  concludes :  "It  is  more  logical  to  con- 
sider that  the  new  position  of  the  girdle  is  due  to  a  stimu- 
lus to  girdle  formation  having  been  applied  to  a  new 
point,  that  is,  in  a  segment  other  than  the  normal  and 
hence  that  a  sacral  rib  may  arise  in  any  one  of  several 
points  in  this  region.  (More  than  one  sacral  rib  was 
found  in  several  cases).  In  Necturus  these  points  are  at 
least  three,  located  in  the  18th,  19th,  and  20th  segments. 
Since  the  stimulus  to  girdle  formation  is  not  single  but 
paired,  that  is,  from  the  future  appendages,  it  need  not 
necessarily  be  sjonmetrical Neither  intercala- 
tion or  excalation,  nor  slipping  are  involved,  but  the  ab- 
normal position  represents  development  of  a  new  girdle 
in  a  new  place." 


668  Colorado  College  Publication 

Winslow  ('04)  describes  a  specimen  of  Ambystoma 
punctatum  in  which  three  legs  and  two  girdles  were 
found  in  the  pelvic  region.  The  one  girdle  with  its  ap- 
pendages was  attached  normally;  the  other  had  no  con- 
nection with  the  spinal  column.  All  the  elements  of  a 
normal  girdle  were  present.  Winslow  concludes,  "Very 
little  remains  to  be  desired  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  pro- 
position that  sacral  ribs  and  appendages  may  arise  at  any 
one  of  several  points. 

"The  idea  that  there  are  several  points  on  the  side 
of  the  body  capable  of  producing  an  appendage  is,  in  a 
way,  a  corollary  of  the  facts  discussed  by  Bateson  ('94) 
under  the  head  of  homeosis ;  for,  in  saying  that  a  segment 
may  assume  the  form  of  the  segment  in  front  of  or  be- 
hind it  we  practically  say  that  the  segment  has  in  itself 
potentially  the  qualities  which  are  normal  to  the  two  ad- 
jacent segments." 

By  the  majority  of  the  authors  above  quoted  the  pel- 
vic girdle  is  treated  as  an  entity.  Waite,  on  the  other 
hand,  finds  that  shifting  of  the  girdle  is  associated  with 
the  formation  of  a  new  nerve  plexus,  that  is,  the  intro- 
duction of  new  nerves  into  the  plexus.  Goodrich  ('09) 
says,  "That,  in  a  series  of  metameric  myotomes  and 
nerves,  each  motor  nerve  remains,  on  the  whole,  faithful 
to  its  myotome  throughout  all  the  vicissitudes  of  phylo- 
genetic  and  ontogenetic  modifications,  may  be  considered 
as  established." 

Referring  to  the  migration  of  paired  fins  in  fishes 
Lancaster  concludes:  "Considerable  apparent  migration 
is  brought  about  by  processes  of  concentration,  growtn, 
and  reduction.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  than  smy 
trunk  segment  may  contribute  to  the  production  of  a 
limb,  and  we  find  that  the  segments  of  the  region  occu- 
pied by  the  limb  in  the  adult  always  share  in  its  develop- 
ment. The  limb  as  a  whole,  retains  its  position  through- 
out ontogeny.  But  if  reduction  takes  place  in  front,  and 
growth  takes  place  behind  or  vice  versa, — if  in  other 


A  Study  in  Variation  669 

words,  certain  sefi:ments  cease  to  contribute  at  one  end, 
and  certain  segments  begin  to  contribute  at  the  other, 
then  apparent  motion  takes  place  backwards  or  for- 
wards. The  nerve  supply  of  the  adult  limb  is  a  sure 
guide  to  the  identification  of  the  segments  from  which 
the  muscles  have  been  derived.  Segments  before  and  be- 
hind the  limb  plexus  may  no  longer  enter  into  the  forma- 
tion of  the  limb  owing  to  reduction :  but  the  adult  nerves 
undoubtedly  show  which  segments  contribute  most  to  the 
musculature.  Now,  as  Furbringer  has  shown,  a  limb 
plexus  shifts  backwards  or  forwards  like  the  limb  it  sup- 
plies. Its  change  of  position  can  be  accounted  for  neither 
by  the  theory  of  inter-  or  excalation  of  segments  nor  by 
the  supposition  that  the  nerves  actually  move  through  the 
segments.  It  is,  therefore,  by  progressive  growth  m  one 
direction,  and  by  corresponding  reduction  in  the  other, 
that  change  of  position  takes  place.  The  motion  is  only 
apparent,  and  is  not  due  to  the  actual  migraton  of  the 
ready  formed  material  from  one  segment  to  another,  but 
may  be  said  to  be  due  to  'transposition'  from  one  set  of 
segments  to  another  set  up  or  down  the  series." 

SUMMARY 

Regarding  the  first  theory,  that  variations  in  the 
presacral  region  are  due  to  a  movement  of  the  pelvis 
along  the  spinal  column,  while  unable  to  offer  any  proof 
that  this  type  of  variation  does  not  occur,  I  am  alike  un- 
able to  find  any  proof  that  it  does  occur.  The  acceptance 
of  this  theory  would  necessitate  belief  that  the  girdle  is 
an  entity,  that  is,  that  the  same  segments  take  part  in  its 
formation  no  matter  what  the  position.  If  this  were 
true,  the  pelvis  would  be  associated  invariably  with  the 
same  nerves.  In  other  words,  if  the  girdle  were  formed 
by  segments  15,  16,  17,  nerves  corresponding  to  these 
would  be  associated  with  it  even  though  the  attachment 
were  on  the  14  segment.  According  to  Waite  this  is  not 
the  case  in  Necturus,  and  according  to  Lancaster  it  is  not 


670  Colorado  College  Publication 

the  case  in  fishes,  where  the  pelvic  girdle  may  be  found, 
in  some  instances,  in  front  of  the  pectoral. 

If  the  word  movement  is  to  be  interpreted,  not  liter- 
ally but  as  Lancaster  suggests,  this  theory  and  that  of 
Waite  are  identical. 

The  second  theory — excalation  and  intercalation  of 
vertebrae — has  no  conclusive  evidence  for  or  against  it. 
In  most  cases  pathological  conditions  offer  a  more  natu- 
ral conclusion  from  the  data  at  hand.  Waite's  argument 
that  this  phenomenon  is  probable,  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  caudal  migration  of  the  pelvic  girdle  is  not  associ- 
ated with  migration  of  the  pectoral  plexus,  does  not  seem 
conclusive.  For,  in  the  first  place,  he  assumes  that  when 
excalation  or  intercalation  takes  place  it  should  be  at  one 
end  of  a  linear  series.  He  eliminates  the  possibility  of 
change  between  the  first  and  last  vertebrae.  And  fur- 
thermore the  absence  of  variation  in  the  pectoral  region 
does  not  prove  anything,  since  he  cannot  deny  the  possi- 
bility of  a  "new  girdle  in  a  new  place"  in  pectoral  region, 
if  we  are  to  accept  that  theory  for  the  pelvic.  I  cannot 
see  that  there  is  any  way  to  prove  that  this  phenomenon 
does  not  take  place,  though  an  explanation  on  the  basis 
of  pathology  seems  more  logical. 

In  the  third  theory  we  assume  that  there  is  a  varia- 
tion in  early  segmentation.  In  Diemyctylus  we  would 
hold  that  the  part  of  the  embryo  which  normally  pro- 
duces 15  vertebrae,  forms  16  or  14  as  the  case  may  be. 
According  to  the  theory  of  ex-  and  intercalation,  the  addi- 
tion or  subtraction  of  segments  is  accomplished  by  the 
division  or  fusion  of  ready  formed  segments.  As  a  mor- 
phological speculation,  variation  in  early  segmentation 
is  more  acceptable,  since  it  preserves  the  integrity  of 
metameres.  There  is  no  evidence  for  or  against  this 
theory. 

The  fourth  theory,  "a  new  girdle,  a  new  plexus,  in  a, 
new  place"  seems  most  plausible.    The  arguments  in  its 


A  Study  in  Vakiation  671 

favor  have  been  stated  above  in  the  words  of  those  who 
advanced  it. 

For  the  present,  I  am  content  to  consider  this  the 
most  probable  solution  and  shall  direct  further  work  to 
investigate  its  soundness. 

PROBABLE    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    VARIATION    IN 
THE  LENGTH  OF  THE  PRESACRAL 
REGION  IN  AMPHIBIA 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  method  of  girdle  mi- 
gration the  sfact  that  the  length  of  the  presacral  region 
differs  in  different  groups  and  varies  in  any  one  group 
suggests  the  possibility  that  these  facts  may  have  a  phylo- 
genetic  significance. 

A  comparison  of  the  three  groups  in  which  the  larg- 
est numbers  of  specimens  were  examined  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  Necturus  is  less  ''stable"  than  Diemyctylus  viri- 
decsens  or  Diemyctylus  torosus.  Necturus  is  strictly 
aquatic;  D.  viridescens  is  aquatic  as  a  larva,  terrestrial 
for  a  time  and  secondarily  aquatic:  D.  torosus  is  essen- 
tially terrestrial,  spending  only  a  brief  larval  period  in 
the  water. 

D.  torosus        D.  viridescens        Necturus 
Attachment 

of  pelvic  girdle 
One  vertebra 

ahead  of  normal  0%  1.05%  .84% 

Skew  ahead  of 

normal  0% 

Normal       81% 

Skew  behind 

normal  3% 

One  vertebra 

behind  normal  16% 

Two  vertebrae 

behind  normal  0% 

Total  Specimens 

Examined    100 


.72% 
86.48% 

2.53% 
70.04% 

3.48% 

6.32% 

8.66% 

19.83% 

0% 

.42% 

1235 

236 

672 


COLGRADO  College  Publication 


X-Ray  Photograph  of  Cryptobranchus. 


A  Study  in.  Variation  6lS 

« 
This  raises  the  question  as  to  whether  the  apparent 
stability  of  torosus  and  viridescens  is  due  to  the  greater 
necessity  for  well  developed  arms  and  legs. 

A  comparison  of  the  habits  of  life  of  urodela  and  the 
girdle  attachments  presents  some  striking  facts. 

There  appear  to  be  two  extremes  of  habitat  and  a 
medium.  The  latter  is  not  clearly  defined.  The  first  ex- 
treme includes  forms  which  live  wholly  in  the  water — 
Cryptobranchus,  Necturus,  Gyrinophilus.  The  weight  of 
the  body  is  supported  by  the  water.  Locomotion  is  ac- 
complished by  the  action  of  the  tail.  Arms  and  legs  are 
used  for  pushing  and  pulling  the  body  as  the  animal 
moves  slowly  on  the  bottom  of  the  pond.  The  position  of 
arms  and  legs  is  of  no  great  importance  to  the  animal  as 
a  survival  character.  The  girdle  is  attached  on  18-19- 
20-21. 

The  second  extreme  includes  those  forms  which  walk 
on  land.  The  legs  of  this  group  raise  the  body  from  the 
ground  and  pull  or  push  it  forward.  This  type  qf  loco- 
motion requires  that  the  belly  and  at  least  the  proximal 
end  of  the  tail,  be  raised  above  the  ground.  This  re- 
quirement might  be  met  in  one  of  two  ways.  First,  the 
stiffening  of  the  vertebral  column  and  lengthening  of  the 
legs :  second,  the  reduction  of  the  distance  between  arms 
and  legs.  Among  larger  terrestrial  types  the  former 
method  prevails:  among  urodela  the  latter.  If  the  dis- 
tance between  arms  and  legs  is  to  be  reduced,  such  reduc- 
tion must  result  from  a  forward  migration  of  the  pelvic 
girdle  rather  than  a  backward  migration  of  the  pectoral. 
For  the  arms  must  support  the  head  and  therefore  are 
limited  as  to  their  migration.  In  this  group  are  included 
Diemyctylus,  Salamandra,  Ambystoma,  Desmognathus, 
whose  attachments  range  from  14,  15,  16,  17. 


674  Colorado  College  Pubucation 

The  group  of  urodeles  which  occupies  tiie  median 
position  shades  off  gradually  into  tiie  two  extreme 
groups.  These  forms  raise  Uie  body  very  slightly  when 
moving  on  land.  Locomotion  is  a  combination  of  wrig- 
gling, pushing,  and  pulling. 

The  anura  jump.  The  presacral  region  is  reduced 
to  nine  vertebrae  and  in  some  species  is  as  low  as  five. 

Can  mechanical  stress  and  strain  be  responsible  for 
the  differences  in  the  different  gfoups?  Walking  is  the 
resultant  of  several  forces.  There  is  first  the  down- 
ward push  of  the  body  which  is  counteracted  by  Uie  up- 
ward push  of  arms  and  legs.  A  second  force  is  the  for- 
ward ))ull  of  arms  and  legs.  This  force  is  applied  on  the 
points  of  attachment  of  the  ilia  and  the  muscles  of  the 
side  of  the  body. 

Cope  ('95)  argues:  "The  constant  strain  of  use  will 
produce  variation  in  one  line,  or  constant  use  along  a 
straight  line  will  be  the  factor  of  natural  selection  which 
would  cause  the  elimination  of  all  variations,  except  those 
in  the  line  defined  by  environment.  Transformations 
whether  in  the  way  of  addition  of  new  parts  or  the  reduc- 
tion of  those  already  present  act  just  as  if  the  direct  ac- 
tion of  the  environment  and  the  habits  of  the  animal  were 
the  causes  of  the  changes,  and  any  explanation  which  ex- 
cludes the  direct  action  of  such  agencies  is  confronted  by 
the  difficulty  of  an  immense  number  of  most  striking 
coincidents.  The  theory  of  determinate  variations  and 
use  inheritance  is  not  antagonistic  but  supplementary  to 
natural  selection,  the  latter  theory  attempting  no  expla- 
nation of  the  cause  of  variation.  Nor  is  it  pretended  for 
a  moment  that  use  and  disuse  are  the  sole  factors  or  even 
the  chief  factors." 


A  Study  in  Variation  675 

Variations  in  other  characters  was  observed  in  an 
effort  to  determine  whether  animals  which  showed  pel- 
vic variations  were  more  variable  in  other  respects.  The 
number  of  vermilliori  spots  were  counted  and  the  speci- 
mens were  measured  as  to  length.  These  results  were 
subjected  to  the  niathematical  formulas  designed  for  the 
purpose  and  showed  results  which  could  not  be  regarded 
as  conclusive.  A  much  larger  number  of  specimens  will 
be  necessary  before  observations  of  this  sort  can  be  con- 
sidered significant. 

CONCLUSION 

The  data  herein  included  are  far  too  meager  to  jus- 
tify a  trustworthy  conclusion.  If  they  point  the  way  for 
further  study  they  have  done  well. 

PROBLEMS  SUGGESTED 

1.  A  close  study  of  the  environment  of  amphibia. 

2.  A  close  study  of  the  mechanics  of  locomotion. 

3.  Correlation  of  girdle  attachment  with  present 
basis  of  classification. 

4.  The  development  of  the  pelvic  girdle. 

5.  Is  the  shifting  of  the  girdle  through  one  segment 
*a  survival  character? 


676  Colorado  •College  Publicatiok 


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"99.    Davenport,  C.  B.    Statistical  Methods. 

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'84.  Davidoff,  M.  Ueber  die  Varietaten  des  Plexus  lumbosacralis 
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"97.  Davidson,  A.  A  preliminary  Contribution  to  the  Development 
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'65.  Dumeril,  M.  A.  Trois  nouveaux  cas  de  Polymelie.  Revue 
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*0I.  Dwight,  T.  Description  of  the  Human  Spines,  showing  Numer- 
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'92.  Eisler,  P.  Der  Plexus  lumbosacralis  des  Menchen.  Abhandl. 
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*95.  Field,  H.  H.  Bemerkungen  ueber  die  Entwickelung  der  Wir- 
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'79.  Furbinger,  M.  Zur  Lehre  von  den  Umbildungen  dcr  Nerven- 
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'91.  Gage,  S.  H.  Life  History  of  the  Vermillion  Spotted  Newt 
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*%.    Gadow,  H.    Evolution  of  the  Vertebral  Column  of  Amphibia 

and  Amniota.    Philos.  Trans.  Vol.  1 878,  pp.  1-57- 
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'62.     Gegenbaur,  C.     Vergleichende  Anatomie  der  Wirbelsaule  der 

Amphibien  und  Reptilien. 
*82.     Holl,  M.     Ueber  die  richtige  Deutung  der  Querfortsatze  der 

Lendenwirbel  und  die  Entwickelung  der  Wirbelsaule  des  Men- 

schen.    Sitzungsber.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien.  Math.  -nat-Cl.  85,  Abth 

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'03.     Houghton,  H.  S.     Muscular  and  Skeletal  Elements  in  Sper- 

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'86.    Howes,  G.  B.    On  some  Abnormalities  of  the  Frog's  Vertebral 

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Vertebral  and  Limb  Skeleton  of  the  Amphibia. 
'88.     Howes,  G.  B.  and  Ridewood,  W.    On  the  Carpus  and  Tarsus 

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'78.     Ihering,  H.  V.     Das  peripherische  Nervensystem  der  Wirbel- 

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'80.     Ihering,  H.  V.     Ueber  die  Wirbelsaule  von  Pipa.     Morph. 

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"93.     Jordan,  D.  S.     The  Number  of  Vertebrae  in  Fishes.    Wilder 

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'93.     Jordan,  E.  C.     The  Habits  and  Development  of  the  Newt. 

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'07.     Kellicott,  W.  E.     Correlation  and  Variation  in  Internal  and 

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'68.    Lunel,  G.    Sur  Deux  Cas  de  Polymelia.    Menoires  de  la  Soc. 

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*94.  Scott,  W.  B.  On  Variations  and  Mutations.  Am.  Journ.  of 
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680      Colorado  College  Publication 

'91.     Sherwood,  W.  L.     Abnormal  Duplication  of  the  Urosomc  in 

Rana  catebsiana.    Am.  Nat.  XXV,  pp.  740-742. 
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'97.    Tornier,  G.    Ueber  Operationsmethoden  we'.che  sicher  Hypcr- 

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'80.     Wiedersheim,  R.     Ueber  die  Vermebrung  des  Os  centrale  in 

Carpus  und  Tarsus  des  Axlotol.    Morph.  Jahr.  Bd.  VI,  pp.  581- 

582. 
'93.     Wiedersheim,  R.     Grundness  der  Vergleichenden  Anatomie 

der  Wirbelthiere. 
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Soc.  Nat.  Hist.  pp.  387-439. 
04.     Winslow,  G.  M.     Three  Cases  of  Abnormalities  in  Urodeles. 

Tufts  College  Studies,  No.  8.  pp.  387-409. 
'98.     Woodward,  A.  S.    Vertebrate  Paleontology.    Cambridge  Nat. 

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Eastman,  Vol.  II,  London. 
'97.     Zwick,  W.     Beitrage  zus  Kenntnis  des  Baues  und  der  Ent- 
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ENGINEEEING  SERIES— Vol.  1. 

3,  The  RoastinfiT  of  Telluride  Ores.— S.  L.  Mack  and  G.  H. 
Scibird. 

4.  Further  Notes  on  the  Mammals  of  Colorado. — Edward  R. 
Warren. 

The  Movement  of  Light  in  Crystals. — George  I.  Firday. 

Aaron .  Palmer's  Computing  Scale^ — Flcrmn  Cajori. 

J<rfin  E.  Fuller's  Circular  Slide  Rules. — Florian  Cajori. 

A  Proposed  List  of  Experiments  for  a  Course  in  Electrical 
Engineering  Laboratory.-— Jofen  Mills. 

An  Outline  of  Mineralogy .^ — George  L  Firday. 

On  tiie  Invention  of  the  Slide  Rule. — Florian  Cajori. 

A  Study  of  the  Advisability  of  Electrification  of  the  Ar- 
kansas Junction-Basalt  Division  of  the  Colorado  Midland 
Railroad. — ^Abstract  by  George  B.  Thomas. 

12.  Notes  on  a  Graphical  Method  of  Dealing  with  Water  Sup- 
ply.— WUliam  A.  Bartlett. 

13.  The  Effect  of  Altitude  on  the  Heating  of  Electrical  Ma- 
chines.— George  B.  Thomas. 

14.  Field  Practice  in  Surveying.— Fran/u  Af .  Okey. 

'*     15.    Shop  Courses  in  Technical  Education. — Nelson  R.  Love. 
**    16.    Notes  on  the  Early  History  of  the  Slide  Rule.— F/orian 
Cajori. 

EDUCATION  AND  PSYCHOLOGfY  SERIES— Vol.  L 
No.     1,    The  Present  Status  of  Psvchology. — John  A.  McGeoch. 


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