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psrcBOiaciCAi.  xeview  fubucations 


Psychological   Monographs 


EDITED  BY 


JAMES  R.  ANGELL,  UNivERsrry  or  Chicago 
HOWARD  C.  WARREN,  PuncetSn  Univmsity  [Indexi 

JOHN  B.  WATSON,  Johns  Hopkins  Univebsity  (Xerinr)  A^^> 

ARTHUR  H.  PIERCE.  Shtth  College  (BfOtUn) 


Volume  XII 

1909-11 


FUBUSHED  BV 

THE    REVIEW    PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

41  NORTH  QUEEN  ST..  LANCASTER,  PA. 

AM>  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


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155734 


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CONTENTS 

Three  Studies  from    the    Psychological    Laboratory  of   the 
University  of  Chicago: 

1.  A  Study  of  Sensory  Control  in  the  Rat.     Florence  Rich- 

ardson.    Pp.  124. 

2.  On  the    Influence   of  Complexity   and    Dissimilarity   on 

Memory.     Harvey  A.  Peterson.    Pp.  68. 

3.  Studies  in  Melody.     W.  Van  Dyke  Bingham.    Pp.  vi+88. 

4.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  American  Psychological 

Association  on  the  Teaching  of  Psychology .      Pp.  93. 

5.  Mental  Life  of  the  Rhesus  Monkey.     William  T.  Shep- 

herd.    Pp.  62. 
The  Monographs  in  this  volume  are  Nos.  48-52. 


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Psychological  Monographs 

Val.  Xn  October,  1*M 

Na.  I  Wbolc  Ne.  4S 


Psychological  Review 

BDITSD  BY 

J.  MARE  BALDWIN 

HOWARD  C.  WARREN  JOHN  B.  WATSON 

PlIHCKTDN  UmVUtlTT  JoHHI    HoTKlNI    DMITUItlTT 

JAMES  R.  ANGELL,  UmriRUTi  or  Cbkaoo  (£Jmr  */  ikt  PijckJtpcal  MmtT'fl'') 


A  Study  of  Sensory  Control  in  the  Rat 


Florence  Richardson,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Psychology,  Drake  University 

Studies  from  the  Psychological  Laboratory  of  the 
University  of  Chicago 


THE  REVIEW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

41  NORTH  QUEEN  ST.,  LANCASTER,  PA. 

AND  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


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I  desire  to  express  here  my  obligation  to  Professor  James 
R.  Angell  for  constant  assistance  and  encouragement.  I  am 
particularly  indebted  to  Professor  John  B.  Watson,  under 
whose  immediate  direction  the  experimental  work  here  pre- 
sented was  undertaken  and  carried  out.  My  thanks  are  due 
also  to  Professor  Harvey  Carr  for  su^estions  and  criticisms 
of  the  manuscript,  and  to  Miss  Ethel  Chamberlain,  who  assisted 
me  during  a  portion  of  the  experimentation. 


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Introduction. 

«.     Probleni  and  Scope  of  Preaent  Study i 

h.     General  Method 3 

PART  FIRST. 

I.      EXPUDIENTAL  RbSULT*. 

^.    TeMf  on  Problem  Box  t 7 

1.  DcKiiption  of  Appantui  and  of  the  I^eirning  Procew 7 

2.  Statement  of  ReatUti: 10 

a.  On  Normal  White  Ran 10 

t.  Or  Noimal  Black-and-White  Rati I  j 

c  On  Blind  Ran 15 

J.  On  Anoamic  Rati 17 

3.  Summarr  21 

B.  Temon  PtoUem  Box  II 26 

I.  OeKription  of  Apparatu*  and  of  the  Learning  Process 26 

1.  Statement  of  Resuht: 29 

a.  On  Normal  White  Rats 29 

i.  On  Normal  Black-and-White  Ratt 32 

t.  On  Blind  Ratt 34 

J.  On  Anoimic  Rati 34 

3.  Effect  on  Rat*  of  Changing  Poiition  of  Plane  90°  to  Ri^l 38 

4.  Summary 41 

C.  Te«tf  on  Problem  Box  III 46 

1.  Defcripdon  of  Apparatus  and  of  the  Learning  ProceM 46 

2.  Statement  of  Results: 47 

*.  On  Normal  White  Rat* +7 

h.  On  Normal  Black-and-White  Rat* 49 

t.  On  Blind  Rat* 50 

J.  On  Anosroic  Rat* 52 

3.  Effect  on  Rat*  of  Changing  Position  of  Box  and  Cage 52 

4.  Summary jS 

D.  DiKuttion  of  Curve*  ihowing  Average  Time-records  of  Normal  and  of 

Defective  Rat*  in  Learning  the  Maze 60 

£.    General  Conclusion*  Based  upon  Results  of  aboveTests 61 

F.    Problem  IV 69 

1.  Description  of  Apparatus  and  of  Method  of  Teaching  Rats  to 

Jump 69 

2.  Jumping  in  Constant  Direction,  i.e..  Apparatus  in  East-West  Posi- 

tion    76 


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i»  CONTENTS 

i.  Statement  of  Results 76 

a.  On  Normal  White  Rats 76 

b.  On  Normal  Black-and-White  Rats 76 

e.  On  Blind  Rats 79 

i.  On  Anofmic  Rat 83 

II.  Summary 85 

3.  Effect  of  Chan^ng  Direction  in  which  Jump  Must  be  Made 85 

I.  Statement  of  Refultt 88 

a.  On  Normal  White  Rats 88 

h.  On  Normal  Blaclc-and-White  Rats 90 

e.  On  Anosmtc  Rat 92 

iV.  Summary 92 

4.  Effect  of  Altering  Distances  between  Platfoims 93 

a.  Effect  of  Altering  Horizontal  Distance 93 

f .    Statement  of  Results 94 

«.  On  Normal  White  and  on  Normal  Blaclcand-Whitc 

Rats 94 

h.  Effect  of  Altering  both  Horizontal  and  Vertical  Distancet. .  95 

(.    Statement  of  Results 96 

«.  On  Nomal  White  and  on  Normal  Black-and-White 

Rats 96 

II.  Summary 97 

5.  Conclusion 98 

PART  SECOND. 

A.  Effect  of  Training  upon  the  Rats 103 

I.  Experimental  Results 103 

I.    Comparison  of  Records  of  Trained  and  of  Untrained  Rats 103 

a.  Normal  White  Rats  on  Problem  1 103 

b.  Blind  Anosmic  Rat  on  Problem  1 106 

c.  Normal  White  Rats  on  Problem  III 107 

d.  Normal  Black-and-White  Rats  on  Problem  III 108 

e.  Blind  Rats  on  Problem  III 112 

1.     Summary  of  Facts 114 

II.  Conclusions 114 

B.  Individual  and  Sex  Differences  as  Shown  by  Behavior 117 

1.  Sex  Differences I17 

2.  Individual  Differences 119 

PART  THIRD 

General  Conclusions 123 


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INTRODUCTION. 

a.     Problem  and  Scope  of  Present  Study. 

The  work  presented  here  grew  out  of  a  series  of  tests 
upon  the  rat,  begun  in  April,  1906.  Watson,*  in  an  investiga- 
tion which  he  was  carrying  on  at  the  time,  had  found  that  the 
only  necessary  sensory  avenues  employed  by  the  rat,  in  learning 
the  maze,  were  the  kinaesthetic  and  oi^anic,  and  that  visual, 
olfactory,  auditory  and  tactual  impressions  could  in  all  prob- 
ability be  dispensed  with. 

The  present  problem  parallels  that  of  the  above  investigation 
and  may  be  briefly  stated  as  an  attempt  to  determine  the  func- 
tion of  the  different  sense  organs  in  the  reactions  of  the  rat 
K>  situations  requiring  various  types  of  movement.  In  prob- 
lems like  that  of  the  maze,  the  general  activity  of  running  is 
the  one  most  utilized.  The  sensori-motor  arcs  need  only  to  be 
integrated :  Whereas  the  coordinations  which  are  employed  in 
the  learning  of  such  problems'  as  Nos.  I,  II,  and  III  of  the 
present  series  (such  as  digging,  bending  the  back  and  climb- 
ing upward  through  holes;  stepping  on  a  plane  and  advancing 
upon  it  until  a  trap  door  falls;  raising  the  head  and  lifting  a 
latch  with  the  snout,  etc.)  are  not  so  habitual  to  the  an[mal. 
The  sensori-motor  arcs  involved  in  the  learning  of  these  prob- 
lems must  be  established  more  or  less  de  novo,  and  at  the  same 
time  be  combined  into  a  series  which  can  function  more  orless 
auK)matically. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  since  running,  which  is  the  chief 
form  of  activity  involved  in  the  maze,  is  so  reflex-like  in  char- 
acter, it  might  well  be  carried  out  by  the  use  of  kinesthetic 
sensory  impressions  alone.  The  coordination  involved  m  prob- 
lems of  the  manipulation  type,  not  being  so  reflex  in  character, 
would,  if  the  factors  involved  in  the  formation  of  human  habits 

'  Watton,  J.  B.,  Psych.  Rev.,  Mor.  Supp.,  vol.  viii,  110.  2,  1907. 
'These  problem  bones  are  described  in  detail  further  on. 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


may  by  analogy  be  assumed  to  hold  in  the  case  of  the  rat, 
require  the  cooperation,  at  first  (i.  f.,  at  least  during  the  learn- 
ing process),  of  visual  and  olfactory  impulses,  provided  such 
were  at  hand.  Later  on  such  coordinations  might  in  their 
turn  be  controlled  by  kinesthetic  means. 

I  The  general  type  of  coordination  in  the  maze,  is,  as  has 
been  stated,  that  of  running.  The  animal,  in  addition,  must 
learn  what  turns  to  make,  and  where  to  make  them.  Carr 
and  Watson's  '  later  report  of  work  witii  a  maze  in  which  the 
length  of  the  alleys  may  be  changed,  goes  to  show  that  the 
knowledge  of  the  direction  of  the  turns  and  the  point  at  which 
they  occur,  is  governed  by  the  kinaesthedc  and  organic  char- 
acter of  the  cues  for  the  turns.  This  fact  explains  the  success 
of  blind  and  anosmic  rats  in  learning  the  pathway  in  a  maze. 

In  Problem  I  of  the  present  series,  the  pathway  which  the 
animal  must  follow  is  more  complex  than  that  of  a  maze  in 
that  it  involves  climbing  down  from  the  top  of  a  box,  finding 
a  hidden  entrance  to  the  food  box,  digging  away  an  obstruc- 
tion, crawling  under  a  board  and  up  through  an  opening. 
The  solution,  however,  is  more  simple  than  that  of  any  of  the 
others  in  that  it  demands  Httle  manipulation,  and  on  the  whole 
approaches  the  labyrinth  type  of  problem.  How  much  the 
guidance  from  vision  and  olfaction  may  assist  the  functionings 
of  kinesthetic  and  organic  processes  in  the  learning  of  this 
type  of  problem  is  one  of  the  chief  questions  to  be  answered 
by  the  present  research. 

Problem  II  is  diought  to  be  still  more  difficult  for  the  rat. 
The  animal  must  learn  here  to  press  down  an  inclined  plane 
at  a  distance  from  the  box,  and  establish  the  association  of 
the  falling  of  the  plane  with  the  opening  of  the  door  of  the  food 
box.  It  is  possible  that  olfaction  might  render  the  food  stimu- 
lus more  intense,  and  thereby  quicken  the  reactions  of  the 
animal;  but  the  question  we  are  more  concerned  with  is 
whether  the  olfactory  values  of  the  different  parts  of  the  envi- 
ronment, such  as  the  smell  of  the  plane,  of  the  door  of  the 
food  box,  etc.,  aid  the  animal  in  adjusting  to  such  situations. 

'  Jour.  Comp.  Neur,  and  Psych.,  vol.  xviii,  no.  I,  1908,  p.  lyW. 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  3 

Vision  might  also  be  the  means  by  which  he  attains  his  orien- 
tation in  such  an  open  space  as  surrounds  the  apparatus. 

In  Problem  III,  the  rat  must  raise  a  latch  holding  a  door 
in  place  in  order  to  reach  the  food.  The  area  in  which  the 
successful  movement  must  be  performed  is  vety  circumscribed, 
being  only  the  immediate  locaU^  of  the  free  end  of  the  latch. 
Vision  may  be  necessary  ta  locate  the  door  and  the  latch. 
Olfaction  may  possibly  play  a  considerable  role  here  likewise. 

Problem  IV  necessitates  the  rat's  jumping  from  one  plat- 
form tt)  another  in  order  to  obtain  food.  It  is  hardly  con- 
ceivable that  this  coordination  could  be  successfully  executed 
for  any  considerable  distance  without  the  aid  of  vision. 

If  different  ^pes  of  sensory  control  are  used  by  the  animal 
in  meeting  such  different  situations,  the  fact  should  become 
evident  in  a  comparison  of  the  behavior  of  normal  rats  with 
that  of  rats  deprived  of  die  use  of  the  important  sense  organs. 

In  carrying  out  this  investigation  groups  of  normal  white 
rats,  normal  black-and-white  rats,  blind  rats  and  anosmic 
rats'  were  used. 

During  the  course  of  the  above  research  the  experimenter 
collected  data  bearing  upon  the  questions  of  sex  and  individual 
differences,  and  on  the  possible  influence  of  previous  training. 
While  these  topics  were  subsidiary  to  the  main  problem,  the 
results  seem  of  sufficient  value  to  justify  their  presentation. 

b.    General  Method. 

The  experiments  which  are  here  reported  were  as  carefully 
controlled  as  possible :  the  tests  were  made  every  day  and  at  the 
same  hour  of  the  day.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  the  rats 
were  about  120  days  old  when  the  experimentation  began. 
This  standard  of  age  was  adhered  to  because  the  rats  at  this 
time  have  much  of  the  energy  of  youth  together  with  fully 
developed  neural  and  physiological  mechanisms.  Fidelity  to 
this  requirement,  as  m:     '     ' 

'  The  anosmic  rats,  with  1 
lion  which  afflicted  die  tat  1: 
its  woric.  On  this  account,  1 
oTdefective  rats  is  not  as  con 


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4  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

much  difficulty.  A  need  for  a  group  often  arose  when  none 
in  the  laboratory  satisfied  the  demands.  This  frequently 
meant  a  considerable  delay  until  a  litter  of  the  proper  age  could 
be  found.  As  a  rule,  the  rats  had  been  bred  in  the  laboratory 
and  were  known  to  be  of  good  stock.  Males  and  females 
used  in  the  work  were  kept  in  separate  cages  and,  for  the  most 
part,  were  tested  on  separate  apparatus.  This  was  done  as 
a  check  K>  any  possible  tendency  toward  tracking,  and  to 
minimize  the  emotional  disturbance  of  fear  caused  by  an 
unusual  odor.  The  problem  boxes  were  carefully  washed  and 
left  for  a  time  in  the  open  air  before  being  assigned  u>  a  new 
group.  On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  rats  were  required 
to  get  into  the  problem  box  for  food,  rather  than  K>  release 
themselves  from  confinement,  it  was  necessary  to  inclose  the 
area  in  which  they  were  to  work.  A  larger  cage  of  wire  netting 
was  placed  over  the  problem  box,  which  is  spoken  of  in  later 
descriptions  as  the  control  cage.  When  an  animal  is  confined 
within  his  problem  box,  no  such  outer  cage  is  necessary.  But 
unless  a  rat  were — in  a  measure — confined,  his  insatiable  curi- 
osity would  preclude  a  solution  of  his  problem  within  reason- 
able time  limits. 

The  boxes  were  kept  covered  by  these  cages  when  not  in 
use  so  that  no  predatory  wild  rats  could  leave  an  odor  on  them. 
On  one  occasion  the  laboratory  boy  carelessly  removed  the 
control  cage,  and  left  a  problem  box  exposed.  Wild  rats  had 
evidently  been  about,  for  the  next  day  each  rat  introduced  into 
the  cage  became  exceedingly  timid  with  fright,  and  the  emo- 
tional reaction  was  so  strong  and  so  persistent  that  it  necessi- 
tated the  abandonment  of  the  series.  Upon  another  occasion, 
when  the  rats  which  had  just  finished  their  work  for  the  day 
were  eating  in  the  problem  box,  the  experimenter  killed  several 
wild  rats  which  had  been  caught  in  a  trap.  Every  effort  was 
made  to  remove  any  trace  of  odor  from  the  experimenter's 
hands;  but  when  the  white  rats  were  carried  back  to  their 
living  cages  one  of  them  seemed  much  frightened.  The  next 
day  he  objected  to  being  handled  and  when  put  into  the  test 
cage  he  crouched.  When  he  moved  about  at  all,  he  slunk 
along  close  to  the  floor,  cringing,  and  became  quite  motionless 


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A  STVDT  or  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  $ 

at  any  loud  or  sharp  sound.  For  several  days  his  behavior 
su^ested  fear,  and  only  after  the  fifth  day  had  passed  did  he 
revert  to  his  normal  behavior.  Possibly  it  is  not  necessary  to 
go  so  into  detail  in  these  matters.  But  those  who  have  worked 
with  animals  realize  how  difficult  it  is  to  maintain  constant 
conditions.  If  the  experimenter  takes  the  precaution  to  sute 
explicitly  the  methods  of  control  in  the  work  reported,  it  inspires 
more  confidence  in  the  minds  of  those  who  wish  to  utilize  the 
results. 

Milk-soaked  bread,  except  where  otherwise  stated,  was  the 
food  stimulus  used.  Hunger  was  relied  upon  as  being  the 
most  constant  and  most  natural  incentive  to  activity.  The 
rats  were  allowed  to  eat  but  sparingly  of  the  food  after  the 
first  successful  efforts,  but  after  the  last  trial  for  the  day  had 
been  given  they  were  permitted  to  satisfy  their  hunger.  On 
the  whole  the  method  of  reward  was  adopted  as  the  most 
efficient  means  of  controlhng  the  reactions  of  these  animals. 
The  rats  were  never  allowed  to  become  ravenously  hungry. 
Such  a  condition  puts  a  premium  upon  useless  and  frantic 
movements. 

The  food  in  the  problem  box  was  always  placed  in  the  same 
location.  The  position  of  the  food  box  in  relation  to  the  con- 
trol cage,  and  of  both  to  the  points  of  the  compass,  was  con- 
stant. The  rat  was  always  put  into  the  cage  at  the  same  point 
and  with  approximately  the  same  bodily  orientation.  As  the 
entrance  was  at  the  east  in  the  first  three  problems,  the  rat 
entered  the  control  cage  facing  west.  Particular  precaution 
was  taken  in  this  matter,  since  all  experiments  with  the  rat 
have  shown  him  to  be  very  susceptible  to  slight  changes  in  his 
environment.  He  has  a  tendency  to  establish  a  pathway  from 
the  entrance  to  the  food  box,  and  to  follow  it  carefully.  Unless 
he  attains  orientation  quickly  and  pursues  this  pathway  he 
becomes  confused.  This  confusion  is  evidenced  by  the  display 
of  the  same  random  activity  present  in  his  first  trial. 

Since  the  time  records  must  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the 
basis  of  comparison  in  these  problems  especial  care  was  taken 
to  maintain  constant  conditions.  Comparisons  were  to  be  made 
between  entire  groups,  and  between  individuals  of  thesame  or 


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6  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

different  groups.  This  fact,  likewise,  necessitated  the  employ- 
ment of  great  vigilance  in  experimentation. 

The  animals  were  always  tame  when  beginning  the  work 
and  were  accustomed  to  being  handled.  Every  group  was 
given  the  different  tests  in  the  same  serial  order.  On  account 
of  the  possible  influence  of  education,  groups  were  not  set  upon 
die  second  problem  without  the  experience  of  the  first,  '^ilc 
at  the  time  the  difi^erence  between  the  work  of  trained  and  of 
untrained  rats  was  only  hypothetical,  die  results  reported  here 
(p.  103)  seem  to  justify  die  precaution. 

Care  in  maintaining  these  conditions — such  as  die  age  of 
die  rat;  amount  of  previous  training;  continuous  daily  experi- 
mentation; and  an  equal  number  of  daily  trials — made  the 
work  difficult.  It  is  admitted  that  even  with  the  care  takeni 
the  conditions  were  not  ideal.  In  many  cases  a  comparison 
is  made  of  tables  and  curves  formulated  from  the  records  of 
groups  composed  of  unequal  numbers  of  individuals,  and  of 
unequal  sex  representation.  However,  the  writer,  at  least,  feels 
that  the  records  obtained  represent  very  fairly  the  abilities  of 
the  animals  experimented  upon.  While  much  in  the  way  of 
accidental  variadon  is  doubdess  present,  the  records  on  the 
whole  are  reliable. 


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PART   I 
I.    Experimental  Results. 

A.      TESTS   ON    PROBLEM    BOX    I. 

/.     Description  of  Apparatus  and  General  Statement  of  Learn- 
ing Process. 

TTw  first  problem  box  used  was  a  modified  form  of  the  one 
used  by  Small'  and  by  Watson.' 

In  tjiis  box  the  rat  has  to  dig  through  sawdust  in  order  to 
reach  the  entrance  of  the  food  box.  The  box  is  30  cm.  long, 
22-5  cm.  wide  and  17.5  cm.  high,  the  top  and  the  bottom  being 
of  inch  boards.  The  box  is  raised  by  supports  at  the  comers 
so  that  the  bottom  is  5  cm.  above  the  table  upon  which  the 
box  rests.  The  sides  and  ends  of  the  box  are  covered  with 
wire  netting.  The  netting  on  the  sides  extends  down  to  the 
table*  while  that  on  the  ends  goes  only  to  the  bottom  of  die 
box,  leaxing  an  open  alley  under  the  box  between  the  two 
extended  side  walls.  In  the  center  of  the  raised  Boor  is  a 
rectangular  opening  through  which  the  rat  climbs  from  below 
into  the  box  to  obtain  food.  This  opening  is  8  cm.  by  10  cm. 
A  larger  opening  in  the  top  of  the  box,  10  cm.  by  12.5  cm., 
allows  the  experimenter  both  to  admit  the  food  and  to  remove 
the  animal  from  the  box  (see  fig.  I).  This  opening  has  a  thin 
board  cover  which  is  pivoted  on  a  screw  near  one  of  its  ends. 

During  experimentation  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  box  were 
covered  with  sawdust  to  the  height  of  the  floor  of  the  box. 
This  height  was  chosen  arbitrarily  to  insure  a  practically  con- 
stant amount  of  sawdust  for  the  animal  to  remove.  A  wire 
netting  control  cage,  52.5  cm.  long,  37.5  cm.  high  and  37.5  cm, 
wide,  with  a  door  on  one  side,  was  placed  over  the  box. 

>  Am.  Jour.  Piych.,  vol.  xi.,  no.  2,  p.  135. 
*  Anim^  EJueatioa,  p.  14. 


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8  FLORSNCE  RICHAKDSON. 

The  problem  with  which  the  rat  is  confronted  is  the  necessity 
for  removing  the  sawdust  either  at  the  north  end  or  at  the 
south  end  of  the  box.  Since  the  east  and  west  sides  are  entirely- 
covered  with  wire  netting,  movements  at  these  points  are  use- 
less. The  rat  must  dig  away  a  quantity  of  sawdust,  crouch 
and  then  crawl  under  the  floor  of  the  food  box  proper,  and 
later  climb  up  through  the  hole  in  the  floor.  At  the  b^inning 
of  the  test  the  animal  was  always  placed  on  the  top  of  the  box 
facing  west.  It  must  learn  to  descend  to  the  floor  of  the  cage, 
orient  itself  as  regards  the  north  or  south  end  of  the  box, 
and  dig  underneath  the  floor  of  the  food  box  as  described 
above.     As  has  been  stated,  the  pathway  which  the  animal 


Fig.  .. 

must  establish  is  relatively  simple,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
the  digging,  crouching  and  cHmbing  movements,  the  problem 
approaches  in  its  simplicity  that  of  the  labyrinth  type. 

The  above  task  was  presented  first  to  normal,  then  to  defec- 
tive rats  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  evidence  for  the  type  of  sen- 
sory control  utilized  by  the  rat  in  forming  such  an  association. 
The  normal  rats  furnished  the  standard  time  and  error  record 
with  which  the  records  of  the  defective  animals  were  compared. 

The  rats  at  work  upon  this  problem  were  fed  once  a  day 
for  three  days  in  the  box,  a  handful  of  sawdust  having  pre- 
viously been  sprinkled  over  the  floor  to  accustom  them  to  its 
presence. 


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A  STVDT  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  KAT.  9 

The  time  consumed  during  the  test  was  taken  by  means  of 
an  ordinary  stop-watch,  which  was  started  just  after  the  door 
of  the  cage  was  closed  after  admitting  the  animal,  and  was 
stopped  when  the  rat  had  all  four  feet  in  the  food  box. 

The  general  description  of  the  learning  processes  involved 
in  this  problem  may  be  easily  set  forth  by  a  reference  to  the 
following  notes  of  an  individual  taken  at  random  from  the 
records  of  the  normal  rats. 

Notti  on  tbt  Behavior  of  Normai  Ftmale  Rat  If  ia  learning  Prohltm  I. 


TOIAL. 

4/M/06 

Examined  moit  carefully  both  outer  cage  and  food  box. 
Seemed  loget  odor  of  food  and  dug  two-thirds  length 
of  east  side.  Scratched  li^tly  at  west:  active  but 
unfortunate.  Began  scratching  at  south,  but  gave 
up  immediately  and  began  at  east.  Dug  under  at 
west  end  of  north  side.  Did  not  enter  food  box  at 
once.    Time  17.65  min. 

2 

Entered  at  weffi  of  north,  with  few  useless  movements. 
Time  .25  min. 

3 

Entered  at  west  of  north.    Time. 15  min. 

4/11/06 

4 

Scratched  on  east  side,  left,  returned  again  to  east  and 
dug  frantically,  then  entered  from  south-    Time  1 .02 

5 

Scratched  at  east,  entered  at  south.    Time  .15  min. 

6 

Hesitated  for  an  instant  at  east,  but  did  nat  scratch. 
Time  .08  min. 

4/11/06 

7 

Time  .18  min. 

8 

Entered  at  nonh;  dug  spasmodically.  Time  .42  min. 

South.    Time  .17  min. 

4/13/06 

10 

South.    Time  .12  min. 

Went  to  south,  hesitated,  seemed  confused,  dashed  to 
north  and  in.    Time  ,20  min. 

North.    Time  .03  min. 

The  above  notes  show  many  characteristic  features  of  the 
learning  process.  The  quick  drop  from  high  to  low  time  record, 
which  may  be  seen  from  the  form  of  the  curve,  (Plate  I )  is  typical 
of  the  first  and  second  trials.  The  sudden  elimination  of 
useless  movements  is  not  always  so  pronounced  as  in  the  case 


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10  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

noted  above.  Often  errors  persist  through  half  of  the 
series.  The  manner  of  the  elimination  of  errors  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  above  notes.  There  is  at  first  a  persevering  effort 
to  dig  through  at  the  east  or  west  side,  followed  by  less  and 
less  persistent  endeavor  at  these  places;  later  there  is  present 
only  a  hesitancy  in  passing  such  points,  and  finally,  as  the  habit 
progresses,  no  notice  of  them  at  all. 

This  procedure  quitt  parallels  that  of  the  rat  iA  eliminating 
his  errors  in  the  maze.  He  at  first  explores  the  cul-de-sac 
with  care,  then  runs  into  it  for  shorter  and  shorter  distances, 
hesitates  at  its  opening,  and  finally  disregards  it  utterly.  Such 
behavior  is  indicative  of  the  early  random  and  accidental 
nature  of  the  movements,  and  illustrates  one  phase  of  the  kin- 
xsthedc  character  of  control. 

2.     Statement  of  Results. 

o.    On  Normal  White  Rats. 

In  order  to  obtain  normal  records  with  which  to  compare 
the  records  of  defective  animals,  a  group  of  eight  white  rats 
was  used.  These  rats  were  I22  days  old,  all  of  one  litter 
and  were  healthy,  active  individuals.  Being  bred  in  the  labo- 
ratory their  previous  ancestral  history  was  known  to  be  of 
the  best.  Four  of  them  were  males  and  four  were  females. 
None  had  been  used  previously  in  experimentation.  Table  I 
shows  die  average  records  of  this  group.  On  Plate  I  the 
graphic  representation  of  this  average  is  given. 

The  table  shows  also  the  maximum  and  the  minimum  time 
records  for  each  trial,  the  number  of  rats  whose  records  coin- 
cide with  the  average  for  the  group  at  that  trial,  and  the  number 
whose  records  are  greater,  and  the  number  whose  records  are 
less  than  the  average.  Since  average  alone  is  not  always  an 
adequate  representation  of  the  accomplishments  of  a  group, 
these  few  supplementary  facts  are  added  to  make  the  average 
of  greater  value. 

When  the  recordswere  tabulated, the  rat  making  the  maximal 
and  the  animal  making  the  minimal  record  at  each  trial  was 
noted.     The  number  of  maximal  and  of  minimal  records  made 


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A  sTVDr  or  sENsosr  control  in  the  rat.  1 1 

Table  I. 

Sbmmng  ibe  aotragt,  ibt  mtmimum,  and  the  maximmm  timt-rttorJt  of  tight 
normal v/bitt  rait  mf«»  PrMtm  I.  Tbt  last  ibnt  niumnt  tbaw  tbt  HUttwtr 
of  animals  vtboie  timt  rtcords  are  (/)  tifual  (o  tbt  avtragt,  (ji)  Mow  and  (j) 
atave  the  aoeragr. 


»o.or 

u,« 

UAXtMUM 

3. 

-niAL. 

■     7 

t           3 

97 

Tj'is 

6 

69 

28 

7.20 

6 

4» 

■S 

.83 

80 

20 

1.58 

35 

■3 

■75 

30 

■S 

1.07 

25 

10 

■S5 

23 

10 

-44 

'J 

■s 

.68 

18 

12 

■SO 

16 

07 

30 

"3 

13 

.28 

IS 

07 

■  42 

09 

08 

.18 

II 

10 

.12 

H 

10 

3S 

18 

11 

.4« 

■3 

10 

.20 

19 

07 

•45 

09 

to 

13 

■7 

05 

.60 

tz 

•33 

'3 

11 

10 

.20 

24 

•3 

07 

■  73 

»S 

'4 

OS 

■42 

26 

10 

07 

.20 

V 

08 

OS 

.18 

z8 

12 

05 

.22 

«9 

■s 

05 

■45 

30 

»7 

05 

13 

I 

3- 

°1 

06 

■3 

3' 

06 

05 

■09 

33 

12 

OS 

■37 

3* 

17 

06 

52 

3S 

09 

04 

.18 

36 

■9 

06 

1  03 

37 

■4 

07 

50 

3« 

»9 

07 

,22 

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FLORENCE  SICBAKDSON. 


Table  I. — Conanued. 


TTtlAL,        *" 

lACE.     MIN 

miu.    UAXn 

iUH. 

■• 

2. 

3- 

39 

09 

"7 

"3 

I 

4 

3 

♦0 

»9 

07 

45 

3 

41 

24 

33 

7 

41 

■5 

06 

33 

7 

43 

23 

44 

11 

04 

33 

6 

45 

10 

07 

V 

46 

06 

03 

5 

47 

06 

03 

09 

6 

48 

oi 

03 

4 

49 

03 

10 

4 

S" 

■3 

08             1 

26 

7 

' 

by  each  individual  was  then  given  its  percentage  value.    These 
percentages  are  shown  below. 


Minimal  RecorJt. 


Maximal  Recordt. 


Male     1 41.6  Male     I 

Male  II 10.6  Male  II 8 

Male  III 22 .0  Male  III 7 

MalelV 10.6  Male  IV i+ 


Female     1 1  Female     I... 

Female  II 6  Female  II... 

Female  III 3  Female  III . . . 

Female  IV 5  Female  IV. . 


29 


These  supplementary  tables  with  others  similar  In  character 
will  be  discussed  in  a  later  section  (p.  117).  They  are  inserted 
here  to  show,  in  a  measure,  how  dependent  the  average  may 
be  upon  the  variations  among  individuals.  Male  IV  and 
Female  I  are  responsible  for  more  than  one-half  of  the  longest 
r.  cords.  Male  I,  on  the  other  hand,  though  he  has  not  the 
least  percentage  of  maximal  records,  has  made  more  than  two- 
fifths  of  the  total  number  of  minimal  records.     In  other  words, 


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2.  3- 

3  ' 

3  • 

2  1 

2  2 

3  ' 
3  ' 

3 


five  were 

als  were 

'on. 

of  the 

itation 


tight 


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14  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

Table  II. 

SbouiiHg  the  average,  tbt  minimum,  and  the  maximum  time-records  af  four  black- 
and-white  females  upon  Problem  I.  The  last  three  coiumnt  ihoio  the  number 
of  animali  whose  lime-recordt  are  (j)  (juo/  to  the  average,  (2}  below,  and 
(j)  oiov/  ibr  average. 


MO  or 

™«i.  -"• 

2ACE.  wur 

■HUM.  UAXI 

HUM. 

'■ 

3 

;.. 

«.     m, 

I 

82 

V        ' 

53 

a 

23 

'7 

37 

3 

« 

67 

S» 

+ 

12 

07 

■7 

5 

7» 

05 

6 

■7 

06 

47 

7 

08 

07 

08 

OS 

■9 

9 

>3 

OS 

22 

08 

06 

10 

11 

07 

05 

10 

u 

06 

OS 

06 

'3 

07 

OS 

10 

14 

18 

OS 

53 

'S 

06 

OS 

09 

16 

07 

OS 

10 

■7 

10 

07 

■4 

18 

II 

07 

26 

■9 

05 

OS 

06 

20 

09 

04 

■7 

21 

OS 

03 

07 

21 

OS 

04 

07 

'3 

04 

03 

OS 

2+ 

OS 

03 

08 

»S 

OS 

03 

06 

26 

06 

03 

12 

'7 

II 

03 

3S 

28 

04 

03 

04 

29 

04 

03 

04 

30 

03 

03 

04 

31 

OS 

03 

10 

3' 

04 

04 

04 

33 

04 

03 

04 

34 

04 

03 

06 

35 

04 

04 

OS 

36 

05 

03 

07 

37 

06 

03 

12 

38 

07 

04 

09 

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A  STVOr  OF  SENSORY  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 
Table  II. — Continued. 


HACB.     MIN 

MUM.     MAXI 

MUM. 

*■ 

1. 

3- 

39 

04 

03 

0? 

40 

04 

11 

4' 

03 

02 

04 

41 

04 

ID 

43 

08 

03 

>7 

44 

61 

*s 

06 

OS 

07 

♦6 

04 

03 

OS 

+7 

04 

03 

OS 

48 

04 

04 

04 

49 

04 

03 

OS 

SO 

03 

03 

04 

c.    On  Blind  Rats. 

Nine  blind  rats  of  which  four  were  males,  and  five  were 
females,  were  trained  on  the  problem.'  The  animals  were 
about  four  months  old  and  all  were  in  excellent  condition. 

Table  III  gives  the  records  made  by  eight  animals  of  the 
group.  A  curve  on  Plate  I  shows  the  graphic  representation 
of  the  averages  given  in  this  Table.' 

Table  III. 
Sbavnng  the  average,  the  rRinimsm  anJ  the   maximum   Ume-rtnrdl   0/  eight 
tliaJ  rait  upau  Problem  I.     The  last  three  eolumns  sham  the  numker   of 
animdt  whott  records  art  (/)  equa!  to   the   average,   (2)   belovi,   and   (j) 
above  the  mierage. 


TRIAL. 

AVERAGE. 

MINIMUM. 

MAXIMUM. 

'■ 

X 

3 

1 

mill. 
a73 

m,j 

6.4"; 

3 

1 

■5> 

■as 

1.00 

3 

3 

■9' 

■n 

"■97 

4 

4 

■73 

.'7 

1-45 

2 

S 

i.S» 

1.20 

8.06 

I 

I 

•S' 

.10 

1.42 

3 

'  Cf.  WatKHi,  iV,d,  pp.  +7  ff. 

'The  time-records  of  one  male  are  not  included  in  the  average.    They  a 
unusually  slow  and  are  discussed  in  the  paragraphs  on  individual  differences. 


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FLORENCE  UCBARDSON. 
Table  III- — Continued. 


NO.  or 

TOIAt    *" 

RACE.  KIN 

MUM.  MAX 

MUM. 

'• 

2. 

3- 

7 

'3 

12 

42 

1    '   , 

S 

49 

07      1 

93 

9 

70 

04      I 

92 

1   S 

lo 

SO 

■7     ■ 

'3 

1   4 

II 

84 

07     3 

60 

u 

35 

06 

63 

'3 

28 

07 

67 

I* 

49 

■3     ' 

'3 

'S 

18 

05 

S3 

i6 

■9 

OS 

48 

5 

•7 

17 

04 

42 

i8      I 

06 

OS     6 

13 

■9 

30 

OS 

83 

20 

21 

OS 

52 

II 

45 

05     I 

aa 

24 

05 

«3 

■3 

42 

04     I 

OS 

14 

"3 

OS 

33 

25 

12 

05 

23 

26 

37 

07     1 

=7 

18 

09 

32 

4 

28 

15 

OS 

3a 

29 

57 

07     3 

'3 

30 

3< 

07 

45 

3" 

'5 

08 

52 

32 

18 

OS 

42 

33 

■S 

08 

'5 

34 

'7 

07 

75 

35 

•3 

04 

30 

36 

16 

OS 

47 

37 

13 

07 

78 

38 

20 

06 

42 

39 

26 

37 

»7 

40 

26 

05 

70 

41 

16 

05 

38 

42 

26 

04     I 

6 

43 

34 

OS     I 

33 

6 

44 

11 

od 

45 

5 

45 

25 

07 

9* 

S 

4<i 

22 

47 

53 

6 

47 

18 

06 

49 

6 

48 

2t 

07 

42 

5 

49 

'! 

04 

83 

5 

50 

13 

04 

45 

6 

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A  STUDY  OF  SBNSOSr  CONTROL  Iff  THE  RAT.  17 

The  averages  in  the  above  table  are  low,  but  lack  uniformity. 
There  was  wide  variation  among  the  individuals  of  the  group, 
which  was  noticeable  not  only  in  their  time  records,  but  in 
their  general  behavior. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  minimal  and  of 
maximal  time-records  made  by  each  blind  rat. 


Minimi.  Maximal. 

Male  II 23  Male   II + 

Male  III 21  Male  III 6 

Male   IV 6  Male   IV 3 

Female     I i  Female     1 46 

Female   II 22  Female   II 8 

Female  III 22  Female  III 4 

Female  IV 2  Female   IV 25 

Female   V 3  Female    V 4 

Female  IV  made  one-fourth,  and  Female  I  nearly  one-half 
of  the  total  number  of  maximal  records.  Males  II  and  III 
and  Females  II  and  III,  leather  made  88  per  cent  of  the 
minimal  records. 

J.     On  Anosmic  Rats. 

Since  in  these  problems  the  animals  at  all  times  are  in  rela- 
tively close  proximity  to  the  food  so  that  odor  stimuli  might 
affect  their  reactions,  five  anosmic  males  were  tested  upon 
the  problem.  Each  had  had  the  olfactory  bulbs  removed  as 
described  in  detail  by  Watson.'  The  animals  were  in  good 
condition  when  experimentation  was  begun — forty  days  after 
the  loss  of  the  bulbs — and  remained  so  throughout  the  test. 

Table  IV  gives  the  time-records.  The  graphical  representa- 
tion made  from  the  average  is  shown  in  Plate  I. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  comment  at  length  on  the  results 
given  in  the  table  and  curve.     The  effect  of  individual  varia- 

'  IbiJ.  p.  49  W. 


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l8  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

Table  IV. 

Shouiing  the  avrragf,  tbt  minimum  and  iht  maximum  limt-rtcords  of  jive  anoi- 
mtc  mtdtf  upon  Problem  I.  The  last  three  ctJumnt  sboui  the  number  of 
animalj  whose  records  are  (/)  ei^uid  to  the  average,  (z)  below,  and  (5)  d&MW 
the  overage. 


NO.  OF 

TRIAL.    *''E»' 

sat.     MiN 

MUM.  MAXI 

ilUM. 

'■ 

2. 

3- 

"      '3 

27    I 

62     +6 

30 

2 

63 

25      I 

98 

3 

22 

13 

40 

4 

3» 

14 

52 

S 

28 

07 

6z 

6 

43 

07      2 

92 

7 

26 

07 

50 

2 

8 

57 

9 

32 

07 

73 

10 

14 

07 

n 

07 

43 

12 

3" 

07 

98 

"3 

30 

07 

90 

14 

20 

06 

37 

"S 

31 

06 

67 

2 

16 

36 

!l 

63 

i 

•7 

22 

06 

40 

18 

28 

16 

50 

19 

20 

07 

43 

20 

24 

08 

47 

21 

r6 

03 

25 

Zl 

32 

05 

78 

23 

35 

07        1 

OS 

24 

Zl 

OS 

42 

15 

■♦  i 

08 

22 

16 

^3 

06 

42 

27 

20  1 

07 

37 

28 

30 

07 

67 

19 

27 

06 

62 

30 

16 

13 

24 

3' 

07 

42 

3» 

27 

OS 

♦8 

33 

29 

OS 

82 

34 

17 

06 

33 

35 

28 

07 

70 

36 

57 

04      1 

60 

.^7 

39  ! 

OS      ■ 

18 

38 

17  . 

04 

32 

* 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


A  STUOr  OF  SENSOSr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 
Table  IV- — Conrinued. 


NO  or 

TT.IAL          *"'^ 

%GE.     WIN 

UUU.     HAXn 

HUlt. 

•■ 

^■ 

3- 

39 

3» 

08 

6, 

3 

40 

28 

08 

SI 

4' 

17 

07 

18 

♦2 

29 

ss 

♦3 

»3 

4a 

I 

+t 

40 

28 

b7 

45 

08 

1« 

46 

3S 

08 

7S 

+2 

as 

OS 

68 

2 

48 

29 

05 

Ql 

I 

49 

24 

09 

41 

2 

W 

4' 

07             I 

'3 

• 

tions  on  the  curve  is  roughly  shown  in  the  table  below,  which 
gives  the  percentage  of  minimal  and  of  maximal  records  made 
by  each  rat. 


Minimal. 

ptTcint. 

Male     I' o 

Male  II 6 

Malelll 38 

Male.IV 56 

Male  V o 


Maximal. 

Male   1' 55 

Male  II 10 

Male!!! 6 

Male   IV 2 

Male    V 27 


Male  I,  as  is  indicated,  made  more  thanone-half  of  the  longest 
time-records:  the  time-records  of  Male  V  were  also  long. 
Were  it  not  for  the  eccentricities  of  these  two  rats,  the  curve 

'  The  emotional  attitude  of  Male  I,  together  with  a  tendency  to  gnaw  at  all 
that  came  in  his  way  was  responsible  for  his  apparent  slowness.  He  was  a  v«y 
active  and  hardy  rat,  but  his  effbiti  were  entirely  roisdirected.  He  spent  much 
of  his  time  endeavoring  to  clamber  from  the  top  of  the  box,  and  once  down,  was 
morethanlikdytoclimb  back  up  immediately  and  b^n  all  over  again  hii  frantic 
attempts  to  get  off.  When  he  did  spend  any  length  of  time  on  the  floor  of  the 
cage,  he  vented  his  energy  in  'gnawing  at  the  outer  cage,  or  at  the  wire  netting 
of  the  food  box.  On  later  problems  his  propensity  to  gnaw  became  the  despair 
ofthe  experimenter,  as  it  necessitated  perpetual  repairingof  the  apparatus.  Rat 
V  likewise  spent  much  time  in  the  endeavor  to  get  off  the  box.  He  finally 
acquired  the  habit  of  getting  off  at  a  point  nearest  the  door.  Later,  if  he  did 
not  at  once  reach  this  position,  he  seemed  utterly  at  a  loss  what  to  do. 


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FLUBENCE  SlCBdSDSON. 


DigilizcdbyGOO^Ie 


A  STVDY  OF  SENSOSr  CONTROL  IN  TBE  RAT.  21 

for  this  group  would  have  been  considerably  lower  than  it  is. 
The  records  of  Male  IV  were  exceptionally  short. 
J.     Summary. 
a.    Average  Time-records  for  the  Total  Series  of  Fifty  Trials. 

In  attempting  to  summarize  the  results  of  tests  with  different 
groups  of  rats  upon  this  problem,  only  a  comparison  of  the 
records  made  by  the  normal  and  the  defective  animals  will  be 
given  here.  The  discussion  of  the  records  and  a  theoretical 
interpretation  of  them  together  with  the  facts  brought  out  in 
lattr  summaries  will  be  given  in  the  final  conclusions  at  the 
end  of  Part  I  (p.  6i). 

Tlie  sum  of  the  separate  time-records  for  the  entire  series 
of  fifty  trials  given  each  rat  was  obtained,  and  it  was  then 
divided  by  the  total  number  of  trials  given  that  animal.  This 
gave  an  average  time-record  for  each  animal  on  the  problem 
and  aiforded  one  basis  for  the  comparison  of  records  of  indi- 
viduals. From  the  individual  averages  obtained  as  above 
described  a  group  average  was  made  which  serves  as  an  addi- 
tional means  of  comparing  the  records  of  groups  of  normal 
rats  with  those  of  the  groups  of  defective  animals. 

TABLE  IHOWINO  GROUP  AVBRAGB  OF  THE  TOTAL  TIME  (50  TEIAU)  CON8UHBD 

BY  MORMAl  AND  BY  DErECTIVB  RATS  IN  LEARNING  PROBLEU. 

Average  Records  of  Groupi. 


Bhck-and-Whiw 09       Blind  . . . . 

White 3+      Anosmie  . 


Averager  of  Ricorit  of  Individuah  in  the  Grouft. 


BLACK-AMD-WBtTS. 

w,m. 

BUND. 

ANOSMIC. 

Fonak    I 

.10 

Male    I 

7 

Female     I 

II 

Male     I 

-n,«. 

Female  II 

,o« 

Male  II 

■W 

Female   11 

42 

Male   11 

2S 

Female  III 

■°9 

Male  III 

■  iR 

Female  III 

24 

Male  III 

.oq 

Female  IV 

(iH 

Male  IV 

Female  IV 

Male   IV 

Female  V 

■?1 

Male      V 

.60 

Female     I 

Male       I 

Female  II 

,20 

Male       II 

Female  III 

■  17 

Male     III 

Female   IV 

-46 

Male     IV 

17 

DB.zcdb,  Google 


22  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

As  may  be  noted  in  the  above  table  the  average  of  the  group 
of  black-and-white  rats  is  phenomenally  low  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  other  groups.  The  individual  averages  of  this 
group  are  very  uniform.  The  highest  individual  average, 
which  is  .10  min.,  is  just  one-half  of  the  lowest  average  made 
by  any  one  normal  white  rat,  viz.,  .20  min.  The  group  aver- 
age of  the  blind  rats  is  high,  but  the  high  variations 
among  individuals  are  in  part  responsible  for  the  high  group 
average.  Five  individual  averages  among  the  blind  are  lower 
than  the  group  average  of  the  normal  white  rats,  and  the  lowest 
average  of  a  blind  rat,  .24  min.,  is  but  little  above  that  of 
the  lowest  individual  of  the  normal  white  rats,  .20  min.  The 
average  of  the  anosmic  group  is  very  slightly  lower  than  that  of 
the  blind  group,  though  here,  too,  the  individual  variation  is  high. 
The  average  made  by  Male  II  of  this  group  is  the  lowest  made 
by  any  normal  or  defective  white  rat  upon  the  problem. 

h.     Average  Time  Records  by  Groups  of  Ten  Trials. 

The  time-records  of  each  individual  were  averaged  by  tens. 
The  interesting  fact  was  brought  out,  that  of  the  total  of  twenty- 
six  normal  and  defective  animals,  seventeen  made  lower 
averages  on  the  second,  third  or  fourth  ten  than  upon  the  fifth. 
In  other  words:  almost  two-thirds  of  the  total  number  of  rats 
reached  their  period  of  highest  speed  early  in  the  series  of 
fifty  trials,  and  later  lengthened  their  time-records. 

The  average  time-records  by  tens  of  the  individual  animals 
are  given  below.  The  starred  averages  show  those  instances 
in  which  the  average  time-record  of  a  series  of  tens  is  shortest 
before  the  last  ten  of  the  entire  series. 

TABLE  SHOWING  AVERAGES  OF  TtUE-RECORDS  BY  GROUPS  OF  TEN. 

Blark-and-vibitt-ROi. 
Individuals. 


FEMALE  1         FEMALE  H 

FEMALE  III 

FEMALE  IV 

GROUP 

■IS 

1          ™/.. 

.16' 

.11 

.21 

■    II-ZO 

13 

1           .06 

.07 

.07 

.08 

ll-JO 

.06 

1         -04* 

.07 

04 

.05 

31-40 

OS* 

■OS 

.03* 

■OS* 

.04* 

41-50 

.11 

1         .06 

-04 

.04 

.06 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


A  STUDT  OF  SEKSORr  CONTROL  JN  THE  RAT. 

Normal  While  Rait. 


MALE  I 

MALE   II 

MALE  in 

MALE.V 

AV.  MALES 

GROUP 

I-IO 

mi  It. 

"■45 

r.36 

1.08 

.70 

I. IS 

1. 16 

ii-ao 

»3 

.16 

.11* 

■IS 

-14 

a  1-30 

■09 

.12 

■14 

.19 

-'3' 

31-40 

■09 

.37 

.12"' 

■17 

.'5 

+1-50 

.21 

.21 

•3 

■IS 

"4 

FEMALE  I 

FEMALE  11 

FEMALE  III 

FEMALE  IV 

AV.  FEMALES 

l-IO 

1.08  ' 

.66' 

.'5"' 

2.02 

1. 18 

11-20 

-14* 

15 

.07 

.11 

21-30 

.19 

.07 

.16 

.04 

,11 

31-40 

.29 

.06 

-06 

.11 

13 

41-so 

■3S 

■OS 

.04 

.12 

MALE  I 

MALE  III 

MALE  IV 

AV.  MALES 

GROUP 

l-IO 

■S" 

13 

min. 
.65 

m,«. 

min. 
.89 

■94 

11-20 

33* 

■  17 

•H* 

4' 

21-30 

.80 

.28 

.21 

.21 

■37 

35 

31-40 

I.2S 

.09' 

.24 

.41 

■43 

41-50 

98 

.10 

.16 

-15 

■35 

3' 

FEMALE  I 

FEMALE  II 

FEMALE  iV 

FEMALE    V 

AV.  FEMALE 

-.0 

I  53 

150 

■45 

.66 

•73 

■97 

11-20 

1-38 

I    17 

.20 

.68 

.26 

•S4 

21-30 

.81 

.19 

.24 

■30* 

.16' 

34* 

31-40 

1.21 

14 

.21 

38 

.21 

43 

41-so 

■09 

.09 

33 

.24 

.27 

M»L.    1 

MAUm 

MALE  IV 

MAI.V 

CROUP 

"""■ 

't 

3» 

Soo 

4' 

I  43 

■"'7' 

11-20 

.39* 

.22 

14 

'5 

.46 

"7 

2.-30 

.42 

.29 

.10 

.o8« 

.28' 

■'f 

31-40 

.fo 

.20' 

,olS- 

.09 

so 

-^9 

+1-50 

2S 

14 

.11 

•3' 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


34  FIORMNCE  RICHARDSON. 

The  occurrence  of  the  minimum  rime-records  early  in  the 
series  may  have  been  due  to  some  accidental  condirion,  such 
as  a  variation  in  the  state  of  hunger.  However,  the  beha- 
vior of  the  animals  as  welt  as  their  rime-records  often  indi- 
cated a  falling  apart  of  the  stages  of  the  associadon,  suggesting 
rather  a  processofdissociadon,  or  dissolution  of  the  association. 
This  might  be  the  effect  of  a  possible  decrease  in  the  intensity 
of  the  Stimulus  as  the  reaction  became  automatic.  The  matter 
is  commented  upon  here  as  seeming  to  be  a  situation  in  which 
an  habitual  coordination  tends  to  break  down  through  a  rela- 
tively long  conrinuance.  In  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  rats 
again  would  lower  their  records  for  later  periods  of  ten  trials, 
or  whether  the  coordination  really  disintegrated,  the  series 
should  have  been  conrinued  indefinitely,  and  possibly  should 
have  been  controlled  by  changing  the  kind  of  food  used  as  a 
stimulus.  Lack  of  rime  prevented  the  continuation  of  this 
problem. 

c.     Discussion  of  Errors  in  this  Problem. 

The  computation  of  errors  which  were  made  by  the  animals 
has  been  computed  not  upon  the  basis  of  the  total  number 
of  useless  movements,  but  upon  that  of  parricular  kinds  of 
random  movements,  namely,  those  by  means  of  which  a  rat 
attempts  to  enter  the  food  box  from  the  east  or  west,  whereas, 
he  can  only  enter  from  the  north  or  south.  In  tabularing 
the  results,  then,  the  attempts  to  dig  away  the  sawdust  at  the 
east  or  west  is  counted  an  error. 

The  number  of  errors  is  not  alone  an  accurate  standard  in 
the  learning  process  of  this  problem.  Often  an  error  crops 
out  in  a  trial  late  in  the  series  after  the  rat  has  made  many 
perfect  trials.  As  an  instance  of  this  may  be  cited  particularly 
the  case  of  one  rat,  black-and-white  Female  IV,  which  made 
four  errors,  one  each  at  her  fourth  trial,  twelfth,  thirty-fifth 
and  thirty-eighth  trial.  At  the  thirty-fifth  trial  her  time  was 
somewhat  longer,  though  at  the  thirty-eighth,  with  an  error 
at  another  position,  it  was  at  her  reaction  rime:  .05  min.  The 
scratching  in  these  last  two  trials  might  have  been  a  move- 
ment which  was  a  reversion  to  her  two  early  errors,  or  to  an 


Digi-izcclbyGoOgll 


A  srVDT  OF  SENSOSr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  2$ 

accidental  movement  set  ofF  by  contact  with  the  sawdust  at 
that  point. 

Rat  IV  of  the  anosmic  group  made  but  one  error  and  that 
at  the  first  trial.  Two  black-and-white  females  made  each  one 
error,  at  the  sixth  and  ninth  trials  respectively. 

The  average  number  of  errors  for  the  different  groups  is  here 
given. 

Average  Total  Number  of  Enort. 

Normal  Whice 8.2        Blind lo. 

Black-and-white 3.7        Anounic 5.2 

Average  Number  of  Triali  CbaraeterheJ  by  Errors. 

Nonnal  White 7.1        Blind 9.7 

Black- and- white 1.5        Anotmic. . . .  4.. 4 

d.    Comparison  of  the  Curves  of  the  Different  Groups. 

Plate  I  shows  the  curves  plotted  from  the  average  time- 
records  of  the  different  groups.  The  curve  representing  the 
group  of  black-and-white  rats  is  the  lowest  curve  of  the  four. 
Even  at  the  first  trial,  it  does  not  rise  above  the  coordinate 
representing  one  minute,  and  for  most  of  the  time  it  runs  below 
that  representing  .i  min.  The  curve  is  not  only  low,  but  is 
remarkably  uniform.  Whether  or  not  the  lowness  and  uni- 
formity is  due  to  the  fact  that  these  rats  possess  pigmented 
eyes  will  be  discussed  in  the  conclusions  (p.  6i). 

The  curve  representing  the  averages  of  the  normal  white 
rats  approximates  more  nearly  than  any  other  the  character 
of  the  curve  representing  the  black-and-white  rats.  At  the 
first  trial  this  curve  is  much  higher,  and,  until  the  fourteenth 
trial,  does  not  reach  so  low  a  point  as  the  curveof  the  black-and- 
white  animals.  Again  at  the  twentieth,  the  twen^-seventh 
and  the  for^-fourth  trials  the  curve  goes  below:  otherwise,  it 
is  higher  and  more  variable. 

The  curves  representing  the  averages  of  the  blind  and  the 
anosmic  rats,  respectively,  are  much  alike  and  are  slightly 
higher  than  those  of  the  normal  rats.  Both  curves  are  irregular, 
and  both  follow,  in  general,  about  the  same  level.  The  curve 
of  the  anosmic  group  is  considerably  lower  at  the  third,  fourth 
and  fifth  trials,  than  that  of  any  other  group  of  albino  rats. 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


From  the  sixth  trial  these  curves  cross  and  re-cross  each  other 
continually. 

B.      TESTS    UPON    PROBLEM    BOX    II. 
/.     Description  of  Apparatus  and  of  the  Learning  Process. 

The  apparatus  used  in  the  second  test  of  the  series  consists 
of  a  box,  20  cm.  by  zo  cm.  at  the  base  and  15  cm.  high,  of 
wire  netting  of  a  centimeter  mesh.  A  door,  7  cm.  high  by 
10  cm.  long,  is  hinged  at  the  lower  corner  of  one  side  of  the 
box  (see  figure  2).  A  latch,  on  the  inside  is  controlled  by 
a  cord  passing  from  the  latch  upward  through  a  mesh  above, 
back  over  a  small  wooden  pulley  to  the  inclined  board  plane, 


Fig.  2. 

22  cm.  long  by  10  cm.  wide,  the  foot  of  which  rests  at  a  dis- 
tance of  II  cm.  from  the  side  of  the  box  opposite  the  door. 
The  angle  which  the  plane  made  with  the  floor  of  the  experi- 
mental cage  was  approximately  15°.  This  angle  was  decreased 
slightly  when  smaller  animals  were  used. 

When  the  rat  steps  upon  the  plane,  the  plane  falls,  and  the 
latch  is  thereby  pulled  up  allowing  the  door  to  fall  inwards  of 
its  own  weight.  In  this  test  there  is  required  a  series  of  adjust- 
ments on  the  part  of  the  rat  which  is  quite  dtfl^erent  from  that 
demanded  oi  him  in  Problem  I.  The  question  to  answer  is, 
as  was  the  case  in  the  learning  of  the  problem  just  discussed : 
Does  the  animal  use  olfactory  and  visual  impulses  in  the  forma- 
tion of  these  new  and  unusual  coordinations,  and  if  so  to 
what  extent  ? 


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A  STUDY  OF  SENSQRT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  27 

The  method  of  procedure  in  this  test  followed  closely  that 
just  reported.  '  The  box  was  enclosed  in  a  large  wire  control 
cage  72  cm.  by  76  cm.  and  37  cm.  high,  which  could  be  raised 
when  desired  so  as  to  admit  the  rat.  The  position  of  the  box 
remained  constant,  being  determined  by  means  of  several 
tacks  in  the  table,  which  prevented  the  box  from  slipping. 
The  plane  was  also  kept  in  position  by  tacks  at  the  margin 
nearest  the  box. 

The  animals  which  were  used  in  Problem  I  were  used  in 
the  present  test.  All  the  animals  thus  had  had  previous  experi- 
ence in  experimentation,  and  this  previous  experience  was  of 
the  same  amount  and  kind.  The  results  of  other  tests  (see 
p.  103)  show  this  point  to  be  one  of  importance  in  the  control 
of  experimentation  with  rats.  Three  trials  per  day  for  ten 
days,  and  live  trials  per  day  for  four  days  were  given,  making 
as  before  fifty  trials  in  the  series. 

The  solution  of  this  problem  is  unique  in  that  it  necessitates 
the  reaction  of  the  rat  at  a  distance  from  the  food  box.  On 
this  account,  the  learning  curve  from  the  second  to  about 
the  tenth  trial  is  much  more  irregular  than  that  of  Problem  I. 
(See  Plate  II.)  There  is  likely  to  be  a  second  pronounced  rise 
in  the  curve  after  the  first  trials.  This  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  after  the  Brst  two  or  three  accidental  successes,  the 
rat  comes  to  associate  the  position  of  the  door  with  the  food,  but 
not  the  position  of  the  plane  with  the  food.  Consequent^',  the 
animal  goes  directly  to  the  door,  and  Bnding  it  closed,  begins 
to  scratch  and  gnaw  at  it  vigorously.  This  is  an  almost 
invariable  procedure.  The  time  so  spent  is  the  cause  of  the 
rise  in  the  curve.' 


'  The  experimenter  found  it  necessaiy  to  secure  the  latch  Rrmly  during  the 
rime  the  rat  spent  tugging  at  the  door,  for  when  the  pressure  of  the  door  was 
rdeated  from  thelatch,  the  weight  of  the  plane  raised  the  latch  and  allowed  the 
rat  to  reach  its  food  without  performing  the  desired  reaction.  At  6rst  a  hemp 
cord  was  run  through  a  hole  in  the  table  under  the  box  and  attached  to  the  latch. 
In  this  way  the  latch  could  be  held  6rmly  by  the  experimenter  when  necessary, 
and  loosened  at  once.  Later  when  needed  a  long  wire  slipped  between  the 
meshes  of  the  cage  and  box  and  manipulated  by  the  experimenter  performed  the 
same  duty  more  surely  and  more  easily. 


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FLORENCE  HICHSKDSON. 


An  account  of  the  procedure  of  one  individual  is  given  here 
as  indicative  of  the  learning  process. 


Dior 

,  ««W 

/  Btack-anJ-Wbiu  Ftmah  I  on  Prvhiem  Box  If. 

TRIAL. 

6/5/07 

6/6/07 

6/7/07 
6/8/07 

6/11/07 

I 

3 

4 

1 

7 
8 
9 
10 

18 

Went  at  once  to  door  of  box,  lan  around  box  rapidly 
noppingonlytoiniffatfood;  struck  ihe  plane  once, 

ran  about  cage.      Door  fdl  at  2.33  min.  without 
attracting  her  attention;  «he  found  opening  at  3.07 
min.  and  entered.     Time:  3.07. 
Worked  ai  door  fiercely  and  penistently,  occaiionaliy 
dashed  around  box.     Door  fell  at  IXM  min..  in  at 

To  door  first,  then  round  and  round  box  several  times. 

Plane  fell  at  1.50  min.,  in  at  1.55  min. 
Very  aaive,  but  confined  activity  too  near  to  box.    In 

at  once  after  door  fell.    Time:  i.^Smin. 
Stayed  too  close  to  box.    Time:  1,78  min. 
Had  bad  luck;  was  almost  too  active;  jumped  over  plane 

or  went  around  it.     Door  fell  at  8-53  min.    The  rat 

got  up  on  food  box  and  spent  much  time  in  sniffing 

the  air.     Entned  at  11.80  min. 
Door  fdl  at  .67  min.,  in  at  .72  min. 
Door  fell  at  .80  min.,  in  at  .88  min. 
See  sixth  trial.    Time:  I.38  min..  in  at  1.50  min. 
Door  fdl  at  .07  min.,  in  at  .10  min. 
E>oor  fdl  at  .03  min.,  in  at  .06  min. 
Rat  went  directly  to  door,  then  to  plane,  then  back  to 

door  at  once.     Door  fdl  at  .13  min.,  in  at  .17  min. 
Went  as  usual  directly  to  plane  and  over  it,  but  too 

went  to  door,  came  back  to  plane  at  once,  over  and 
to    the    then  open  door.    The  association  seems 
firmly  fixed.    Time:  18  min. 

The  record  of  this  black-and-white  rat  was  chosen  because 
as  a  whole  it  was  more  typical  than  that  of  any  other  individual 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  association  was  formed,  though 
the  time  records  are  lower  than  the  records  of  an  average 
normal  rat.  This  rat,  too,  learned  the  problem  in  fewer  trials 
than  the  average  normal  rat:  indications  of  the  soh.tion  were 
observed  in  the  12th  trial,  in  which  there  seemed  to  appear 


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A  STVDT  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  TBB  RAT.  2^ 

die  association  between  the  door  and  the  plane.  In  this  trial 
there  were  no  useless  movements.  There  was  little  doubt  that 
in  the  eighteenth  trial  the  association  had  become  fixed. 

The  above  records  of  the  individual  rat  serve  to  call  attention 
to  the  nature  of  the  learning  process  involved  in  this  test.  We 
have  (i)  random  movements;  (2)  the  accidental  successes  from 
which  the  animal  at  first  profits  little;  (3)  the  elimination  of 
useless  movements;  and  (4)  the  completely  established  habit. 

The  elimination  of  useless  movements  in  this  test  is  accom- 
plished in  much  the  same  general  fashion  as  in  tests  of  the 
labyrinth  type.  In  the  former,  however,  the  rat  runs  about  in 
an  open  space,  whereas  in  the  latter  his  pathway  is  restricted 
by  the  side  waits  of  the  galleries.  Therefore  the  random 
movements  in  the  present  case  survive  for  a  longer  time  than 
in  the  labyrinth,  because  there  is  greater  opportunity  for,  and 
a  greater  variety  of,  them.  As  was  stated,  the  rat  usually  goes 
first  to  the  door,  then  about  the  cage  and  to  the  plane  and  back 
again  to  the  door.  Ordinarily  this  routine  continues  until 
about  the  thirtieth  trial,  after  which  the  movements  are  in  a 
great  measure  automatic. 

The  animals,  as  was  stated  earlier,  tend  in  their  habitual 
reactions  to  go  to  the  plane,  thence  to  the  door  by  a  definite 
route,  which  varies  with  the  individual.  An  unusual  turn  in 
leaving  the  plane  to  go  to  the  door  may  so  utterly  confuse 
them,  that  to  run  back  to  the  plane  and  to  start  over  is  the  only 
apparent  manner  of  taking  up  the  trail.  This  is  a  very  fre- 
quent occurrence,  and  among  the  last  trials  is  almost  the  sole 
reason  for  a  high  time  record. 

2.     Statement  of  Results. 

a.     On  Normal  White  Rats. 

The  group  of  normal  white  rats  was  first  tested  upon  the 

problem.*    The  averages  of  the  group,  four  males  and  three 

'  The  proUem  box  at  the  banning  of  this  test  wsa  not  of  the  tame  fottn  ai 
described  here.  The  plane  wai  set  immediatdy  at  the  north  end  of  the  bcHC, 
Duicad  of  1 1  cm.  distant,  and  the  control  cage  was  the  Email  one  used  over  Box 
I,  innead  of  the  larger  one  latei  used.  The  original  conditions  made  the  prab- 
lem  mudi  earicr  of  solution  than  the  experimenter  desired.    Radical  moditica- 


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JO  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

females,'  are  given  in  Table  V,  following  the  form  of  the  pre- 
vious tables.  The  graphical  representation  of  the  averages 
given  in  Table  V  is  shown  on  Plate  II. 

The  column  showing  the  minimal  time-records  at  each  trial 
indicate  how  quickly  the  problem  can  be  solved.  For  the 
last  ten  trials  the  minimal  time  runs  but  little  over  .03  minutes. 
The  curve  constructed  from  the  group  averages  at  the  succes- 
sive trials  shows  the  second  rise  at  the  third  and  fourth  trials, 
which  is  due  to  the  length  of  time  spent  by  the  rats  in  going 
directly  to  the  door  of  the  box  and  trying  to  push  it  open. 


Table  V. 

Sbtnviiig  tbt  anrragt,  the  mimimum  and  the  maximum  limr-rteorJt  of  stven 
normal  white  rati  Hfom  Problem  II.  Tbt  tart  tbrtt  tolumm  shtmi  the  number 
of  oHtmali  wboif  records  art  {/)  tquid  to  the  average,  {z)  beloti/,  and  (3) 
above  tbe  average. 


NO.  OF 

IVIAL. 

AVBRACB.      HIN 

HUH. 

HAXmUH 

I. 

a. 

3- 

, 

"  88 

25 

,".'56 

4 

3 

2 

1 

42 

04 

49 

4 

3 

3 

2 

35 

04 

22 

S 

2 

4 

1 

54 

15 

74 

S 

2 

5 

80 

03 

6 

I 

6 

7» 

09 

08 

5 

2 

7 

95 

06 

40 

6 

I 

8 

27 

08 

42 

5 

2 

9 

20 

03 

47 

5 

2 

10 

20 

07 

37 

4 

3 

" 

49 

63 

' 

20 

4 

3 

tioni  were  made  accordingly:  the  plane  was  moved  out  eo  a  distance  of  11  cm- 
and  a  Urge  control  cage  nas  put  over  the  problem  box.  The  rats,  however,  had 
had  two  dayi  experience  with  the  original  box.  The  above  records  are  all  taken 
from  tests  with  the  modified  box.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate  what  was  carried 
over  from  the  old  situation  to  the  new,  therefore  the  records  may  not  be  quite 
fairly  companble  to  those  of  the  rats  which  folbwed;  yet  this  faa  does  not 
detract  from  the  utility  of  the  curve  as  a  whole. 

'  Female  I  learned  (o  open  the  door,  not  by  stepping  on  the  plane,  but  by 
tu^ng  at  the  cord  which  attached  the  plane  to  the  latch.  From  about  the 
thirtieth  trial  the  not  only  tugged  at  the  cord  until  the  door  fell,  but  continued 
to  tug;  so  that  her  time-records  were  too  variable  to  be  included  in  the  average. 


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A  STUDr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 
Table  V.— Continued. 


NO  OF 

1 

TRIAL.    ^"^ 

tACE.  HINIHUH.  iMAXa 

uu. 

I.   [   2. 

3- 

"  1 

l<i   1 

67 

47 

6 

■3   I 

3°  ; 

67 

62 

U 

12 

57 

25 

'5 

21 

67 

5» 

i6 

26 

08      I 

03 

^ 

17 

13 

05 

20 

|8 

07 

05 

10 

19 

14 

04 

67 

20 

08 

05 

33 

21 

14 

OS 

SO 

6 

« 

09 

04 

17 

4 

'3 

12 

04 

40 

24 

08 

03 

18 

»S 

05 

03 

10 

>6 

22 

04 

62 

27 

■3 

03 

SO 

28 

10 

04 

27 

»» 

14 

03 

33 

3» 

12 

03 

25 

31 

18 

03 

38 

3^ 

>S 

06      1 

33  i 

33 

14 

02 

52 

3* 

08 

05 

■  8 

3! 

11 

07 

17  1    I 

!« 

12 

03 

25  I 

37 

08 

04 

II 

2 

38 

07 

03   1 

10 

39 

07 

04 

12 

I 

40 

09 

04 

23 

1 

41 

OS 

02 

08 

1 

42 

19 

04   1 

88 

43 

12 

03   1 

«7 

44 

06 

03 

4S 

10 

03 

20 

I 

46 

as 

03 

16 

3 

47 

07 

04 

22 

48 

M    ! 

°3  , 

12 

49 

oS  : 

03   t 

II 

2 

SO 

08  ; 

06   1 

>3  j    I 

4 

The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  minimal  and 
of  maximal  dme-records  made  by  each  of  the  rats  in  this  group. 


Digilizcd  by  Google 


Jl  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

TABLE  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  OF  MINIMAL  AND  OF  MAXIMAL  TIHE-RECORDS 
MADE    BV  INDIVIDUALS. 

Minimal.  Maxim  tJ. 

per  cent.  per  ctnl . 

Male     1 12  Male     I iz 

Male    II +0  Male  II 8 

Male  III 9  Male  III lo 

Male  IV 8  MalelV 12 

Female  II 11  Female  II 8 

Fonale  III 16         Female  111 31 

Fmiale  IV 4  Female  IV 19 

b.    On  Normal  Black-and-White  Rats. 

Table  VI  and  the  curve  on  Plate  II  show  the  records  of  the 
group  of  four  Black-and-white  females.  These  rats  were  so 
incessantly  active  that  it  was  often  quite  difficult  to  hold  them 
in  the  hand.  Because  of  this  superabundance  ofenergy  their 
early  time-records  were  short.  They  gave  evidence  also,  as 
remarked  above,  of  having  acquired  the  association  earlier 
in  the  series  than  the  normal  white  rats,  whose  records  were 
unfortunately  rendered  ambiguous  for  the  comparison. 

After  the  thirty-fifth  trial,  the  rats  received  a  fright,  probably 
due  to  the  odor  of  wild  rats  about  the  cage.  They  were  so 
disturbed  upon  being  introduced  into  the  problem  box  that 
the  final  abandonment  of  the  series  was  necessitated.  Their 
reactions  had  been  practically  constant  in  their  last  fifteen 
trials,  so  that  little  was  lost  to  the  experiment. 

The  following  tabulation  shows  the  percentage  of  minimal 
and  of  maximal  records  of  each  animal. 

TABLE  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  OF  MINIMAL  AND  OF  MAXIMAL  RECORDS    OF    EACH 

INDIVIDUAL. 

Minimal.  Maximal. 

Female     1 36  Female     1 26 

Female  II 17  Female   II 21 

Female  III 31  Female  III 25 

Female  IV 16  Female  IV 28 


The  percentage  of  maximal  records,  as  indicated  above,  is 
very  evenly  divided  among  the  four  animals.     Females  I  and 


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A  STUOr  OF  SBNSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 


Table  VI. 


Shoaling  the  averagi,  the  minimunt  and  the  maximum  timt-recorii  of  four 
Uatk-and-vibite  females  upon  Problem  II.  The  latt  tbrtr  toiumai  show 
the  mamter  of  aaimalx  wboft  recordt  are  (/)  equal  to  the  average,  (l) 
Mout,  amd  (5}  ^mie  the  average. 


NO.  OF 

imiAL.   *" 

RAGE.   HIN 

WUH.  MAX 

■HUH. 

'• 

*■ 

3- 

W."». 

nin 

„,„ 

1     I 

53 

78'     3 

07 

3 

2        I 

70 

63     1 

53 

2 

3 

73 

22      I 

56 

+      ' 

02 

70      1 

S7 

5      1 

63 

47      2 

78 

6      4 

'7 

27     II 

80 

7      ' 

10 

72      1 

57 

8 

87 

18      1 

70 

9 

90 

23      1 

50 

I 

10 

78 

10      1 

62 

11 

37 

06 

92 

12 

48 

■7 

96 

'3 

28 

58 

'4 

35 

25 

S8 

'S 

39 

05 

67 

16 

22 

II 

37 

17 

30 

08 

66 

18 

18 

'3 

'5 

'9 

*1 

"4 

35 

10 

■6 

'3 

21 

21 

IS 

»7 

3" 

22 

12 

»7 

25 

»3 

07 

H 

II 

o« 

23 

15 

07 

06 

08 

26 

'3 

07 

18 

I 

27 

14 

06 

37 

28 

'4 

07 

28 

29 

'4 

07 

30 

y> 

16 

09 

24 

31 

II 

"5 

■7 

3» 

14 

»5 

3" 

33 

09 

05 

14 

I 

34 

•3 

10 

16 

35 

H 

08 

18 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


34  FLOBZNCB  RICHARDSON. 

Ill    together  made  two-thirds  of  the  entire  total  number  of 
minimal  records. 

c.    On  Blind  Rats. 

Table  VII  and  the  corresponding  curve  on  Plate  II  show 
similarly  the  average  records  of  six'  blind  rats  on  Problem  11. 

The  behavior  of  the  blind  rats  was  characterized  by  a  lack 
of  eagerness,  although  when  first  introduced  into  the  control 
cage  they  were  most  anxious  to  get  into  the  food  box;  if  they 
were  not  successful  soon  their  activity  abated,  and  random 
movements  characterized  their  efforts.  They  were  slow  in 
forming  a  pathway,  and  in  several  instances  no  definite  padi 
was  chosen. 

The  percenuge  of  minimal  and  of  maximal  time-records  of 
forty-four  trials^  for  each  of  the  blind  rats  is  given  below. 

TABLE     SHOWING     PERCENTAGE  OF  MINIMAL  AND  OF    MAXIMAL    TIME-RECORDS 

MADE   BY  EACH   INDIVIDUAL. 

Minimal.  Maximal. 

percent.  per  cent. 

Female     1 9  Female     1 38 

Female  II 14  Female   II 26 

Female  III 19  Female  III 7 

Female  IV 29  Female  IV 9 

Female  V 21  Female   V 2 

Male     IV 2  Male  IV 18 

d.     On  Anosmic  Rats. 

As  before  stated  all  but  one  of  the  anosmic  rats  died  before 
the  experimentation  had  been  completed.*  The  one  that 
remained  was  set  to  work  on  this  problem,*  He  learned  the 
association  perfectly,  but  invariably  pressed  down  the  plane 

>  Males  I  and  III  had  died  of  an  mfection. 

'  Female  II  became  ill,  and  did  not  work  arter  the  forty-rourth  trial,  con- 
sequently the  percentage  after  this  trial  is  not  considered.  Male  II  manifened 
a  decided  repugnance  to  approaching  the  plane,  as  the  falling  of  it  had  apparently 
frightened  him;  therefore  he  did  not  learn  the  problem. 

'  The  infection  becann  apparent  just  after  the  animals  had  completed  their 
worlt  upon  Problem  I,  and  they  died  almost  immediately  after. 

'  He  was  the  tat  which  gnawed  at  the  wire  in  the  sawdust  box. 


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A  STVDT  OF  SENSORY  CONTROL  IN  THE  KJT.  35 

Table  VII. 

Sboimmg  tbe  average,  the  minimum  and  the  maximum  lime-rtcordt  of  six  Uind 
rats  upon  Problem  II.  Tbe  latt  three  columns  ibow  tbe  number  of  animals 
vibose  records  art  {j)  t^uid  totbe  aaerage,  {z)  belaio,  and  (j)  above  tbe  average. 


NO.  OF 

TXIAL. 

AVERAGE. 

MINIMUM. 

MAXIMUM. 

'■ 

2. 

3- 

, 

mill. 
1.3a 

■52 

2'.  08 

3 

2 

»  47 

■23 

2-75 

2 

4.09 

5» 

".37 

2 

8.37 

.12 

4580 

I 

a-37 

43 

7.57 

2 

2.12 

.30 

4.03 

a 

3  47 

47 

8-59 

2 

.68 

.12 

4  17 

2 

«  93 

07 

.62 

2 

1.70 
1.22 

.10 
.la 

5.19 
4  33 
8.52 

2 

2!o8 

■25 

8-45 

2 

3-34 

■55 

12.03 

a. 85 

.22 

12.67 

I 

I  04 

■15 

2-39 

2 

1. 71 

.12 

4  13 

■83 

■38 

1. 52 

2 

i.aa 

.28 

Z.62 

3 

•  55 

.38 

a-33 

3 

1. 18 

.10 

4-05 

2 

1.0+ 

■47 

1.97 

a 

I  3S 

.26 

350 

2 

'■77 

.a8 

+■67 

3 

.96 

.a8 

1.87 

3 

a6 

I. II 

.08 

2.42 

3 

27 

.68 

■as 

'-'3 

2 

2 

aS 

.48 

'3 

•     -93 

2 

29 

1.0+ 

■'5 

1. 18 

3 

30 

1.1+ 

,18 

1.58 

3 

31 

a,o6 

-40 

2.92 

3 

J» 

2.80 

■  17 

15.12 

33 

.70 

13 

1.72 

2 

34 

1.41 

■'7 

3  57 

3 

35 

.08 

-a? 

I -85 

3      ■ 

36 

1. 10 

32 

a. 67 

37 

1. 18 

■45 

367 

I 

38 

1.48 

-57 

1.80 

4 

2 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 
Table  VII.— Continued. 


Ma  OF 

TOUt.       "» 

lAGE.      MIN 

[MUU. 

MAXIMUM. 

'■ 

^■ 

3- 

39            " 

45 

iS 

3«7 

3 

♦0 

97 

■5 

2.88 

2 

+' 

83 

:8 

1.03 

4 

+2 

59 

1. 12 

3 

43 

84 

1. 10 

44 

73 

253 

4S             ■ 

II 

2.S0 

46 

21 

317 

47 

75 

1  75 

48 

40 

.85 

49 

'3 

22 

S" 

70 

18 

1.52 

while  gnawii^  the  string  which  connected  the  plane  with  the 
box.  When  he  braced  himself  to  gnaw,  the  pressure  of  his 
forefeet  upon  the  plane  was  instrumental  in  pulling  up  the 
latch.  He  continued  to  gnaw  until  he  had  completely  severed 
the  string  from  the  plane.  After  the  thirty-third  trial  he  in- 
variably ran  at  once  to  the  door  when  he  had  Bnished  bidng 
at  the  string  or  plane.  If  he  did  not  find  the  door  open,  he 
went  back  to  the  place  and  his  gnawing,  and  after  another 
effort  scurried  to  the  door  again.  Wire  was  substituted  for 
cord,  whereupon  his  task  was  seemingly  endless,  and  he  varied 
his  procedure  by  dragging  the  plane  about  the  cage.  Table 
VIII  shows  the  records  of  this  rat.  The  time-records  of  the 
later  trials  are  shown  as  they  were  taken,  giving  the  length 
of  time  consumed  by  the  rat  in  different  parts  of  the  cage. 

In  learning  the  problem,  this  rat  did  not  spend  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  in  the  early  trials — as  did  the  rats  possessed  of 
the  sense  of  smell — in  sniffing  at  the  food  through  the  meshes 
of  the  wire  covering  of  the  problem  box.  The  rat  did  lose 
much  time,  however,  in  trying  to  get  into  the  box  by  tugging 
at  the  door. 

For  the  first  six  trials  the  time-records  of  this  anosmic  rat — 
with  the  exception  of  the  second — are  below  one  minute: 
four  of  them  are  below  .50  min.     His  long  time-records  in 


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a  studr  of  sbksorr  control  in  the  rjt.  37 

Table  VIII. 
Stowing  lb*  limt  r*tordi  of  the  anotmie  rat  an  Problem  II. 


SGIKa 

1.  DOO.  FALLS.  3-  ™ 

B  FROU 

GNA 

nriNO. 

PLANE 

no  DOOR. 

I 

.». 

■2J 

T 

♦3 

1 

75 

35        I 

10 

3 

10 

ao 

40 

4 

37 

07 

44 

5 

41 

05 

46 

6 

33 

63 

96 

7 

I 

4a 

63 

OS 

8 

3 

33       ' 

03         4 

3« 

9 

25 

3« 

63 

10 

2 

25       I 

oa       3 

a? 

II 

28 

ao 

48 

la 

10 

66       t 

33       la 

00 

■3 

08 

o« 

16 

14 

I 

00 

la        I 

la 

15 

13 

35 

58 

16 

48 

5« 

06 

■7 

I 

65 

73        a 

38 

18 

1 

05 

45        I 

SO 

19 

1 

92 

5»        3 

4a 

ao 

66 

88 

ai 

a 

as 

3=        a 

55 

aa 

83 

as        ■ 

08 

a3 

33 

08 

41 

u 

20 

'7 

37 

'5 

I 

25 

■3        1 

38 

16 

I 

33 

31        I 

6S 

a? 

I 

25 

38        I 

S3 

a8 

■3 

35 

a* 

3> 

48 

80 

3= 

I 

2^ 

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b,  Google 


3?  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

the  later  trials  were  due  to  his  gnawing  propensities.  The 
time  which  he  spent  in  going  from  the  entrance  to  the  plane, 
or  from  the  plane  to  the  food  box  was  not  longer  than  that  of 
the  average  normal  rat.  In  the  last  nine  trials  the  average 
time  from  entrance  to  plane  is  .10  min.,  and  from  plane  to 
door  .04  min.  Disregarding  the  time  spent  in  gnawing,  his 
average  time  would  be  .14  min.,  for  these  trials;  which  may 
by  a  glance  at  the  curves  be  seen  to  be  but  little  longer  than 
the  average  time-records  of  the  normal  rat,  and  shorter  than 
the  maximal  time'tecords  of  that  group. 

3.     Effect  on  Rats  of  Changing  Position  of  Plane  go°  to  Right. 

After  the  group  of  normal  white  rats  had  completed  ihis 
series,  the  position  of  the  plane  was  changed,  being  placed 
east  of  the  box,  instead  of  north  as  before.  The  reactions  of 
the  animals  had  become  practically  habitual  before  the  change 
was  made.  It  was  thought  that  the  change  in  conditions 
might  bring  out  two  facts  regarding  the  behavior  of  the 
animal:  (i)  The  nature  of  the  sensory  control  in  the  habitual 
act;  (2)  the  nature  of  the  sensory  data  by  means  of  which  the 
modified  reaction  which  is  necessary  under  the  changed  con- 
ditions is  built  up. 

Since  the  rats  in  this  series  were  put  always  into  the  cage 
from  the  east,  their  established  pathway  carried  them  within 
two  or  three  inches  of  the  longer  side  of  the  plane.  Each  of 
the  four  males  was  tried  in  turn,  and  each  went  directly  to  the 
old  position  of  the  plane,  then  ran  to  the  door.  One  of  them. 
Rat  III,  seemed  confused  at  not  finding  the  plane  in  the 
usual  position.  The  other  three  went  to  the  food  box  as  though 
not  missing  the  link  in  the  series.  Their  confusion  began  at 
the  door.  Each  rat,  after  running  about  in  a  seemingly  aim- 
less manner  for  a  few  seconds,  struck  the  plane  and  the  door 
fell.  Rat  I  could  not  seem  to  find  the  way  to  the  door,  even 
though  something  connected  with  the  falling  of  the  plane  made 
him  frantically  eager  to  get  back  to  the  box.  He  finally 
went  over  the  box.  On  the  third  trial  he  proceeded  slowly 
and  kept  his  nose  to  the  floor  {discovering  the  plane  by  touch  ?). 
From  the  fourth  to  the  ninth  trial  he  passed  over  the  plane 


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A  STL'Dr  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  39 

direcdy  on  his  way  to  the  door.  On  both  the  ninth  and  tenth 
trials,  he  reverted  to  his  old  habit  of  going  at  once  to  the  orig- 
inal position  of  the  plane  on  the  north.  Rat  II  reverted  to 
the  old  habit  similarly  in  the  ninth  trial.  Rat  III  went  to 
the  door  first,  except  on  the  seventh  and  ninth  trials  when  his 
route  accidentally  took  him  far  enough  south  to  touch  the 
pbne.  The  slight  contact  seemed  to  give  him  immediate 
orientation,  for  he  ran  across  the  plane  and  to  the  door  at  once. 

Rat  IV  was  the  least  confused.  He  ran  to  the  old  position 
but  did  not  go  to  the  door.  Instead,  he  began  wandering 
about  and  strayed  across  the  plane  in  a  seemingly  haphazard 
fashion,  but  the  instant  it  fell  the  old  habit  reasserted  itself 
and  he  dashed  off  to  the  door.  At  the  second  trial  he  went 
directly  across  the  plane  to  the  door.  All  his  other  trials  were 
almost  precisely  like  his  second.  His  records  were  quite  phe- 
nomenally quick  after  the  first  trial,  not  going  above  .03  min.' 

This  test  furnished  some  evidence  upon  the  two  facts  sought 
for,  i.  e.,  the  sensory  avenues  of  control  in  the  habitual  act,  and 
the  sensory  avenues  of  control  in  the  process  of  readjustment. 
The  habitual  act  seems  to  be  carried  out  by  means  of  the  guid- 
ance of  kinaesthetic  impressions.  The  rats  traversed  the  old 
pathway  even  when  such  movements  did  not  lead  to  the  suc- 
cessful solution  of  the  problem.  The  old  coordination  broke 
down  apparently  in  the  case  of  these  animals  when  they  found 
the  door  closed;  the  fourth  (Rat  III)  seemed  to  become  con- 
fused in  not  getting  the  'cue'  at  the  plane  itself  The  question 
of  the  probable  nature  of  the  cue  is  discussed  later  in  the  sec- 
tion (p.  40). 

'  The  case  of  Rat  IV  seems  anomalous.  The  records  bear  evidence  to 
the  fact  thai  the  pathway  of  this  rat  in  solving  the  original  problem  was 
Tariablc-  In  seven  out  of  the  ten  trials  just  preceding  the  change  in  the  appara- 
tus, the  animal  went  fim  to  the  door,  then  to  the  plane.  In  the  first  trial  after 
the  change,  he  departed  from  his  former  custom  of  going  first  to  the  door,  and 
instead  went  direct  to  the  plane.  His  confusion  at  that  point  was  no  greater 
than  he  had  often  previously  displayed  in  picking  up  the  trails.  On  the  second 
trial  and  on  all  thereafter,  he  resumed  his  old  habit  of  going  at  once  to  the  door; 
the  result  of  which  was  that  he  threw  the  plane  en-route  as  it  was  directly  in  his 
pathfrom  the  entranceofthecagcto  the  door  of  the  food  box.  This  explanation 
accotinis  for  the  ieeming  variation.  It  was  simply  a  case  in  which  the  failure 
of  the  rat  to  acquire  a  stereotyped  mode  of  response  to  the  old  situation  made 
tbe  adjuftmeni  to  the  new  situation  less  difficult. 


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40  FLORENCE  RICBARDSON. 

The  new  coordination  necessary  in  the  readjustment  to  the 
changed  situation  is  built  up  on  the  sensory  data  by  means 
of  which  the  plane  becomes  the  stimulus  to  the  further  coor- 
dination involved  in  running  from  the  plane  after  it  has  fallen 
directly  to  the  door  of  the  food  box.  In  these  cases  [i'.  e., 
the  inclined  plane]  the  basis  seems  to  be  that  afforded  by 
touch.  Q>ntact  with  the  plane  was  doubtless  the  evidence  of 
its  presence.  Had  some  distance  sense  factor  such  as  vision 
given  the  cue,  it  would  seem  that  the  animal  would  have  had 
less  difficulty  in  finding  the  plane  in  the  new  position  which 
was  at  such  a  short  distance  from  the  old  position.  It  was 
only  when  they  came  in  contact  with  the  plane  that  some  sen- 
sory impulse  connected  with  its  fall  set  off  the  old  association 
and  they  would  dash  to  the  door  of  the  box.  7*he  new  path- 
way was  easily  learned,  though,  as  remarked  above,  not  closely 
adhered  to  as  three  of  the  rats  on  later  trials  made  errors  in 
favor  of  the  old  pathway. 

It  had  been  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  work  to  further  modify 
this  test,  but  it  was  found  later  that  the  conditions  of  the 
learning  process  had  not  been  sufficiently  well  controlled.  In 
a  test  of  this  kind  the  rats  should  have  learned  the  association 
in  an  environment  every  part  of  which  was  equally  illuminated, 
so  that  a  change  in  the  apparatus  would  involve  no  change  in 
brightness  values  in  different  portions  of  the  field.  The  con- 
trol cage  should  have  been  lined  with  canvas  or  other  opaque 
material  so  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  orientation  by  means 
of  distance  sense  factors.  On  this  account  a  test  involving 
such  modifications  as  have  been  here  made  are  not  conclusive. 
The  results  are  suggestive;  and  if  the  test  were  properly  con- 
trolled it  would  be  of  value  in  isolating  the  different  sense 
factors  which  function  in  forming  the  association. 

A  problem  of  especial  interest  which  arose  in  carrying  out 
the  above  work  is  that  of  the  sensory  avenue  by  means  of  which 
the  rat  obtains  the  cue  for  the  run  to  the  door  after  the  plane 
has  fallen.  In  the  early  trials  of  the  test  it  seemed  quite  suffi- 
cient for  the  rat  merely  to  run  past  a  certain  point  on  the 
fioor  of  the  cage.  Indeed,  many  rats  never  appear  to  get 
beyond  this  method  of  reacting.     But  occasionally  a  rat  hesi- 


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A  STVDT  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  41 

tates  at  the  plane  apparently  until  he  gets  a  cue  that  the 
door  has  fallen  inward.  In  such  instances  the  cue  may  be: 
(l)  The  sound  of  the  falling  door;  (2)  the  molecular  vibrations 
(tactual  impressions)  set  up  in  the  wood  by  the  door  as  it  falls 
upon  the  floor  of  the  cage;  (3)  the  jar  (kinaeslhedc  and  pos- 
sibly static)  of  the  falling  plane. 

Male  III  was  an  animal  which  did  not  seem  to  require  such 
a  cue.  Several  times  in  the  last  ten  trials  this  animal  would 
run  to  a  position  about  one  inch  west  of  the  plane,  rear  up 
slightly,  and  assume  the  crouching  attitude  which  he  had  been 
accustomed  to  assume  on  the  plane  itself  and  would  then  dash 
back  to  the  door.  He  had  thus  gone  through  all  the  move- 
ments of  throwing  the  plane,  except  that  he  had  not  performed 
them  on  the  plane.  He  was  completely  confused  when  he  found 
the  door  closed.  This  rat  at  least,  evidently  oriented  himself 
according  to  the  relative  position  of  the  plane.  The  tactual 
element  in  the  experience  seemed  of  no  value  while  the  kin- 
aesthetic  experience  of  raising  the  forepart  of  the  body  and 
lowering  it  was  apparently  the  esssential  feature.  This  kJn- 
xsthedc  series  was  sufficient  to  set  off  the  sequent  coordinations. 
The  failure  of  the  animal  to  react  to  the  plane  itself  when 
almost  touching  it  and  when  to  all  appearances  attempting  to 
react  to  it,  is'typical  of  the  earlier  trials  of  practically  all  of  the 
rats.  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  that  the  rat  perceived 
tlie  plane  or  that  the  plane  comes  to  be  an  isolable  portion  of 
the  problem  box  situation.  A  rat,  when  attempting  to  get 
into  the  food  box,  runs  around  the  box  in  varying  circles. 
In  one  of  these  circles  he  runs  over  the  plane  and  when  he  hurries 
back  to  the  door,  as  he  does  after  every  peregrination,  he  finds 
it  open.  Many  such  trials  are  necessary  before  he  establishes 
a  pathway  which  includes  in  its  course  the  crossing  of  the 
plane.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the  reaction  of  the  animal 
to  the  plane  is  determined  by  kinesthetic  data  and  that  the 
kinesthetic  experience  at  this  point  is  the  stimulus  for  the 
further  movement,  namely,  that  of  ^turning  to  take  up  the 
pathway  to  the  door. 

On  the  other  hand  the  behavior  of  Male  II  of  the  same  group 
indicates  a  different  kind  of  series  of  stimulations  at  the  plane. 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


His  path  led  him  out  upon  the  plane,  rather  than  across  it. 
On  his  forty-fourth,  forty-eighth,  forty-ninth  and  fiftieth  trials 
he  crouched  near  the  margin  of  the  plane  nearest  the  cage, 
but  as  he  was  not  far  enough  away  from  the  inner  margin,  his 
weight  was  not  sufficient  to  press  down  the  plane,  and  conse- 
quently he  could  get  no  report.  He  then  took  another  step 
further  out  and  waited.  Usually  the  door  fell  after  his 
second  step.  It  happened  once  on  the  forty-ninth  trial  that 
a  third  step  was  necessary  to  press  down  the  plane,  ^^'he^ 
this  step  had  been  taken,  and  the  door  had  fallen,  he  hurried 
off  to  the  food  box. 

It  is  not  easy  to  postulate  just  what  happened  in  the  case  of 
this  rat.  It  is  evident  that  some  form  of  sensory  data,  probably 
auditory,  combined  possibly  with  tactual,  kinaesthetic  and 
organic,  gave  the  cue  to  the  succeeding  coordinations. 

^.  Summary, 
a.  Average  Time-records  for  the  Total  Series. 
The  average  of  the  total  time  consumed  both  by  the  indi- 
viduals and  the  groups  is  given  below.  The  group  averages 
are  given  only  for  the  first  thirty-five  trials,  by  reason  of  the 
fact  that  the  group  of  black-and-white  rats  were  unable  to 
finish  the  series  of  fifty  trials. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  GROUP  AVERAGE  OF  THE  TOTAL  TIME  (THIRTY -FIVE  TRIALS) 

CONSUMED  BY  NORMAL  AND  BY  DEFECTIVE  RATS  IN  LEARNING  FROBLBH  II. 

Average  by  Grou^i 


Normal  White 48        Blind i  .48 

Nomial  Black-and-Whiie 49 

TABLE  SHOWING    INDIVIDUAL  AVERAGES  OF  THE  TOTAL  TtMB(55  TBIALS)   CON- 
SUMED BY  NORMAL  AND  BY  OEFBCnVB  RATS  IN  LEARNING   PROBLEM   II. 


Normid  Block-anJ-  Wbiu 


Blind. 


Male  111.. 
Male  IV.. 

Female  ] 
Female  I] 
Female    1' 


Female     1 77 

Female   11 44 

Female  III 51 

Female  IV S' 


Female     I 

Female   II 

Female  ill 

Female  IV  ... . 

Female  V 

Male  IV 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RJT. 


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FLOKENCE  RICHARDSON. 


There  is  practically  no  difference  in  the  averages  of  the 
group  of  the  white  and  of  the  black-and-white  animals.  The 
average  of  the  group  of  blind  rats  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  the  normal  rats. 

The  variation  among  the  averages  of  the  individuals  is  con- 
siderable. The  high  records  of  the  normal  white  Males  II 
and  IV,  were  due  to  high  time-records  in  the  first  ten  trials. 
The  averages  of  the  normal  white  females  are  all  lower  than 
the  lowest  of  those  of  the  black-and-white  group.  Blind  Females 
IV  and  V  and  blind  Male  V,  made  averages  lower  than  the 
maximum  individual  records  of  either  the  normal  white  or 
the  black-and-white  groups.  There  is  greater  variation  among 
individuals  of  this  blind  group  than  among  those  of  any  other 
group. 

b.    Average  Time-Records  by  Groups  of  Ten  Trials. 

The  following  tables  show  the  averages  of  the  records  of 
the  series  by  groups  often  trials  each.  The  averages  are  given 
for  the  individuals,  and  for  the  groups.  The  starred  records 
show  those  instances  in  which  the  minimal  record  for  a  series 
of  ten  was  reached  before  the  last  series  of  ten. 

Normal  fFhitt  Rats. 


INDIVIDUALS. 

TRIALS. 

MALE  1. 

MALE  II. 

MALE   III. 

MALE   IV, 

t-IO- 

■64 

Tbj 

.62" 

2.27 

ii-ao 

■  M 

'7 

.08* 

.08 

21-30 

.IC-* 

.05' 

■>3* 

.os» 

31-40 

.11 

■05 

09 

.10. 

41-50 

■07 

'3 

.09 

FEHALE    t. 

FEMALE  11. 

FEMALE  III. 

FEMALE  IV. 

r-io 

I,l6 

■79 

.96 

1-44 

11-10 

.10 

43 

■14 

.19 

21-30 

.12 

■V 

■17 

'3 

31-40 

.09- 

,09 

.11 

41-50 

■«7 

■'7 

,08 

.10 

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A  sTVor  or  sensort  control  in  the  rat. 

BJack-and-fFbiti  RaU. 


FEUALEI. 

FEMALE  11. 

FEMALE  III. 

FEMALE  IV. 

l-I 

2.28 

1.03 

1.19 

1.19 

1,42 

■H 

•s 

-47 

32 

29 

JI-30 

'3 

.08- 

.18 

'3 

3'-3S 

■3 

■»9 

.09 

.12 

FEMALE 

MALE 

IV. 

V. 

IV. 

OROUF. 

1-10 

2.96 

■5>* 

1.23 

8.34 

1.12 

'■'J 

=  ■85 

11-20 

4.50 

.74 

1.23 

.6, 

1.77 

21-30 

■  43 

2.00 

1  13' 

.29' 

1.00 

..07' 

31-^0 

2.81 

1.99 

1-28 

.46 

-«4* 

■■35 

41-50 

l.Il 

1.28 

-40 

7.80 

2.23 

Here,  as  in  Problem  I,  many  rats — in  this  case  ten  out  of 
a  Mtal  of  seventeen  animals — made  their  lowest  averages  before 
the  last  ten  trials  of  the  series.  This  peculiarity  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  above  records  of  Blind  Female  11  whose  first 
group  of  ten  averaged  considerably  less  than  any  later  ten. 

The  blind  group  is  the  only  group  whose  total  average  shows 
the  minimal  average  by  ten  near  the  middle  of  the  series. 

c.     Comparison  of  the  Different  Groups. 

The  curve  showing  the  average  time-records  of  the  group  of 
normal  white  rats  is  lowest  at  the  first  trial,  from  the  fifth  to 
the  eleventh  trials,  and  from  the  seventeenth  to  the  twenty- 
fifth  inclusive. 

The  curve  of  the  black-and-white  rats  has  a  very  pronounced 
rise  at  the  sixth  trial;  otherwise  it  is  more  r^ular  in  contour 
than  that  of  the  group  of  the  normal  white  rats. 

The  curve  representing  the  blind  rats  is  exceedingly  high  and 
irregular  though  at  the  first  trial  it  is  lower  than  any  other,  and 
at  the  second  trial  is  below  that  of  the  black-and-white  rats 
and  but  little  above  that  of  the  normal  white  rats.  From  the 
eighth  trial  this  curve  does  not  descend  to  the  level  of  the 
curve  of  the  normal  animal. 


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46  eLORZNCB  RICHARDSON. 

C.      TESTS   ON    PROBLEM   BOX    III. 

/.     Description  of  Apparatus,  and  of  the  Learning  Process. 

The  third  problem  box  submitted  to  these  same  groups  of 
rats  was  the  familiar  one  necessitating  the  raising  of  a  latch. 
As  in  the  two  previous  problems,  the  animal  enters  the  box 
for  food.  The  box  consists  of  a  wooden  frame,  14.25  cm.  in 
height,  ao  cm.  in  length  and  20  cm.  in  breadth.  The  frame 
is  covered  with  wire  netting  of  one  centimeter  mesh.  The 
spring  door,  6.25  cm.  high  and  10  cm.  wide,  is  so  fastened  to 
the  bwer  left  hand  comer  of  one  side  of  the  box,  that  when  the 
latch  which  holds  the  door  in  place  is  raised,  the  door  opens 
outward.     (See  figure  3.) 


F'g-  3- 

The  control  cage  which  was  placed  over  the  box  is  the  same 
size  as  was  used  over  Box  I.  A  morsel  of  cream  cheese — 
always  of  one  commercial  brand  to  insure  constancy  of  taste 
and  of  odor — was  rubbed  on  the  back  of  the  latch  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  series  of  trials.  The  combined  taste  and  odor 
served  ta  attract  the  interest  of  the  rat,  the  effect  of  which  was 
to  lower  the  absolute  time  records  of  the  first  trials.  The  use 
of  this  device  does  not  alter  the  general  form  of  the  learning 
curve,  nor  influence  the  later  time  records. 

The  unusual  coordinations  involved  in  this  test  are  those 
connected  with  finding  the  door  and  raising  the  head  to  lift 
the  latch.  The  animal  may  Hft  the  latch  either  with  its  teeth, 
snout  or  claws.     The  rapidity  of  the  solution  depends  in  the 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  TBE  RAT. 


47 


first  few  trials  largely  upon  the  particular  type  of  movement 
adopted  by  the  rat  in  opening  the  latch.  The  animal  which 
lifts  the  latch  with  its  snout  is  likely  to  make  the  shortest  time- 
record,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  this  movement  requires  fewest 
muscular  coordinations. 

The  diary  notes  are  given  as  the  most  concise  and  satis- 
factory description  of  the  learning  process. 


ATm^/  on   ih 

t   Bfbaoior   of  Normal   Male   Rat  III  in  Uarning  Problem  III- 

TRIAL. 

6/2/06 
6/3/06 

a 

3 

* 

5 

6 

The  sprin|  interens  him;  nandt  on  hii  hind  legs  and  pulls 

inner  end  of  latch.     Crawled  in  over  top  of  door. 

Time:  i.io  min. 
Same    procedure   ai    above,    but    animal  more  active. 

Time:  .13  min. 
Repeated  above:  Time:  1.25  min. 
Leaves  spring  to  gnaw  at  latch;  pushes  down  inner  end 

of  latch  as  before.    Time:  .13  min. 
Raises  latch  with  teeth.    Time:  .15  min. 
As  above.    Goes  in  oi«r  door  each  time.    Time:. 12  min. 

This  particular  rat  crawled  either  over  or  under  the  door 
in  entering  the  food  hox  until  the  end  of  the  series.  Most 
of  the  rats  discovered  the  easier  method  of  entrance,  and  a 
number  of  them  learned  to  raise  the  latch  from  the  left,  and 
saved  themselves  the  annoyance  of  a  blow  from  the  opening 
door.  In  a  number  of  instances  the  rats  became  wary  about 
entering  the  box  on  account  of  having  been  struck  By  the  door. 
Many  long  time-records  near  the  beginning  of  the  series  are 
to  be  explained  in  this  manner.  Individual  variations  in  the 
animals'  methods  of  solving  this  problem  are  more  noticeable 
here  than  in  any  of  the  other  problems. 

2.     Statement  of  Results, 
a.     On  Normal  White  Rats. 
Table  IX  and  the  curve  on  Plate  III  show  the  averages  of 
the  time-records  of  the  group  of  normal  white  rats  upon  this 
problem. 


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4B  FLORENCE  KJCHJRDSON. 

The  group  at  this  time  consisted  of  four  males  and   two 
females.* 

Tablb  IX. 

Showing  iht  average,  the  minimum  and  the  maximum  lime-recorJi  of  tix  normal 
white  roll  an  Problem  III.  The  lajt  three  columai  ibout  tie  numher  of 
animoii  whose  rreorJt  art  (/)  t^ual  to  the  average,  {2)  beiow,  and  (5)  above 
the  average. 


»<,.„, 

AVERAGE. 

MAXIMUM. 

2- 

3- 

TRIAL. 

min. 

min 

min. 

5.72 

1.87 

9.48 

3 

I 

32 

.08 

55 

3 

3 

■33 

.02 

I.2S 

I 

+ 

■'7 

4 

S 

■■") 

.08 

-87 

1 

6 

.11 

■  37 

2 

7 

09 

.04. 

."4 

3 

8 

-09 

05 

>S 

I 

9 

.06 

03 

.08 

3 

10 

.06 

■03 

.08 

2 

11 

.07 

.OS 

.11 

I 

2 

12 

■OS 

■03 

.0; 

2 

I 

'3 

■OS 

.02 

.07 

3 

H 

OS 

0* 

.06 

2 

I 

■S 

■05 

■03 

.08 

' 

These  rats  did  not  discover  the  door  in  the  lirst  trial;  but 
at  the  second  they  went  almost  immediately  to  it  and  bit  and 
clawed  at  the  latch  and  spring  with  great  energy.  By  the 
end  of  the  series,  each  rat  had  learned  to  lift  the  latch  with 
its  snout,  and  most  of  them  raised  the  latch  from  the  outer 
margin  and  were  thus  out  of  the  way  of  the  door  when  it  flew 
open.  The  individual  records  are  very  uniform.  At  the 
fifteenth  trial  the  coordinations  were  perfect  and  had  become 
habitual.     The  experiments  were  therefore  discontinued. 

'This  group  has  been  reduced  in  numben.  Female  III  died,  and  Female  I 
who  was  slow  in  Problem  I,  slower  in  II,  and  very  slow  in  ihe  present  problem) 
made  such  uniformly  poor  records  that  they  were  omitted  in  theaver^gc.atthq' 
represented  a  very  marked  variation.  She  made  the  maximum  time-record  in 
every  trial.  Her  time-records  are  given  and  discussed  in  the  section  on  individ- 
ual variations. 


Digi-izoclbyGOOgle 


A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  +9 

The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  maximal  and 
of  minimal  time-records  made  by  each  animal. 


Min 


Male     I 

Male   II 

Malell! lo 

MalelV 34 

Female   II o 

FonalcIII o 


46 


Maximal. 

per   an 

Male     I O 

Male    II o 

Malelll 13 

MaielV 27 

Female   II ^ 

Female  III 20 


Neither  of  the  two  females  made  a  minimal  record  during 
the  series,  and  neither  Male  I  nor  Male  II  made  a  maximal 
record  during  the  series. 

b.    On  Normal  Black-and-White  Rats. 

This  group  had  also  been  reduced  in  number.  Females  I 
and  II  died  at  the  end  of  tests  upon  Problem  Box  II.  Table 
X  and  the  curve  on  Plate  III  show  the  records  of  the  two  remain- 
ing animals. 

Table  X. 
Sbvmimglbi  AverageTime-recordl  of  Two  Black-and-fFbile  Rati  on  Problem  III . 


NO.  OP  TKIAL. 


NO.  OF  TRIAL. 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


The  records  of  these  two  rats  are  very  low,  and  very  uniform. 
The  first  successes  were  achieved  in  remarkably  short  time, 
all  of  the  averages  being  below  one  minute.  In  the  later  trials, 
each  rat,  in  its  eagerness  to  get  to  the  door,  sometimes  dashed 
past  it,  and  went  on  around  the  box,  thus  lengthening  the 
time-record. 

The  percentage  of  minimal  and  of  maximal  time-records 
made  by  each  rat  in  the  group  is  shown  below. 

PERCENTAQE    OF   MINIMAL   AND   OF    MAXIMAL    TIHE-RBCORDS 


Minima}.  Maximal. 

ptrcent.  per  cent.  , 

Female  III 30  Female  III ;o 

Female  IV 70  Female  IV 30 

c.     On  Bhnd  Rats. 

The  behavior  of  the  blind  rats  was  strikingly  at  variance 
with  that  of  the  normal  rat  in  this  problem.  Their  time- 
records  were  long  and  inconstant.  Practically  all  of  the  rats 
suffered  an  emotional  shock  from  the  quick  opening  of  the  door 
.  when  the  latch  was  raised.  The  blind  animals  were  not  alone 
in  receiving  a  fright  at  the  blow  of  the  door.  One  norma) 
rat  became  so  cautious  in  his  attempts  to  raise  the  latch  that 
his  efforts  in  going  up  to  the  latch,  springing  back,  stepping 
up  cautiously  again,  and  again  rebounding,  came  to  be  ludic- 
rous in  the  extreme.  On  one  occasion  the  unsuccessful  efforts 
of  a  blind  rat  to  raise  the  latch  were  counted.  Thirty-three 
times  she  approached  the  latch  and  thirty-two  times  she  re- 
coiled like  a  tight  spring!  Only  at  the  thirty-third  attempt 
did  she  exert  enough  pressure  to  lift  the  latch,  and  when  the 
door  flew  open  she  seemed  paralyzed  with  fright  for  several 
seconds,  and  did  not  attempt  to  enter  the  box.  When  she 
finally  entered  she  caught  up  a  mouthful  of  food  and  ran  out- 
side to  devour  it.  T^is  state  of  high  emotional  tension  is 
one  cause  of  their  poor  time-records,  particularly  in  the  early 
trials. 

The  following  table,  Table  XI,  and  the  curve  on  Plate  III 
show  the  time-records  of  the  group. 


Digi-iz^cll^vGOdgle 


A  STUDT  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 


Table  XI. 
Showing  the  average,  ibt  minimum  and  the  maximum  time-records  of  three  blind 
rats  on  PrMem  III,     7belait  three  columni  jhau/  the  number  of  animtJi 
whore  retards  are  (l)  equal  to  the  tiwrage,  {2)  belotv,  and  (5)  above  the 


-""   ».. 

lAGE.   MIN 

MUM.  MAX 

IMUM. 

3. 

nuAL. 

™. 

in.      IT 

... 

'      7 

32     3 

95     9 

23 

■      3 

93 

.8     9 

37 

3 

57 

28 

75 

4      2 

59 

45     6 

07 

S      3 

79 

92     7 

28 

6      I 

90 

22     4 

95 

7      ■ 

78 

•5     4 

'5 

8 

95 

35     I 

70 

9      1 

3" 

48     2 

35 

10 

92 
53 

12      1 
38 

42 
77 

12 

53 

'7 

80 

'3 

60 

20 

78 

' 

14 

30 

■  2 

34 

>S 

10 

12 

28 

16 

3" 

25 

3S 

I 

'7 

19 

10 

30 

18 

17 

II 

23 

•9 

51 

20       I 

'3 

20 

'9 

07 

30 

12 

28 
30 

22 

37 
45 

23 

21 

20 

35 

24 

23 

10 

30 

2S 

25 

12 

J5 

26 

18 

'3 

25 

27 

27 

23 

33 

28 

■4 

08 

25 

29 

18 

10 

28 

3» 

28 

17 

38 

I 

3' 

34 

22 

45 

32 

26 

12 

35 

33 

19 

08 

35 

34 

3« 

10 

83 

35 

30 

'7 

43 

1 

3* 

29 

■5 

47 

37 

44 

72 

2 

38 

33 

08 

55 

2 

39 

27 

05 

40 

I   ,   2 

40 

23 

18 

26 

1   1   2 

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52  FLOSBNCB  BICHABBSON. 

The  blind  rats  were  slow  in  attaining  their  first  successes, 
and  in  establishing  a  pathway  from  the  entrance  of  the  cage  to 
the  door  of  the  food  box.  Several  rats  did  not  establish  a 
definite  route  even  after  forty  trials.  In  these  cases  the  behavior 
of  the  animal  throughout  the  test  suggested  the  random  activ- 
ity of  early  trials. 

The  table  given  below  shows  the  percentage  of  minimal 
and  of  maximal  time-records  made  by  each  rat. 


Minimal,  Maximal. 

fertent.  frr  cent. 

Male  IV 51  Male  IV 23 

Female  IV 34  Female  IV 27 

Female  V 15  Female  V 50 

J.     On  Anosmic  Rat. 

The  one  remaining  anosmic  rat  was  put  to  work  upon  the 
problem.  He  learned  to  open  the  door  at  once,  but  rather 
than  enter  the  food  box  gratified  himself  by  gnawing  away 
the  wooden  latch.  He  had  apparently  established  the  asso- 
ciation by  the  fifth  trial.  His  time-records  are  almost  value- 
less, however,  being  a  measure,  not  primarily  of  the  length 
of  time  it  took  him  to  open  the  door  of  the  food  box  and  enter 
but  of  the  rime  he  gave  himself  for  the  demolition  of  the  latch. 

3.     EflPect  on    Rats  of  Changing  Position  of  Box  and  Cage. 

After  three  black-and-white  males  had  learned  this  problem, 
the  experimenter  changed  the  posirion  of  both  the  control 
cage  and  the  problem  box.  In  the  original  experiment  the 
entrance  to  the  cage  was  on  the  east,  and  the  door  of  the  prob- 
lem box  upon  the  south.  After  the  change,  the  door  of  the 
cage  was  to  the  north,  and  the  door  of  the  problem  box  was 
to  the  east.  The  relative  positions  of  the  entrance  of  the  cage 
to  the  door  of  the  problem  box  thus  remained  the  same;  only 
the  absolute  directions  had  been  changed.     The  cage  and  the 


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A  STVOr  OF  SEffSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  53 

enclosed  problem  box  had  been  rotated  through  an  angle  of 
90°.  The  floor  of  the  cage  was  of  galvanized  iron  sheeting, 
and  was  turned  with  the  endre  apparatus. 


Fig.  4. 


NoTB  The  dotted  line  shows  the  direct  pathway  from  the  entrance  of  the 
cage  to  the  door  of  the  problon  box.  Rats  which  have  established  a  regular 
pathway  use  the  one  indicated  in  A.  The  dotted  line  in  B.showsthelen^ened 
pathway  the  rats  followed  after  the  problem  box  and  cage  had  been  turned. 

TTiree  normal  black-and-white  males  had  learned  the  prob- 
lem. Their  time-records  had  been  reduced  to  .03  min.,  i.  e., 
practically  to  the  reaction  time  of  the  animal. 

The  appended  diary  notes  describe  the  behavior  of  the 
animals  very  clearly. 


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DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


A  STUDY  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  $$ 

The  notes  call  attention  to  three  characteristics  of  the  ani- 
mals' behavior  under  the  new  conditions:  (i)  The  immediate 
excursion  to  the  south  side  of  the  box;  (2)  confusion  at  failing 
to  find  the  door;  (3)  nosing  about  to  discover  the  door,  and  (4) 
the  discovery  of  it  made  apparently  in  these  cases  at  least,  on 
the  data  atforded  by  either  the  contact  of  the  vibrissx,  or  of 
the  snout  with  the  latch  or  with  the  door.  The  door  was  not 
held  firmly  in  place  by  the  latch,  but  wavered  slightly  when 
an  animal  exerted  pressure  upon  it  with  its  snout  or  with  its 
claws.  This  yielding  of  the  door  apparently  often  stimulates 
a  general  motor  overflow  which  results  in  movements  of  vig- 
orously biting  and  clawing  at  the  door  even  before  the  animal 
associates  the  door  with  the  process  of  procuring  food.  It 
is  quite  probable  that  as  the  rat  searches  for  the  entrance  to 
the  box,  the  yielding  of  the  door  or  the  mobility  of  the  latch 
is  the  stimulus  which  releases  the  movements  that  raise  the 
latch. 

There  was  no  indication  that  any  of  the  rats  located  the 
door  by  means  of  vision,  for  each  rat  passed  the  door  while 
'searching'  for  it  without  reacting  to  it.  Yet  when  the  door 
was  touched  there  followed  the  examination  of  the  latch,  and 
the  performance  of  the  requisite  movements  to  open  the  door. 

The  next  day  after  these  tests  and  the  second  day  following, 
these  experiments  were  continued,  with  the  same  general 
results.  When  the  door  of  the  control  cage  was  turned  to  the 
north,  the  rats  went  first  to  the  south,  then  to  the  east,  finally 
locating  the  door  as  before, — probably  with  the  snout.  Bui 
each  rat  went  frst  to  the  south,  where  the  door  had  been  two 
days  before.  The  old  pathway  involved  a  turn  first  to  the  left, 
then  to  the  right,  then  to  the  right  again.  In  the  new  position 
each  rat  lengthened  his  path  and,  after  making  the  previous 
series  of  turns  as  before,  added  another  turn  to  the  right,  arriv- 
ing at  the  absolute  spot  to  which  his  shorter  path  had  hitherto 
brought  him. 

A  blind  black-and  white  rat  was  tested  in  the  same  manner, 
with  the  cage  and  box  in  the  two  positions.  He  exhibited  the 
same  characteristics  as  the  normal  rats,  except  that  in  his 
confusion  he  went  over  the  food  box,  a  habit  that  he  had  ac- 


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56  FLORENCE  MCHASDSON. 

quired  in  learning  the  problem.  The  habit  had  almost  dis- 
appeared, but  when  his  first  attempts  were  unsuccessful,  he 
reverted  to  his  early  random  movements.  His  time-records  with 
the  box  in  the  changed  position  suffered  no  greater  increase 
than  those  of  the  normal  rats  under  the  same  conditions. 

These  tests,  like  those  involving  the  changed  position  of 
the  plane,  were  not  sufficiently  well  controlled  to  justify  carry- 
ing them  further.  The  animals  had  learned  the  problem  with 
the  source  of  light  to  the  west.  When  the  apparatus  was 
changed,  the  brightness  values  of  different  parts  of  the  field 
were  also  changed,  whereas  they  should  have  remained  con- 
stant. In  addition  to  this,  the  control  cage  was  not  large 
enough  to  permit  the  rat  to  go  to  the  entrance  to  the  door  of 
the  problem  box  without  brushing  the  corner  of  the  box.  In 
this  way  one  rat  accidently  discovered  the  latch  in  passing.  To 
control  the  conditions  properly  in  such  an  experiment,  a  larger 
control  cage  covered  with  canvas,  and  lighted  from  within, 
would  be  necessary. 

The  above  test  seems  to  indicate  the  value  of  touch  in  locat- 
ing the  latch.  The  normal  rats,  like  the  blind  rat,  seemed  to 
discover  the  latch  by  contact.  The  functioning  of  anything 
like  discriminative  vision  could  not  be  detected  in  the  behavior 
of  any  animal  submitted  to  these  tests.  If  such  data  had  been 
made  use  of,  the  fact  should  have  been  apparent  in  the  method 
of  discovering  the  door.  A  rat  when  'searching'  for  the  door  ' 
often  passed  it,  and  seemed  oblivious  to  its  location  although  it 
was  not  more  than  three  inches  distant. 

The  behavior  of  the  animals  in  this  experiment  justifies  the 
discussion  of  the  behavior  of  rats  in  tests  in  which  the  position 
of  the  plane  was  changed  (Problem  II,  p.  38).  The  contention 
was  there  advanced  that  there  was  no  evidence  of  the  percep- 
tion of  the  plane  by  the  rat:  That  the  plane  was  not  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  the  environment.  In  the  test  with  Problem 
III,  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  latch  or  the  door  was  singled 
out  and  reacted  to  as  an  object. 


lyGodQlc 


J  STUOr  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSOX, 


a.     Average  Time-records  for  the  Total  Series  of  Trials, 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  of  the  total  time 
consumed  for  the  different  groups  of  rats  for  a  series  of  15 
trials.  It  has  been  necessary  to  make  a  comparison  on  the 
basis  of  this  number  of  trials  since  the  normal  white  rats, 
which  were  first  tested  had  reached  a  stage  of  proficiency  in 
the  solution  at  which  their  reactions  were  constant  and  habitual. 
The  later  records  of  the  other  groups  are  given  in  the  following 
section. 


TABLE  SHOWING  GROUP  AVBKAGB  OF  THE  TOTAL  TIME  (15  TRIALs)    CONSUMED 
BY  NORMAL  AND  BY  DEFBCTIVE  ANIMALS   IN  LEARNING   PROBLEM  III. 


Nofmal  While 50        Blind. . 

Black-and-Whice 18 


L  TIME   CONSUMBD  IN   FIFTEEN 


Normal  /fbitt.  Blaek-and- IFhile.  Blind. 

Male     1 36     Femalelll 2+    MalelV 63 

Male   II 69    FeinalelV ra     FemalelV 2.95 

Malelll 33  Female  V 1.85 

Male  IV 

Female   11 

Female  III 

The  great  difference  in  the  group  averages  of  the  normal 
white  and  the  black-and-white  rat  is  due  to  the  very  long  time- 
record  of  the  white  rats  at  the  first  trial.  The  average  of  the 
blind  animals  is  high  although  the  average  of  Blind  Male  IV 
is  less  than  that  of  Normal  Male  II  and  that  of  Normal  Female 
III.  Unfortunately  the  fact  that  there  remained  buttwo black- 
and-white  animals  renders  this  group  practically  unavailable 
for  purposes  of  comparison. 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 


b.     Average  Time-records  by  Groups  of  Five  Trials. 

Normal  fFbitt. 
Individuals. 


" 

FEMALE 

MALE  1. 

MALE  H. 

MALE  III. 

MALE  IV 

■I. 

111. 

GROUP. 

•-S 

-97 

I  95 

-81 

.60 

1.64 

2.19 

•-36 

6-10 

.08 

.08 

.09 

.to 

'♦ 

ii-iS 

■03 

05 

07 

-04 

.06 

OS 

OS 

Black- and- IFbite  Rat,. 

FEMALE  HI. 

FEMALE  IV. 

GROUP. 

I-  5 

.60 

.22 

■  4> 

fr-IO 

.08 

.06 

.07 

11-15 

.06 

.08 

.07 

16-ao 

-07 

OS 

.06 

11-25 

.OS 

.OS 

OS 

ntuis.           HAL 

... 

„H.l,  ,.              »V. 

RAGE. 

„I 

«. 

min. 

m 

■.. 

I-  5               I 

16 

S-49 

*.o8                    3 

64 

6-ia 

it, 

.76 

l.IO                          I 

37 

11-ii 

26 

.60 

■42 

43 

16-20 

40 

.18 

-24 

27 

ii-iS 

22 

.18 

36 

'5 

26-30 

21 

.20 

21 

31-J6 

26 

.20 

1.42 

29 

36-40 

3> 

'3 

46 

30 

There  is  not  much  to  be  added  in  comment  on  these  tables. 
They  point  out  the  fact  that  there  is  little  or  no  difference  in 
the  time-records  of  the  white  and  the  black-and-white  rats>  and 
a  very  considerable  difference  in  those  of  the  normal  and  the 
blind  rats.  No  blind  rat  made  an  average  for  ten  trials  in 
later  trials  so  low  as  the  highest  group  average  for  the  normal 
rats  in  such  trials. 


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6o  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

Probably  only  the  blind  rats  were  given  a  sufficient  number 
of  trials  in  this  problem  to  render  apparent  a  tendency  towards 
the  dissolution  of  the  association  that  has  been  commented  on 
in  similar  records  for  animals  on  Problems  I  and  II.  T^ree 
of  four  of  the  blind  rats  raise  their  averages  near  the  end  of 
the  series. 

c.     Comparison  of  the  Curves  of  the  Different  Groups. 

The  curve  representing  the  average  of  the  normal  white 
rats  is,  in  this  problem,  more  uniform  than  in  either  of  the 
preceding  problems.  While  the  first  trial  is  high,  the  curve 
drops  very  rapidly,  reaching  and  maintaining  its  low  level 
on  and  after  the  sixth  trial. 

The  curve  of  the  black-and-white  group  is  much  lower  at' 
the  first  trial,  and  does  not  make  such  a  rapid  descent,  though 
at  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  trials  it  is  lower  than 
that  of  the  normal  white  rat.  At  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  four- 
teenth, and  fifteenth  trials  they  run  no  more  than  .01  min. 
apart.  The  third  curve,  that  of  the  bUnd  animals,  is  of  a 
different  contour,  as  it  drops  much  more  gradually.  At  no 
point  in  the  series  of  5  trials,  does  it  reach  a  level  near  that  of 
either  of  the  groups  of  normal  rats.  The  curve  is  also  quite 
irregular.' 

D.      DISCUSSION  OF   CURVES   SHOWING  AVERAGE   TIME-RECORDS 
OF  NORMAL  AND  OF  DEFECTIVE  RATS  IN  LEARNING  THE  MAZE. 

On  account  of  the  necessity  of  plotting  the  curves  shown  in 
this  paper,  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  that  employed  in 
Watson's  monograph,  the  difference  between  the  blind  and 
the  normal  rats  seems  much  magnified.  The  time-records  for 
the  later  trials  on  the  maze  rarely  run  below  .25  min.,  while 
those  on  Problem  I  of  this  work  go  as  low  as  .02  min.  A 
curve  constructed  from  data  given  by  Watson's  records'  of 
the  normal,  blind,  and  anosmic  animals  on  the  maze,  plotted 

'  Tht  comparison  of  these  curves  should  be  suppletnented  by  an  examination 
of  the  curves  obtained  from  the  records  of  untrained  animals  on  this  problem. 
These  curves  are  given  on  Plates  VI  and  VII. 

'Watson,  liiV.,  pp.19,  $g  and  6z. 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  W  THE  RAT.  6l 

on  the  scale  here  employed,  is  shown  in  Plate  IV.  Had  the 
curves  for  the  records  of  the  rats  on  Problem  I  been  plotted 
on  the  scale  employed  by  Watson,  the  differences  in  the  curves 
would  have  practically  disappeared. 

The  curve  showing  the  records  of  the  normal  rats  is  made 
up  from  the  averages  of  four  normal  white  males  of  one  litter 
about  one  year  old.  That  of  the  blind  rats  is  made  up  of  the 
averages  of  four  blind  males  thirty-four  weeks  old.  At  no  point 
do  the  time-records  of  the  normal  rats,  trial  by  trial,  go  lower 
than  that  of  the  blind.  At  only  two  points  on  the  curve  do 
they  go  as  low.  The  fact  that  they  were  younger  and  probably 
more  active  may  partly  account  for  the  lower  records  made  by 
the  blind  rats.  But  a  comparison  of  the  average  of  the  blind 
animals  with  that  of  the  nineteen,  whose  records  go  to  make 
up  the  norm,  shows  the  same  low  record  for  the  blind. 

Watson  has  formulated  the  conclusion  that  rats  can  learn 
the  maze  without  the  use  of  vision.  The  present  writer  has 
the  temerity  to  suggest  in  the  face  of  some  later  results  that 
vision  not  only  adds  nothing  of  advantage,  but  may  quite 
conceivably  be  detrimental  to  the  rapidity  of  the  learning  of 
the  maze.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  maze  may  be  learned 
almost  absolutely  in  terms  of  kinaestheric  and  organic  impulses. 
Since  these  impulses  alone  are  sufficient,  visual  impulses  might 
be  conceived  of  as  adding  a  distraction. 

TTje  curve  from  the  records  of  the  anosmic  rats  is  shown 
upon  the  same  plate.  The  curve  from  this  group  runs  slightly 
below  that  of  the  normal  but  above  that  of  the  blind.  Here, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  blind  rats,  it  is  possible  that  olfactory 
impressions  may  be  a  stimulus  to  movements  which  in  this 
problem  are  detrimental  to  the  learning  process. 

E.   GENERAL  CONCLUSION  BASED  UPON  RESULTS  OF  ABOVE  TESTS. 

The  experiment,  the  results  of  which  will  be  reported  next, 
is  one  that  does  not  require  the  formation  of  an  association 
such  as  has  been  required  in  the  three  foregoing  experiments. 
Its  results,  therefore,  will  not  be  considered  in  connection  with 
those  just  presented.  A  summary  of  facts  will  be  attempted 
here  together  with  a  discussion  of  their  theoretical  import. 


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FLORENCE  KICHJEDSON. 


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A  STUOr  OF  SBNSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  63 

The  aim  of  the  investigation  has  been  to  determine  upon 
what  sensory  impulses  the  rat  mainly  depends  in  forming  the 
var  ous  associations  required  in  these  problems.  The  func- 
tion of  the  different  sense  processes  will  be  taken  up  in  detail. 

/     Vision  .^ 

a.     Differences  in  Functional  Value  of  Vision   in  Rats  Pos- 
sessing Pigmented  and  those  Possessing  Albino  Eyes. 

The  evidence  of  greater  importance  of  vision  in  rats  pos- 
sessing pigmented  eyes  is,  upon  the  whole,  equivocal.  In 
Problem  I  (see  p.  13)  the  black-and-white  animals  made  phe- 
nomenally low  records;  not  only  is  the  average  absolute  time 
of  the  group  much  lower  than  that  of  any  other  group  upon 
this  problem,  but  the  highest  individual  record  of  the  black- 
and-white  groups,  is  considerably  lower  than  the  lowest  aver- 
age record  of  any  normal  rat.  The  curve  representing  the 
average  of  the  black-and-white  animals  is  more  regular,  and 
the  individual  variability  is  less,  in  this  group  than  in  any  other. 
Thesefacts  if  taken  alone,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  black- 
and-white  rats  were  at  an  advantage  in  Problem  I.  In  the 
same  problem,  however,  the  two  white  rats,  which  had  had 
previous  experience  in  other  problems,  made  still  lower  records, 
(p.  103). 

In  Problem    II   there  was  little  difference  in  the  average 

'  The  temi  viiion  up  to  this  point  has  been  used  in  the  most  general  way.  At 
thit  juncture  it  seems  necessary  to  qualify  its  si|Tiificance  and  to  indicate  the 
dtfTerent  ways  in  which  impulses  from  the  eye  may  be  rendered  serviceable. 

1.  Possibly  the  most  primitive  funnion  of  such  impulses  is  that  of  heighten- 
ing the  genera]  tonicity  of  the  motor  area.  This  hypothetical  tonic  effect  of 
light  impulses  is  referral  to  more  extensively  later. 

2.  White  light  vision  implies  that  an  animal's  reactions  may  be  modified  in 
accordance  with  the  brightness  of  visual  stimuli. 

3.  The  term  color-vision  implies  that  the  animal  can  react  in  a  sdective 
way  to  tight  stimuli  of  different  wave  lengths. 

4.  Form- and- size- vis  ion  would  be  said  to  be  present  if  the  animal  were  able 
to  discriminate  the  form  and  size  of  the  visual  stimulus  to  which  he  reacts. 

5.  A  further  possibility  is  depth  discrimination,  which  in  the  rat  may  or  may 
not  involve  retinal  factors.  One  would  infer  the  presence  of  this  form  if  the 
animal  were  able  to  react  accurately  to  stimuli  placed  at  varying  distance  inter- 
vals in  the  line  of  vision,  provided  that  one  were  certain  that  no  other  form  of 
sensory  impulse  were  operative. 


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64  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

absolute  dme-records  of  these  two  groups  (see  p.  42),  although 
five  normal  white  individuals  made  average  absolute  time- 
records  lower  than  the  lowest  individual  of  the  black-and-white 
group.  The  time-records  of  the  normal  white  group — as 
shown  in  series  of  ten  trials  each  (p.  44) — are  uniformly 
lower  ten  by  ten — than  the  corresponding  records  of  the  black- 
and-white  group,  while  the  lowest  individual  records  in  such 
a  series  were  made  by  those  having  albino  eyes.  The  time- 
record  of  the  white  rats  was  lower  for  the  first  ten  trials,  and 
the  difference  between  that  of  the  first  and  second  ten  was  in 
their  favor.  The  curve  is  lower  for  the  white  rats  to  the  25th 
trial,  and  from  that  point  there  is  no  advantage  accruing  to 
either  group. 

These  facts  indicate  that  in  this  problem  the  rats  with  albino 
eyes  made  slightly  better  records  than  those  with  pigmented  eyes. 

In  Problem  III  the  black-and-white  rats  made  a  much 
better  average  absolute  time-record,  and  their  individual  records 
were  lower.  (See  p.  32.)  The  tables  giving  the  average  abso- 
lute time-records  in  groups  of  5,  show  a  much  lower  average 
for  the  black-and-white  rats  in  the  first  and  second  series  of 
five  trials  each,  but  in  the  third  series,  the  white  rats  made  not 
only  a  lower  average  record,  but  no  black-and-white  individual 
made  so  low  a  record  as  that  of  certain  individual  white  rats. 

In  the  results  of  experimentation  reported  later  (p.  103)  a 
comparison  may  be  made  between  the  time-records  of  four 
untrained  white  rats,  and  four  untrained  black-and-white  rats 
on  Problem  III,  The  untrained  black-and-white  animals 
made  a  lower  record  for  the  first  series  of  five,  a  higher  rate 
for  the  second  and  third  series,  a  lower  for  the  fourth  and  fifth, 
and  a  higher  for  the  sixth.'    As  has  been  shown  in  Part  II, 

'  UntraineJ  Unlraintd 

white  rat!,     hlack-ani-vibiu  ratt. 

I-  S "  "  ">'"■  S  Hniin. 

6-10 60  1. 16 

ins "  -Bi 

!6-2o 18  .14 

21-iS "^  -o* 

26-30 06  .08 

3'-3S -"S 

jft-40 .06 


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A  STVOr  OF  SENSOHr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  6$ 

rats  which  have  had  experimental  experience  are  much  more 
apt  in  learning  a  new  problem,  presumably,  largely  because  of 
less  timidity  during  the  experimentation.  The  black-and- 
white  rats  which  made  low  records  in  Problem  I  were  unusually 
tame  at  the  beginning  of  the  work,  which  probably  accounts 
for  their  more  rapid  success.  They  were  noticeably  superior 
on  Problems  II  and  III. 

It  must  be  admitted  after  the  consideration  of  the  above 
data,  that  the  evidence  regarding  the  comparative  functional 
value  of  vision  tn  rats  possessing  pigmented  and  those  which 
have  albino  eyes  is  not  decisive. 

b.     Effect  of  Loss  of  Vision. 

The  following  discussion  must,  in  the  nature  of  the  case, 
deal  with  the  effect  of  the  loss  of  vision  rather  than  with  its 
explicit  function  when  present  in  the  normal  animal.  The 
entire  series,  as  remarked  above,  afforded  no  opportunity  for 
determining  the  exclusive  function  of  vision.  The  change  in 
conditions  in  the  tests  on  Problems  II  and  III  illustrate  this 
point:  the  animals  did  not  seem  to  rely  upon  visual,  but  rather 
upon  toctual  and  kinesthetic  stimuli,  yet  the  blind  rats  were 
at  a  disadvantage  as  compared  with  the  normal  animals. 

The  least  apparent  difference  between  the  blind  and  the  nor- 
mal white  rats  is  in  Problem  I.  The  records  of  the  normal  rats, 
as  a  group,  are  better;  the  absolute  average  time  for  the  white 
group  is  lower  (see  p.  21),  although  the  difference  between 
these  averages  of  the  two  groups  is  less  than  the  individual 
variations  among  the  normal  rats.  The  average  of  the  abso- 
lute time  for  the  poorest  two  normal  males  and  two  females 
(Males  II,  III  and  Females  I  and  V,  averaging  .41  min.) 
compared  with  that  of  the  best  two  blind  males  and  two  females 
(Males  III,  IV  and  Females  III  and  V,  averaging  .27  min.) 
proves  this  statement  conclusively.  In  fact,  if  the  poorest  two 
records  of  the  nine  blind  rats  be  rejected,  the  average  for  the 
remaining  seven  animals  is  .33  min.,  which  compares  most 
favorably  with  the  group  average,  .34  min.,  of  the  normal  rats.' 

*  The  extrandy  hi^  records  of  the  two  blind  animals,  Malel  and  Female  1, 
are  responsible  for  the  higher  group  average  of  the  blind  rau. 


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66  FLORENCE  SICB^RDSON. 

As  regards  the  rate  of  learning,  the  normal  rats  were  superior 
(see  p.  2i).  The  first  two  successes  of  the  blind  rats  were 
accomplished  more  quickly  (see  Plate  I)  than  those  of  the 
normal,  though  from  the  fifth  trial  to  the  end  of  the  series 
the  curves  representing  the  normal  rats  is,  for  the  greater 
portion  of  its  length,  below  that  of  the  blind  animals. 

In  Problem  II  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  blind  rats 
formed  the  necessary  association  for  the  solution.  But  two 
animals,  Females  IV  and  V  (see  p.  42),  so  reduced  their  time- 
records  that  their  individual  curves  approach  the  contour  of  a 
learning  curve.  The  records,  averaged  in  groups  of  ten, 
show  that  there  is  not  a  sufficient  reduction  in  the  time-records 
to  warrant — on  the  basis  of  time  consumed — the  assumption 
that  these  rats  were  successful  in  this  problem.  The  behavior 
of  several  of  the  animals  at  the  end  of  the  series  warranted  the 
statement  that  no  definite  path  was  chosen  The  greater  varia- 
bility of  the  group  renders  its  average  absolute  time  useless 
as  a  basis  of  comparison.' 

A  comparison  of  the  graphs  showing  the  average  time-records 
of  the  various  groups  (see  Plate  II)  suggests  the  doubtful 
justification  of  considering  the  curve  of  the  blind  animals  as 
a  learning  curve  at  all.  It  must  be  recalled  here,  however, 
that  two  blind  rats  did  arrive  at  the  solution,  though  somewhat 
more  slowly  than  any  normal  rat. 

In  Problem  III,  likewise,  there  is  a  very  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  records  of  the  two  groups.  The  blind  rats  learned 
to  solve  the  problem,  though  the  absolute  time  is  higher  through- 
out the  series,  and  the  rate  of  learning  much  slower  (see  p.  59). 
The  individual  variations  as  to  time-records  is  not  nearly  so 
evident  here  as  among  these  individuals  on  Problem  II. 

The  differences  in  the  results  obtained  in  tests  with  blind 
animals,  and  with  those  which  possess  vision,  var}'  with  the 
nature  of  the  experiment  to  which  the  two  groups  are  sub- 
jected. Watson  found  that  vision  could  be  dispensed  with  in 
the  learning  of  the  maze  without  perceptible  loss  to  the  process. 
In  Problem  I  of  this  series  there  was  but   little   advantage 

'  Compare  the  average  record  of  Blind  Female  II  for  the  first  ten  trials  with 
that  of  any  other  normal  or  defective  rat. 


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A  STVDT  OF  SBNSORr  CONTROL  /A'  THE  RAT.  67 

accruing  to  the  normal  animals;  in  Problem  III  there  was 
considerable,  and  in  Problem  II  the  blind  animals  were  at  a 
decided  disadvantage.  In  the  face  of  these  facts  it  seems 
possible  that  the  loss  of  vision  is  disadvantageous  to  the  solution 
of  these  problems  in  proportion  as  the  problems  demand 
movement  which,  to  be  effective,  must  be  definitely  controlled 
as  to  the  exact  locality  in  which  it  is  to  be  put  forth.  In  the 
maze,  the  activity  of  the  animal  is  definitely  confined  by  the 
maze  itself;  namely,  narrow  alleys  which  the  rat  must  traverse. 
Problem  I  approximates  the  labyrinth  type  in  that  the  animal, 
during  the  solution  of  the  problem,  is  somewhat  restricted  in 
its  movements  by  the  nature  of  the  apparatus.  Problem  III 
demands  movements  performed  within  a  definite  area,  move- 
ments unrestricted  save  by  the  motor  tendencies  of  the  animal. 
Problem  II  demands  a  similarly  specialized  movement  with 
the  added  complication  that  the  area  in  which  the  movement 
must  be  performed  Is  at  a  distance  from  the  food  stimulus. 
Assuming  that  the  above  problems  represent,  in  the  order  I, 
III  and  II  a  series  of  increasing  specializations  of  adaptive 
reactions,  it  would  seem  that  the  loss  of  vision  becomes  more 
disadvantageous  throughout  the  series. 

The  above  tests  are  not  of  such  a  character  as  to  afford 
unequivocal  evidence  concerning  the  possible  function  of 
vision. 

The  eye  as  previously  stated  affords  impulses  to  the  motor 
center  which  are  presumably  tonic  In  character.  The  motor 
impulses  which  are  to  result  in  general  bodily  movement  are 
always  conditioned  by  the  sum  of  tendencies  operative  in  the 
motor  area.  If  the  tonic  condition  of  this  area  is  low,  as  might 
be  the  case  in  blind  animals,  it  might  well  happen  that  the 
requisite  association  would  be  slow  In  forming.  It  is  possible 
in  this  way  to  account  for  the  fact  that  although  in  their  behavior 
these  animals  gave  no  evidence  as  to  the  function  of  vision 
the  rats  that  through  blindness  may  have  had  an  Insufficient 
energy  surplus  of  the  kind  called  for  in  these  coordinations 
were  slow  in  learning  or  failed  to  learn  In  so  far  as  the  problems 
demanded  well  concatenated  activities. 


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68  FLORENCE  SICBASDSON. 

2.     Olfaction. 

The  group  of  anosmic  rats  made  a  higher  average  absolute 
time-record  for  Problem  I  (see  p.  21),  and  the  rate  of  learning 
was  comparatively  poor  for  the  group  as  a  whole.  Two  indi- 
viduals, Males  III  and  IV  made  records  that  were  lower — in 
series  of  ten  trials  each — than  the  average  of  the  normal 
group.*  The  average  time  for  the  first  ten  trials  is  particularly 
low  for  Males  II  and  III.'    The  individual  variation  is  high. 

On  Problem  II  the  time-records  of  the  one  anosmic  rat  are 
valueless  as  a  basis  of  comparison.  He  learned  the  problem, 
but  did  not  solve  it  as  the  other  animals  had  done   (see  p.  34). 

Problem  III  was  also  learned  in  an  eccentric  fashion,  which 
vitiated  the  time-records,  although  the  association  was  well- 
formed  and  at  the  rate  of  the  normal  rat  (see  p.  52). 

In  the  learning  of  the  above  problem  it  is  not  necessary  for 
the  rat  to  establish  and  follow  a  pathway  on  the  basis  of 
olfactory  impressions.  Such  impressions  may  accelerate  or  re- 
tard the  learning  process;  accelerate  when  the  odor  is  a  part  of 
the  stimulus  connected  with  the  problem  box,  e.  g.,  when  the 
stimulus  releases  movements  which  may  result  in  the  successful 
manipulation  of  the  apparatus,  such  as  clawing  or  hiring  at  a 
latch ;  otherwise  disadvantageous,  resulting  in  the  dispersal  of 
'attention,'  as  when  the  rat  spends  time  in  smeUing  the  control 
cage;  or,  as  in  Problem  II,  in  sniffing  at  the  food,  when  his  move- 
ments to  be  successful,  must  be  performed  elsewhere.  This  is 
the  probable  explanation  of  the  fact  that  the  time-records  of 
the  anosmic  rats  are  frequently  lower  than  the  corresponding 
records  of  normal  animals. 

5.     Touch. 

The  impulses  furnished  by  the  sense  of  touch  seem  to  play 
an  important  part  in  the  adapution  of  the  animal  to  these  sev- 

I  Eliminating  the  record  of  the  first  ten  trials  of  Male  II],  which  was  high 
because  of  a  veiy  long  time  consumed  in  his  first  success,  the  average  of  the 
group  for  the  trials  from  i-io,  .84  min.,  is  much  lower  than  that  of  the  noimal 
rats. 

'  Compare  these  records  with  that  of  the  blind  anosmic  rat,  given  on  p.  106. 


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A  STVOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  69 

eral  experimental  situations.  A  very  great  difficult  arises 
when  an  attempt  is  made  to  separate  the  functions  of  the 
tactual  from  that  of  the  kinaesthedc  and  organic.  The  tactual 
impulses  alone,  or  in  the  complex,  are  the  sdmuH  to  the  digging 
movements  in  Problem  I,  and  in  part  to  the  movements  of 
pressing  down  the  plane  in  Problem  II.  In  Problem  III, 
certain  familiar  tactual  impressions  are  evidently  the  srimuli 
to  the  discovery  of  the  latch  after  the  rat  has  arrived  at  the 
locali^  of  the  door.  Contact  seems  also  to  be  the  cue  to  move- 
ments which  result  in  raising  of  the  latch,  during  both  the 
learning  process  and  the  period  in  which  the  movements  are 
habitual. 

^.     Kinasthettc  and  Allied  Impressions. 

The  role  of  kinaestbetic  impulses  in  the  early  processes  of 
learning  probably  varies  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  degree  in 
which  the  movements  must  be  adapted  to  a  definite  locality. 
Later  in  the  process,  as  the  movement  becomes  more  or  less 
auu>matic,  the  kinesthetic  and  allied  impulses  seem  to  assume 
first  importance  as  the  means  of  control.  In  the  maze  such 
sensory  impressions  are  sufficient.  In  Problem  I  no  others  were 
indispensable  to  a  rapid  establishment  of  the  requisite  associa- 
tions. In  Problem  III,  it  was  evident  that  vision  could  be 
profitably  dispensed  with  in  proportion  as  the  reactions  became 
automatic.  In  Problem  II  these  impressions  resulting  from 
muscular  activity  were  not  only  essential  in  the  following  of 
the  pathway,  but  seemed  also  to  be  of  service  in  giving  the 
cue  for  the  excursion  to  the  door  of  the  food  box  after  the 
plane  had  been  successfully  lowered. 

F.      PROBLEM   IV. 

/.     Description  of  Apparatus  and  of  Method  of  Teaching  Rats 
to  Jump. 

The  three  foregoing  problems  have  been  solved — though 
with  varying  degrees  of  success  by  the  blind  rats — by  means 
of  an  evident  reliance  mainly  upon  kinesthetic  and  tactual 
stimuli.     The  necessity  remained  to  devise  a  problem  in  which 


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70  FLORENCE  hicbakdson. 

at  Brst  sight  it  would  seem  that  vision  must  be  the  only,  or  at 
least  the  esssential,  means  of  control. 

Dr.  Carr,  when  working  with  rats  on  the  maze,  used  one 
rat  which  jumped  from  his  hand  to  the  t^Ble,  although  the 
next  day  the  rat  jumped  in  the  direction  of  the  maze  but  struck 
the  floor.  Two  black-and-white  rats  which  worked  upon  Prob- 
lem I,  in  their  anxie^  to  get  food,  acquired  the  habit  of  jump- 
ing from  the  experimenter's  hand  into  the  open  door  of  the 
cage,  a  distance  often  of  six  or  eight  inches.  These  observa- 
tions suggested  the  construction  of  a  piece  of  apparatus  which 
would  necessitate  jumping  as  a  means  of  obtaining  food.  It 
would  seem  that  in  such  an  activity  vision  would  be  essential 
for  successful  coordination. 

It  is  conceivable,  however,  that  the  stimulus  which  leads 
the  animals  to  jump  from  one  platform  to  the  other  may  come 
through  one  or  more  of  three  pathways:  (i)  visual,  (2) 
olfactory,  (3)  tactual  and  kinesthetic.  Factors  i  and  2  alone 
would  be  adequate  to  control  the  direction  and  distance  of 
the  first  jump.  Factor  3  might  cause  jumping  to  occur,  but 
only  after  some  experience  of  consequence  would  it  serve  to 
control  the  distance  and  direction  of  the  leap.  Under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  experiments  here  considered,  it  was  possible  to 
eliminate  contact  as  a  means  of  sensory  control  by  keeping 
the  tactual  conditions  constant  throughout  all  the  experiments. 
The  attempt  to  eliminate  the  kinxsthedc  factor  was  made  by 
varying  irregularly  the  distance  between  the  two  platforms. 
Smell  was  eliminated  by  the  use  of  anosmic  animals,  by  keeping 
the  apparatus  clean,  and  by  control  experiments  upon  the 
normal  animals  in  which  no  food  was  given  until  after  the 
jump  had  been  taken.  It  was  thought  that  the  role  of  vision, 
the  remaining  factor,  could  be  determined  by  comparing  the 
behavior  of  the  normal  animals  with  that  of  the  blind.  In 
view  of  the  fact,  however,  that  the  normal  animals  were  so 
deficient  in  the  ability  to  control  their  movements  when  the 
distance  between  the  platforms  was  altered,  the  experiments 
are  not  decisive  as  regards  determining  the  nature  of  the  role 
which  vision  plays. 

The  factors  involved  in  this  coordination  are  so    delicate 


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A  sTuor  OF  sENsoar  control  in  the  rat.  71 

and  so  complex  that  the  time  allotted  to  it  was  not  sufficient 
to  answer  all  the  questions  which  arose.  Indeed,  theexperi- 
menter  feels  that  many  of  the  questions  which  are  here  tenta- 
tively answered  must  be  supported  by  a  much  larger  group 
of  facts  before  they  should  have  anything  like  scientific  assent. 


FIGURE  5.      SHOWING  THE  MODIFIED 


THE  AFFARATUS. 


The  first  apparatus  used  in  this  experiment  consisted  of  two 
2  inch  by  2  inch  wooden  uprights  20  inches  high,  each  sur- 
mounted by  a  5  inch  by  5  inch  platform  of  i  inch  board.  The 
uprights  were  attached  below  to  a  4  foot  length  of  2  inch  by 
2  inch  timber,  supported  by  wooden  legs.  One  of  the  uprights 
was  fixed,  the  other  movable.     The  distance  between  the  plat- 


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72  FLORENCE  uchaudson. 

forms'  might  be  varied  from  o  to  40  inches.  The  entire 
apparatus  was  painted  white. 

The  first  group  of  rats  consisted  of  four  normal  white  males. 
Their  exact  ages  were  unknown,  but  were  estimated  about 
180  days.  They  had  been  used  previously  for  three  weeks  in 
tests  upon  the  maze,  and  were  accustomed  to  being  handled. 
Since  time-records  were  not  sought  here,  but  information 
about  the  delicacy  of  functioning  of  such  visual-motor  adjust- 
ments as  would  be  required  in  jumping  coordinations,  the  age 
and  the  training  of  the  rats  were  not  matters  of  concern. 

These  animals  had  learned  to  jump  from  the  experimenter's 
hand  to  the  open  door  of  the  cage,  and  had  accomplished  these 
feats  at  varying  distances  up  to  12  inches.  When  they  were 
put  to  work  upon  the  apparatus,  they  had  acquired  the 
coordinations  for  short  distances.  These  coordinations  are  not 
common  to  rats  held  in  captivity.  They  do  make  short  leaps 
in  springing  to  and  from  the  wire  sides  of  their  cages,  but  any 
such  long  jumps  as  they  had  to  accomplish  in  these  tests  are 
entirely  foreign  to  their  usual  habits.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
the  difficulty  and  slowness  of  the  training  was  distressing  to 
the  experimenter,  though  in  several  instances  the  ease  with 
which  the  jumping  coordinations  were  acquired  was  surprising. 

Most  of  the  animals  were  emotionally  disturbed  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  experiments;  in  three  cases  a  fall  so  frightened 
the  animals  that  they  refused  for  a  time  to  react  in  later  tests. 

The  method  of  teaching  the  rats  to  jump  was  ordinarily 
laborious.  The  apparatus  was  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
floor  in  such  a  position  that  the  rats  were  forced  to  jump 
toward  the  east.  The  platforms  were  placed  at  a  distance  of 
four  inches  apart.  The  rats  were  coaxed  across  with  a  morsel 
of  food.  Platform  II  was  within  reach  of  the  animal's  nose 
and  the  step  across  was  usually  taken  without  hesitation. 
After  each  successful  effort  the  animal  was  allowed  to  eat  a 
trifling  amount  of  food.  When  the  rats  had  become  accus- 
tomed to  stepping  across,  the  distance  between  the  platforms 
was  gradually  Increased  one  inch  at  a  time.     Up  to  a  certain 

'  "Oie  platfonn  upon  which  the  food  was  placed  and  to  which  the  rat  jumps 
will  be  designated  as  Plaiform  II:  the  one /rom  which  it  jumps  as  Platfoim  I. 


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A  STVOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  73 

distance  the  rat  was  able  to  step  across  with  little  difficulty, 
and  contact  of  the  snout  or  vibrissae  with  Platform  II  seemed 
to  be  the  essential  stimulus  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

The  difficulties  began  when  the  distance  was  increased  undl 
Platform  II  was  out  of  the  reach  of  the  rat's  snout  or  vibrissae. 
Here  a  double  complication  arose:  (i)  The  old  contact  stim- 
ulus was  lacking;  and  (2)  there  was  the  necessity  for  making 
a  springing  movement,  in  which  at  one  instant,  all  four  feet 
are  without  support.  Several  rats  had  no  difficulty  at  this 
point;  some  had  great  difficulty;  but  eventually  they  learned 
to  make  the  muscular  adjustment  required  for  the  leap. 
Three  defective  rats — after  many  hours  of  coaxing — utterly 
failed  to  make  the  coordination.  The  following  notes  show 
in  detail  the  typical  behavior  of  a  normal  rat  while  learning 
to  jump. 


Diary  Nolet 


of  Normal  Whiit  Rat  III  (FemaU)  in  Uarmng  t 
Jump. 


INCHES 

IMALS 

1 1/30/07 

ted  on  platform.     Small,  frail,  but  active  rat. 

I2/./07 

4 

5 

All  good. 

S 

S 

All  good. 

6 

5 

All  good. 

12/2/07 

5 

5 

All  good. 

6 

S 

All  good. 

7 

5 

On  first  trial  she  scrambled  sli^tly;' other  trials 

good. 
First  trial,  struck  slightly  toward  north  side 

8 

5 

ofplatfoim,secondtrial,on  south  side  of  plat- 

form, other  trials  good. 

9 

5 

All  good. 

10 

5 

Scrambled  on  first  trial,  others  perfect. 

II 

5 

Scrambled  on  first  trial. 

12/3/07 

8 

Went  clear  over  platform. 

9 

5 

Perfect. 

5 

First  trial  a  slight  scramble,  others  perfect. 

" 

5 

Similar  behavior. 

'  The  phrase  'scrambled  slightly'  is  descriptive  of  those  trials  in  which  the 
rat  landed  with  the  hind  feet  off  the  upper  surface  and  against  the  side  of  the 
platform.  The  word  'scrambled'  indicates  that  the  rat  landed  with  the  forefeet, 
but  not  the  hind  feet  on  the  platform,  and  scrambled  on.  If  the  rat  could  not 
climb  on  easily,  the  result  was  noted  as  'short.' 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


INCHES 

TRIALS. 

12/4/07 

Perfect. 

Perfect. 
Perfect. 
Perfect. 

Pint  and  fourth  trials  scrambled,  three  perfect. 

Scrambled  on  second  trial,  othett  perfect. 

12/5/07 

Perfect. 

First  trial  landed  with  heels  on  edge,  but  struck 

squarely. 
First  and  second  trials,  scrambled  slightly. 

First  trial  short,  others  perfea. 

11/6/07 

Went  clear  over. 

Struck  squarely  but  with  great  force. 

Perfect. 

Perfect. 

Perfect. 

Krst  trial  scrambled,  others  perfect. 

20 

As  above. 

22 

6 

Second  trial,  landed  south  of  platfotm. 

Third  trial,  struck  north  of  platform.  In  these 
long  jumps  she  landed  with  such  force  that 
she  was  almost  breathless  for  several  seconds 
afterward. 

12/7/07 

16 

' 

Would  have  slid  off  east  side  platform  if  »peri- 
menter  had  not  caught  her. 

18 
20 

' 

Same  procedure  as  above. 
Again  the  same. 

Tliis  rat  was  not  tested  at  distances  greater  than  2z  inches. 
Rats  I  and  II,  which  were  lai^er  animals,  had  learned  to  make 
longer  jumps.  Their  records  for  trials  greater  than  this  dis- 
tance are  given  below. 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 
R«t  II. 


tNCHBS 

TRIALS 

8/10/07 

22 

,0 

First  and  sixth  trials,  a  little  short.  On  other 
trials  he  slid  across  platrorm'  and  nearly  went 
off. 

Pint, short;  third,  bunh  and  eighth  scrambled. 

8/JI/07 

M 

10 

(His  foot  was  sore.)  Second  trial  overshot; 

fourth,  to  nonh  side. 

8/11/07 

24 

10 

Fim,ihort;  second,  overshot;  third  and  fourth, 
to  north  side  of  platform;  eighth,  struck 
squarely,  buihad  too  much  momentum  and 
slid  off. 

26 

S 

First,  scrambled;  second,  slightly  long;  fifth 
short. 

28 

S 

Third,  shon;  fifth,  overshot.  (Foot  was  sore, 
discontinued  tests  for  the  present.} 

8/23/07 

21 

10 

Third  and  sixth  trials,  scrambled. 

10 

First,  short;  second,  scrambled;  third,  low. 

8/24/07 

26 

10 

Second  trial,  struck  north  side  of  platform; 
founh,  subtly  short  and  to  south;  ninth, 
overshot. 

2« 

10 

Second  trial,  slightly  long;  fourth,  scrambled; 
othen  perfect. 

30 

Second,  fourth  and  sixth  trials.  low;rai  had 
not  aiming  at  platform. 

The  notes  mention  several  characteristic  features  of  the 
learning  process:  Tlie  'scramble'  on  the  first  trials  for  length- 
ened distances;  the  over-innervation  for  shortened  distances; 
and  the  frequent  compensations  for  errors,  as  when  the  rat 
landed  on  the  south  side  of  the  platform  on  one  trial,  it 
struck  upon  the  north  side  on  the  next  trial.'  This  character- 
istic is  referred  to  in  the  discussion  of  a  later  test. 

'  The  experimenter  attempted  to  devise  some  means  whereby  an  ohjective 
measurement  of  the  rat's  coordination  could  be  taken.  If  the  records  could  have 
been  obtained  of  the  exact  point  at  which  the  fore  feet  first  came  in  contact  with 
the  plaform,  a  curve  could  be  plotted  showing  the  accuncy  of  the  adjustment. 
A  cloth,  marked  in  black  and  white  squares  i  cm.  in  size,  was  carefully  tacked 
over  the  top  of  Platform  11.    The  experimenter  endeavored  to  note  the  lines 


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76  FLORENCE  BICHAKDSON. 

2.     'Jumping  in  Constant  Direction,  t.  e.,  A pparattts  in  Easl- 
West  Position. 

I.     Statement  of  Results.  ^ 

a.    On  Normal  White  Rats. 

The  results  of  the  tests  on  the  four  normal  white  rats  has 
been  sufficiently  discussed  in  the  description  of  the  learning 
process  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs.  Each  rat  learned  to 
jump  the  distances  up  to  and  including  22  inches.  One  had 
jumped  28  inches  with  considerable  accuracy:  one  other  had 
made  eight  perfect  coordinations  out  of  a  possible  ten  at  this 
distance,  and  seven  out  of  a  possible  ten  at  30  inches. 

Three  other  rats  learned  to  jump.  One  of  them,  a  small 
male,  learned  to  jump  a  distance  of  22  inches  in  eleven  days, 
but  was  slow  for  several  days  thereafter.  A  second,  the  best 
of  the  entire  group  at  the  first  trials,  learned  in  two  days  to 
jump  15  inches,  then  began  to  hesitate  and  finally  refused  to 
take  such  long  distances.  A  third  rat  easily  attained  a  dis- 
tance of  12  inches,  after  five  days  training,  but  the  later  learning 
process  was  retarded  by  emotional  factors,  the  results  evidently 
of  a  fall  on  the  third  day  of  the  tests.  Eventually  after  five 
weeks  of  constant  training,  he  jumped  22  inches,  but  with  an 
average  of  only  50  per  cent  of  accurate  adjustments. 

h.    On  Normal  Black-and- White  Rats. 

Three  female  black-and-white  rats  were  employed  in  the 
experimentation.  Two  of  them  were  animals  which  had  been 
used  in  the  series  of  previous  problems.  Each  did  exceptionally 
well,  both  in  learning  to  jump,  and  in  the  accommodarion  to 
changed  conditions  of  the  experiment.  The  third  rat  was  the 
mother  of  the  above  two,  an  extraordinarily  energetic  animal, 
and  one  without  fear.  Her  records  on  this  problem — the  only 
one  she  attempted — are  little  short  of  phenomenal.  She  was 
placed  on  Platform  I  at  a  distance  of  five  inches  from  the  food 

upon  which  the  cat  ahghted,  but  the  movements  were  so  quick,  and  the  rat  ao 
i>ftai  itid  along  by  reason  of  his  momentum,  that  the  attf^npt  was  a  failure. 
The  use  of  smoke]  paper  was  likewise  out  of  the  question,  as  the  resulting 
imprint  was  only  a  large  erasure  of  the  lampblack. 


.yGoool^ 


J  STVDr  OF  sENsonr  control  in  the  rat. 


77 


platform.  She  stepped  across  at  once.  The  distance  was  in- 
creased to  6  inches  and  she  did  not  hesitate.  She  jumped 
sixty  times  within  an  hour  on  her  first  day  with  but  one  error; 
these  trials  included  five  at  14  inches.  Her  complete  record 
is  given  below. 

Blaek-anJ-Whiit  Rat  Number  III. 


INCHES. 

ntiALS. 

"/I+/07 

5 

5 

First  day.     Had  never  been  placed  upon  plat- 
form  before.    Stepped  across    immediately. 

6 

10 

All  trials  perfect;  jumped  across  at  once. 

7 

Perfect.    The  most  active  nit  we  ever  knew. 

8 

Perfect. 

9 

Struck  platform  squarely  every  trid  and  always 
jumped  immediately  when  she  was  returned 
to  Platform  i. 

10 

All  trials  perfect. 
All  trials  perfect. 

11 

AH  trials  perfect. 

'3 

All  trials  perfect. 

"* 

First  trial,  struck  left  side  platform,  all    others 
squarely.     Sixty  trials  first  dayl 

II/I5/07 

10 

Went  dear  over. 

12 

Struck  and  slid  off  east. 

10 

First  trial,  overshot;  second,  scrambled,  others 

perfect. 
Good;  last  trial,  struck  and  slid  off. 

II 

5 

12 

First  two,  a  little  shott,  others  perfect. 

13 

As  above.     (Not  so  active.    Muscular  soreness 
from  unusual  exenion  of  yesterday  f) 

II/I6/07 

12 

Three  perfect,  two  scrambled. 

1+ 

First  trial,  short  and  fell. 

•5 

First  and  second  trials,  a  little  short. 

I I/I 7/07 

All  good. 

14 

IS 

First  trial,  a  little  short;  second,  scrambled. 
Same  as  above. 

11/18/07 

'♦ 

Four  perfect. 

IS 

First  and  second  a  little  shon. 

16 

Good. 

17 

Perfect. 

tS 

First  trial  did  not  strike  exactly  in  center. 

19 

First  trial,  short  and  fell. 

20 

A  little  short  first  trial,  others  perfea. 

As  above. 

22 

All  perfect. 

II/I9/07 

18 

All  Rood. 

30 

Four  trials  perfect. 

« 

Perfect. 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 
Blatk-aad-Wbiu  Rat  I. 


INCHES 

™als. 

8/25/07 

8 

8 

Jumped  almost  at  once  but  scrambled;  second 
and  third  good;  fourth,  seventh  and  eighth, 
■ctamblcd;  all  others  good. 

8/27/07 

8 

6 

All  good. 

9 

5 

Second,  scrambled;  all  others  good. 

10 

10 

12 

10 

I* 

10 

First  and  tenth,  shoit  and  fell;  third  scrambled; 
others  good. 

8/28/07 

8 

2 

Jumped  entirety  over  both  trials. 

12 

10 

Second  and  eighth  scrambled ;  others  good. 

■4 

6 

First  and  third,  scrambled;  others  good. 

10 

Second  and  third,  scrambled;  others  good. 

18 

9 

Third,  fifth  and  sixth,  scrambled;  ninth. short 
andfcll;  others  good.  Was  breadiless  and 
seemed  tired. 

8/29/07 

12 

2 

Both  jumps  too  long,  wem  over  platform. 

16 

5 

First,  struck  on  north  of  platform  and  scram- 
bled; distance  good  but  direaion  faulty; 
third,  scrambled;  others  good. 

18 

10 

First,  too  far  north;  second,  third  and  sixth, 
scrambled  sUghtly;  ninth,  toward  north. 

20 

10 

Fifth,  scrambled  slightly;  others  good. 

8/30/07 

20 

10 

Sixth,  scrambled  slightly;  ninth,  short;  tenth, 

good. 
First  and  third,  short;  seventh  and  ninth  scram- 

22 

10 

bled. 

8/31/07 

20 

7 

Second,  scrambled;  fifth  and  seventh,  shon  and 

fell. 
First  and  third,  scrambled  slightly. 

9/  '/07 

18 

5 

20 

10 

First,  second,  seventh  and  ninth,  scrambled. 

22 

10 

Firs,  scrambled;  third,  fell  on  south. 

Blatk-anJ-fFhiu  Rat  II. 


Would  not  jump. 

Stepped  over  easily. 

Hopped  across. 

Hopped  across. 

First,  a  little  short;  third,  scrambled. 

First,  scrambled. 

On  seventh  trial,  fell  olf  platform  in  f 

to  jump.    All  other  trials  good. 
Short  and  fell.    Tired. 


■vGoogle 


A  STVOr  OF  SENSOSr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 


INCHES 

nUALS. 

8/28/07 

10 

0 

Would  not  attempt  it. 

6 

5 

Ftry  slow  lit  stoning.    All  trials  good. 

8 

5 

All  good. 

10 

S 

All  good. 

12 

5 

All  good. 

1+ 

4 

First,  scrambled;  others  good. 

8/29/07 

12 

0 

Would  not  attempt  it.    Waited  I5  min. 

10 

0 

Would  not  attempt  it.    Waited  15  min. 

8 

0 

Would  not  attempt  it.    Waited  15  min. 

5 

5 

Seems  much  afraid  and  needs  a  great  deal  of 
coaxing. 

7 

S 

Better;  all  trials  good. 

>4 

S 

Ail  good. 

16 

5 

All  good. 

18 

5 

All  good. 

20 

2 

All  good. 

8/30/07 

16 

10 

Very  slow.  Fim  trial,  scrambled;  tenth,  short 
and  rell. 

8/31/07 

16 

0 

Would  not  attempt  to  jump. 

>+ 

5 

Timid.     Fim,  too  long  and  fell;  others  good. 

16 

First,  scrambled;  fifth,  fell  oiT  the  south  side 
ofPIatfonnll. 

18 

5 

First,  second,  third  and  fifth  trials,  scrambled. 

Work  with  this  rat  was  here  suspended  during  an  alteration 
of  the  apparatus.  The  remainder  of  the  learning  process  was 
like  that  of  the  other  normal  rats  at  these  distances,  and  is 
not  quoted  further. 

c.    On  Blind  Rats. 

The  experimenter  attempted  to  train  four  blind  rats.  The 
animals  were  active,  and  one  of  them  had  had  experience  under 
experimental  conditions.  The  method  was  the  same  as  in  the 
tests  with  the  normal  rats,  though  the  procedure  was  muck 
slower. 

The  rats  were  fed  for  several  days  upon  Platform  II,  which 
was  east  of  and  2  inches  distant  from  Platform  I.  Tlie  animals 
were  always  placed  on  Platform  I,  facing  the  east,  and  after 
they  had  stepped  across  they  were  carefully  lifted  back  and 
set  down    facing   the   east,  upon    Platform    I.     The   normal 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


rats  acquired  their  own  orientation  relative  to  Platform  II; 
the  blind  animals  always  adjusted  themselves  for  the  jump 
in  the  position  in  which  they  had  been  set  down  upon  the  plat- 
form. With  these  blind  rats  it  was  necessary  to  make  the 
increase  by  shorter  gradations,  one-fourth  or  one-half  pf  an 
inch.  Two  of  the  rats  would  not  attempt  to  cross  a  space 
wider  than  they  could  reach  with  their  vibrissje.  The  notes 
on  the  behavior  of  one  of  these  is  given  below,  beginning  with 
the  distance  of  four  inches.'  The  notes  taken  on  less  distances 
contribute  nothing.  The  number  of  trials  is  not  always  given, 
as  they  had  not  been  counted  at  such  short  distances. 

Bl-rtd  Bhck-and-miU  Ral  on  ProbUn,  IF. 


TRIALS 

, 

IO/+/07 

4 

.0 

Stepped  across  to  food  platform,  always  from 
the  southeast  comer. 

4l 

Stepped  across  many  times. 

5 

As  above. 

5i 

10 

Was  obliged  to  spring  a  little;  always  from  the 

10/5/07 

5 

Would  not  try;  failure.  Was  obliged  to  lessen 
distance. 

4i 

4 

Stepped  across  three  times  after  much  coaxing 
by  holding  food  in  front  of  him. 

10/6/07 

' 

After  thirty  minutes  he  stepped  across  on  his 
own  initative from  thesouth-east.  Could  not 
be  coaxed  across.    Time,  forty-five  minutes. 

10/7/07 

♦i 

10 

Stepped  across  from  southeast  comer. 

s 

Failure.  Will  only  reach  or  spring  as  far  as 
vibrissas  can  touch. 

TTie  procedure  as  noted  above  was  repeated  for  several  days 
with  little  variation  and  no  satisfactory  results.^ 
A  blind  rat  which  also  had  had  previous  experience  was 


'  This  rat  had  successfully  solved  the  previous  problems. 

'  This  rat  would  not  allow  his  fore  feet  to  leave  the  platform  unless  his  vibrissa 
object.  When  the  platform  was  beyond  the  reach  of 
er  touched  their  tips  with  a  pencil,  whereupon  he  put 
T.  He  never  raised  his  hind  feet  unril  his  fore  feet 
he  could  always  be  induced  to  makean  attempt 
:.  A  deodorized  glass  rod  was  used  instead  of  the 
1  effect,  showing  that  it  was  contact  alone,  and  not 
to  make  the  effort. 


reported 

his  vibrissa  the  experime 
out  his  fore  feet  to  step  0 
had  a  tirm  footing,  bu 
by  stimulating  his  vibri) 
pencil  and  it  had  the  sa 
olfaction  that  tempted  hi 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  8 1 

labored  with  for  many  days,  with  not  so  good  results.*  He 
would  not  step  across  when  the  platform  was  within  reach  of 
his  nose.  He  was  a  slow  rat  at  best  and  achieved  no  credit 
for  himself  in  the  previous  experiments. 

Blind  Rats  III  and  IV  (white  untrained  females)  achieved 
signal  success  in  this  test.  Both  learned  eventually  to  jump 
distances  of  eleven  inches,  and  Rat  III  successfully  cleared 
fifteen  inches.  A  portion  of  the  notes  on  the  behavior  of  this 
rat  is  given  here  as  they  are  of  particular  interest. 


INCHES 

TRIALS 

II/I9/00 

B^an  the  experimentation  with  the  platfonns 
two  inches  apan.    Coaxed  her  across  with  a 
morsel  of  food.    She  used  vibrissa  to  locate 
the  platfonn.     Distance  gradually  lengthened 
to  four  inches.    This  was  the  daily  program 
for  ten  days. 

11/29/07 

+i 

10 

Stepped  across.    An  aaive  rat. 

5 

5 

Hopped  across.  (Had  never  been  able  to  get  a 
blind  rat  to  'hop'  before.) 

s» 

5 

Hopped  across.     Never  turns  around.     (When 
returning  blind  rats  to  Platfonn  I  ihey  were 
always  placed  with  head  toward  food  platform. 
They  rarely  altered  this  position.) 

6 

5 

11/30/07 

*i 

Would  not  hop  across;  obliged  10  reduce  distance 
to  four  inches  and  increased  one-half  inch  at 
a  time.    Would  not  cross  after  five  inches. 

I2/I/07 

4i 

Good. 

5 

5 

Stepped  across  at  five  inches.    Very  slow. 

5i 

5 

Hopped  after  stretching  across. 

6) 

5 

Sprang  across. 

71 

5 

Good. 

Si 

5 

First  trial,  heels  on  an^e,  others  perfect. 

9* 

5 

Same  procedure  as  above. 

10* 
111 

5 

First  trial,  scrambled  slightly. 

Getting  tired    and   slow.    Scrambled   in  twu 

trials  and  in  fourth  trial  did  not  aim  right; 

struck  wall  at  northeast;  fell  hard  but  ii  did 

not  frighten  her.     Commenced  eating  at  once 

when  placed  on  food  platform. 

'  This  rat  was  Male  I  whose  records  1 
n  the  average  of  the  groups. 


I  Problems  n  and  III  were  disr^arded 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


INCHES 

TRIALS. 

12/3/07 

5i 

Would  not  hop  across  and  could  not  step  across. 

5 

Would  not  step  across. 

* 

Stepped  across. 

5 

As  above. 

5* 

4 

Coaxed  across  first  trial.  Hopped  across  in 
other  trials. 

61 

2 

Went  entirely  over  and  strucL  wall. 

7i 

4 

Went  over  platform  and  fell  first  trial,  second, 
the  same,  third,  went  to  east  side,  and  just 
saved  herself  from  falling.  Founh  trial, 
perfea. 

81 

5 

All  perfect. 
(For  four  days  succeeding  above  there  was 
the    same    procedure    every    day.     At    the 
banning  of  each  daily  experiment,  experi- 
menter was  obliged  to  reduce  distance  to  four 
inches;  the  animals  seemed  to  carry  over 
nothing  of  advantage  from  one  day's  experi- 
ence to  the  next.     Each  day  learned  anew  to 

12/7/07 

7 

^ 

Loitered  about  for  a  long  time  then  jumped 
nearly  across  platform. 

9 

2 

First  trial,  perfea.    Second,  off  at  nonh. 

Perfea. 

13 

+ 

Firsttrial,  scrambled  up  overedge.    Second,fell. 

'S 

4 

Did  not  strike  the  platfotm  squarely. 
Scrambled  each  time  on  to  the  platform. 

12/8/07 

7 

10 

Jumped  over  platform  to  wall  of  canvass  con- 
trol cage.     Does  not  jump  to  platform  but 

jumps  aimlessly.    Eighth  and  ninth  trials, 

struck  wall  at  distance  of  twenty  seven  inches. 

I a/9/07 

Jumped  across  to  wall  six  times;  distance 
twenty  inches.  Changed  distance  of  plat- 
form but  would  not  jump  toward  it.  After 
dozens  of  trials  the  experimenter  gave  up  in 
despair. 

Rat  IV  had  learned  to  strike  the  ptatTorm  squarely  at  a 
distance  of  eleven  inches.  At  this  stage  of  her  training  she 
discovered  that  she  could  crawl  down  the  standard.  Sharp  ■ 
points  were  placed  about  the  edge  of  the  platform  to  prevent 
her  descent,  whereupwn  she  jumped  directly  to  the  floor  below. 
Further  experimentation  was  futile. 


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A  STUDY  OF  SENSOSr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  8j 

d.     On  Anosmic  Rats. 

To  determine  accurately  that  vision  and  not  olfaction  fur- 
nished the  sensory  control  of  the  adjustment,  two  anosmic  rats 
were  tested  upon  the  apparatus.* 

The  method  of  training  of  this  animal  was  the  same  as  that 
with  the  blind  rats — the  distance  being  increased  by  half  an 
inch  at  a  time.  The  following  are  extracts  from  the  notts 
taken  on  his  behavior: 

Anotmie  Rat  I  on  Protiem  If. 


INCHES 

13/3/07 

5 

Steps  across  many  rimes  but  awLward  and  afraid. 

" 

Has  to  be  coaxed  across;  slow  and  evidently  much 
disturbed  by  fear. 

-.i 

An  entire  failure  after  thirty  minutes  of  coaxing. 

12/13/07 

progress.  Wasstiff  with  fright  muchofthetimc  when 
urged  to  take  a  distance  greater  than  he  could  step 
across.  For  several  days  he  has  been  gnawing  fiercely 
at  the  sides  of  Platfonn  1  and  has  rounded  off  the 
edges  and  corners. 

Ia/14/07 

Failurel 

A  second  anosmic  rat  was  procured  for  the  test.  He  was 
hurried  through  the  series  with  a  fewer  number  of  trials  at 
each  distance  because  of  the  experimenter's  apprehension  con- 
cerning the  length  of  his  tenure  of  life.  He  was  in  excellent 
physical  condition  but  had  he  died  there  would  have  been  no 
possibility  of  procuring  another  anosmic  rat  in  time  for  the 
experiment.  On  the  first  day  he  succeeded  in  convincing  the 
experimenter  that  the  olfacK>Ty  stimulus  was  not  the  essential 
factor  in  the  jumping  reaction.  The  notes  quoted  below  give 
the  detaib  of  his  record. 


*The  fit^  animal  was  the  one  which  had  formed  the  associations  involved 
in  Problems  I,  II  and  III,  though  his  time  records  in  the  last  two  problems  were 
practically  of  no  value  becauseof  the  time  he  wasted  in  gnawing  the  apparatus. 


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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 
Anosmic  kat  11  on  PrtMm  IV. 


INCHES 

™,.L., 

n/6/07 

51 

Fira  time  upon  platfonn.      Stepped  across  tm- 

Jumped  readily  to  Platfonn  11. 

Perfect.     No  hesitation. 

First  trial,  »crambledi  othere  perfect. 

lU 

Exact  repetition  of  previous  trial. 

Same  as  above. 

'3 

Scrambled,  tired.    (All  of  the  above  trials  within 

"1/7/07 

Jumped  across. 

Perfect. 

II 

First  trial,  scrambled;  othen  perfect. 

13 

Third  trial,  scrambled  a  little. 

15 

First-  trial,  scrambled;  others  perfect. 

\%hi°i 

Did  not  jump  readily  at  first,  finally  coaxed 
across.    Struck  squarely. 

Perfect. 

II 

13 

Perfect. 

IS 

Shoit,  and  fell  twice;  afraid,  put  him  up. 

u/u/07 

6 

Would  not  jump  at  first. 

% 

Same  as  above. 

H 

First  and  second  trials,  sctambled;  other  trials 
perfect. 

'S 

As  above.     (!■  '^me  in  left  hind  1^.) 

ia/is/07 

16 

Slow.  Firsttrial,struclconsouthside.  Second, 
same  but  nearer  center. 

18 

First  and  third  trials,  scrambled  sli^tly. 

10 

Second   trial,  Struck    platform,   but    f^l   off. 

11 

Fourth  trial,  scrambled ;  sixth,  little  short  and  fell. 
Tired. 

The  behavior  of  this  rat  in  the  above  test  was  in  every  respect 
like  that  of  the  normal  animals.  He  had  had  previous  experi- 
ence on  Problem  I,  and  was  apparently  undisturbed  emotion- 
ally by  the  conditions  of  the  experiment.  He  learned  to  jump 
his  maximum  distance  in  a  shorter  time  than  did  any  other 
white  rat,  though  to  what  extent  his  facility  was  due  to  fear- 
lessness and  to  the  fact  that  the  experimenter  lost  no  time  in 
lengthening  his  distances  cannot  be  estimated. 


Digi-izcclbyGOO^l 


A 


A  STUOr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RJT.  85 

it.     Summary. 

1.  Five  normal  white  rats,  the  three  normal  black-and- 
white  rats,  and  one  anosmic  animal  were  able  to  learn  to 
jump  successfully  a  distance  of  at  least  22  inches.  Tliese 
adjustments  were  acquired  with  comparative  ease.  One  other 
normal  white  rat  learned  to  jump  as  long  a  distance  as  22 
inches  with  difficulty,  and  another  did  not  learn  to  jump 
more  than  15  inches.  No  normal  rat  failed  «>  learn  to  jump. 
Two  of  the  blind  rats  (III  and  IV)  achieved  success  in  this  test. 
Both  learned  to  jump  a  distance  of  1 1  inches.  One  (Rat  III) 
learned  to  jump  a  disunce  of  15  inches.  Here  the  coordina- 
tion broke  down  apparently  on  account  of  the  fact  that  a  large 
percentageof  her  jumps  were  inaccurate;  she  had  to  scramble 
onto  the  platform  much  of  the  time,  and  she  often  failed  utterly 
to  strike  it  and  consequently  fell.  Rat  IV  learned  to  jump 
a  distance  of  11  inches,  but  the  coordination  broke  down 
upon  her  discovery  diat  she  could  crawl  down  the  standard. 

2.  One  anosmic  and  two  bUnd  rats  were  utter  failures. 
Two  were  willing  tt>  step  across  to  the  second  platform,  but 
they  were  either  unable,  or  else  refused,  to  jump.  The  fail- 
ure of  the  anosmic  rat  was  probably  due  to  the  fright  occa- 
sioned by  the  unusualness  of  the  conditions  of  the  experi- 
ment and  not  to  any  lack  of  proper  sensory  control.  Under 
any  other  circumstances  he  ran  about  naturally  in  search  of 
food.  The  blind  animals  did  not  seem  to  be  emotionally 
disturbed,  and  hence  their  failure  was  probably  referable  to  a 
bck  of  adequate  stimulus. 

3.  Effect  of  Changing  Direction  in  which  Jump  Must  be 

Taken. 

In  order  to  determine  more  accurately  the  sensory  factors 
involved  in  the  coordinaton  it  was  decided  to  change  the 
position  of  the  apparatus  and  thereby  the  direction  in  which  the 
animal  has  to  jump.  It  would  seem  that  if  the  rats  can  accom- 
modate at  once  to  changes  in  the  direction  of  Platform  II,  some 
distance  receptor  must  be  operative.  Such  a  test  might  also 
show  the  possible  presence  of  some  'directional'  factor  which 


DigilizcdbyGOdgle 


86  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

is  not  visual  in  character.  Three  white  rats  had  been  trained 
to  jump  distances  gradually  increasing  from  6  to  30  inches. 
These  longer  distances,  as  has  been  noted,  were  too  great  to 
permit  of  accurate  adjustment  on  the  part  of  the  rat,  and  they 
demanded  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  energy.  Accordingly, 
a  record  of  80  per  cent  of  perfect  coordinations  at  22  inches 
was  chosen  as  a  standard  of  efficiency  to  be  attained  before 
the  animals  should  be  tested  with  the  apparatus  turned  in 
another  direcdon.  Three  white  rats  had  reached  this  d^ree 
of  capability. 

Tlie  apparatus  was  then  so  adjusted  that  the  rat  must  jump 
22  inches  to  the  south  for  food.  To  the  surprise  of  the  observ- 
ers, two  of  the  rats  continued  to  jump  toward  the  east  for 
twenty  successive  trials  each.  The  third  rat  jumped  twice 
toward  the  south,  though  he  did  not  jump  far  enough  to  land 
on  the  platform;  at  the  third  trial  he  settled  down  comfortably 
on  the  starting  platform  and  refused  to  jump. 

Acting  on  the  possibility  that  the  two  rats  were  jumping 
toward  their  cages — which  were  to  the  east — or  reacting  to 
other  features  in  the  environment  of  a  visual  or  olfactory 
character,  the  conditions  of  the  experiment  were  radically 
changed. 

A  cabinet  4  feet  by  4  feet,  by  6  feet  was  built.  The  frame- 
work was  of  2  by  4  inch  timber,  the  sides  and  top  of  white 
canvas.  The  cabinet  was  illuminated  by  a  32  c.p.  electric 
light  fastened  to  the  center  of  the  top  of  the  cabinet.  The 
visual  and  olfactory  conditions  of  the  environment  were  thus 
rendered  subject  to  control.  At  this  time  the  apparatus  itself 
was  improved.  The  connecting  rod  was  made  of  i  inch  pipe, 
clamped  in  iron  end  supports.  Tlie  uprights  supporting  the 
platforms  were  of  )  inch  steel,  clamped  at  right  angles  to  the 
base.  One  of  the  uprights  consisted  of  two  "18  inch  steel  bars 
clamped  together  so  that  the  height  of  platform  it  bore 
might  be  varied  from  18  to  30  inches.  The  apparatus  in  this 
form  was  much  more  easily  adjusted  to  horizontal  changes  in 
distance.  It  also  possessed  the  added  advantage  of  offering 
any  possible  adjustment  in  height. 

While  working  with  the  wooden  platform  the  feet  of  the 


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A  STVOr  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  87 

animal  became  sore.  In  making  such  leaps  as  are  necessary 
in  these  tests — covering  sometimes  a  distance  of  24  inches — 
the  rat  lands  heavily  upon  the  forefeet.  This  might  have  been 
the  cause  of  the  soreness.  The  platforms  were  later  covered 
with  cork  matting,  and  this  in  turn  with  soft  leather.  The 
whole  was  then  painted  light  gray.  Though  the  paint  added 
somewhat  to  the  resistance  of  the  surface  the  rats  had  little 
difficulty  thereafter  with  soreness  of  the  feet. 

After  the  cabinet  had  been  constructed,  the  rats  which  had 
learned  to  jump  on  the  old  apparatus  were  tested  in  the  new 
one.  There  had  been  an  interval  of  three  weeks  since  their 
last  trials  and  several  days'  training  was  necessary  to  bring 
them  up  to  their  former  standard  of  accomplishment.  White 
training  the  rats  the  experimenter  remained  within  the  cabinet 
to  catch  them  when  they  fell  and  to  feed  them  immediately 
after  they  reached  the  platform.  After  the  habit  had  been 
reestablished  and  it  was  desired  to  test  the  animal  with  the 
apparatus  in  a  new  position,  the  rat  was  observed  from  without 
through  a  slit  in  the  canvas.  The  position  of  the  observer 
outside  the  cage  was  also  changed  in  every  test,  in  order  that 
the  rat  might  not  associate  the  sound  of  the  experimenter's 
movements  with  the  direction  in  which  the  jump  must  be 
taken. 

The  possibility  of  an  olfactory  stimulus  was  here  minimized 
by  allowing  no  food  in  the  cabinet.  The  rat  was  fed  from  the 
experimenter's  hand  after  the  jump,  and  Platform  II  was 
kept  clean,  and  newly  covered,  top  and  sides,  with  black-and- 
white  checkered  cloth — to  add  greater  character  to  the  visual 
stimulus. 

Each  day  before  the  apparatus  was  turned  the  rat  was  given 
five  or  more  tests  in  jumping  toward  the  east  which  during 
the  previous  training  had  been  the  constant  direcrion.  If 
80  per  cent  of  the  trials  were  perfect,  the  cabinet  and  appa- 
ratus were  rotated.  This  change  necessitated  jumping  to  the 
south,  the  north,  or  the  west,  as  the,  alteration  might  demand, 
in  order  to  reach  Platform  II.  Care  was  taken  to  place  the 
rat  on  Platform  I  in  different  p>ositions  during  the  various 
trials,  so  that  the  initial  position  would  be  no  cue  to  the  essen- 
tial orientation. 


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88  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON, 

i.     Statement  of  Results, 
a.     On  Normal  White  Rats. 

The  records  of  the  normal  white  rats  in  this  test  are  given 
below. 

WbiU  Female  I. 


POSITION  OF 

PLATFORM  11. 

12/9/07 

Ean  22  in. 

Ten  trials,  80  per  cent  perfect. 

South. 

Perfect. 

West. 

Refused  to  jump. 

Noith. 

Refused  to  jump. 

West. 

Jumped  south. 

East. 

Refused  to  jump. 

12/10/07 

East. 

Eight  trials,  all  good. 

Nonh. 

Went  enrirdjF  over  platfonn  to  nordi,  and  struck 
canvas. 

West. 

Refused  to  jump. 

South. 

Fell  off  platform  in  preparing  to  jump  toward 
south,  and  was  frightened.  No  other  tests 
today. 

I 2/1 1/07 

East. 

Five  trials,  perfea. 

West. 

Perfect. 

South. 

Jumped  east. 

Nonh. 

Perf«t. 

West. 

Jumped  south. 

12/12/07 

North.' 

Jumped  east. 

We«. 

Jumped  south. 

U/13/07 

South. 

Jumped  east. 

12/14/07 

South. 

Jumped  east. 

North. 

Slow  and  confused.    Will  not  jump. 

ll/lS/07 
12/16/07 

West. 
East. 

Same  as  above. 

'  Platfonn  11  was  not  placed  at  the  cast  for  the  first  trial,  as  the  animal 
exhibited  a  tendency  to  jump  east  habitually,  and  it  was  feared  that  this  position 
might  unduly  emphasize  the  tendency. 


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a  STVor  OF  sensort  control  in  the  rat.  89 

H'hiU  Male  II. 


POSITION  or 

PLATTORM  II- 

12/6/07 

Ea«24in. 

Ten  trials,  80  per  cent  perfect. 

South,  22  in. 

One  trial,  immediate  and  perfect  accommoda- 

W«,  24  in. 

One  trial,  perfect,  jumped  at  once. 

Nonh,  24  m. 

Direction  perfect,  but  jumped  too  short. 

Ean,  24  in. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

Apparatus  turned  but  not  cabinet. 

Noith,  24  in. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

Nonh,  24  in. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

East,  24  in. 

One  trial,  went  sli^tly  to   rig^t  of  platform, 
grazing  the  side. 

West,  24  in. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

la/7/07 

East,  24  in. 

Tentrials,  and  but  30  per  cent  perfect.  Jumped 
down    toward    bottom    of  apparatus.     EKd 
not  try  to  jump  to  platform. 

Wbiu  Male  III. 


Five  trials,scnunbled  slightly  each  time.  Animal 

is  ill  and  weak. 
Ofie  trial,  right  direction  but  short. 
One  trial,  same  as  above.     Did  not  work  again 

and  died  soon  after. 


Two  of  the  three  rats  jumped  to  the  platform  in  the  new 
position  at  every  test  on  the  first  trial.  The  third  rat,  Female 
I,  jumped  to  the  platform  which  was  toward  the  south  on  the 
first  trial,  but  on  the  second,  third,  and  fifth  trials  she  refused 
to  jump.  On  the  fourth  she  jumped  south  again  when  she 
should  have  jumped  east.  On  the  first  trial  for  the  second  day 
widi  platform  north  she  jumped  to  it  at  once,  then  refused  to 
jump  the  next  time.  On  the  first  trial  on  the  third  day  the 
adjustments  were  perfect,  though  on  two  of  the  later  trials 
she  jumped  in  the  wrong  direction.  On  the  fourth,  fifth  and 
sixth  days  she  made  no  perfect  coordinations,  either  jumping 
n>  the  east,  with  one  exception,  or  refusing  to  jump  at  all. 
The  tests  had  to  be  discontinued  because  of  her  disinclination 
to  leave  Platform  I.     She  would  jump  toward  the  east  with 


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90  FLORENCE  BlCHdRDSON. 

the  platform  in  that  direction  but  not  otherwise.  In  the  case 
of  Rat  II,  also,  there  was  a  tendency  for  the  coordination  to 
break  down  under  the  changed  conditions,  as  this  rat  took  to 
jumping  toward  the  base  of  the  opposite  standard,  and  could 
not  thereafter  be  induced  to  jump  to  the  platform.  This  series 
was  necessarily  abbreviated  on  that  account. 

b.     On  Normal  Blact-and-White  Rats. 

Three  black-and-white  rats  were  given  the  same  test.  They 
had  attained  the  necessary  standard  of  efficiency,  i.  e.,  80 
per  cent  of  perfect  coordinations  at  22  inches.  The  following 
are  from  the  notes  taken  on  this  series. 


Black-and-Wbilf  Female  I. 


POSITION  OF 

rLATTOHM  II. 

10/19/07 

East,  22  in. 

Five  trials;  100  per  cent  perfect. 

South. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

W«t. 

Jumped    southeast    five   time*    in    succession 
apparently  at  a  shadow  caused  by  the  joining 
of  thecanvas  strips. 

10/30/07 

Ea«. 

Six  trials,  80  per  cent  perfeCT.    Shows  tendency 
to  jump  toward  northeast. 

South. 

Two   trials,   first,   slightly   to   east   of  south. 
Second,  perfea. 

West. 

Two  trials,  first;  slightly  to  south  of  west ;  second 
perfect. 

South. 

One  (rial,  jumped  to  wall  on  south. 

Ban. 

Two  trials,  first,  jumped  to  south;  second  to  east. 

Wett. 

Two  trials,  first,  southwest;  second,  perfea. 

North. 

Refused  to  jump. 

I 1/1/07 

Eatt. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

North. 

Jumped  northeast  to  canvas. 
Same  relative  direction. 

West. 

Jumped  southeast. 
Jumped  northeast  to  canvas. 

North. 

Il/s/07 

South. 

repeatedly  hut  not  to  platfonn.    Testsdiscon- 

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A  STVDY  OF  SESSORr  CONTROL  tN  THE  RAT. 
Blaek-anJ-lfbiU  FtmaU  II. 


POSITION  or 

FLATToml  II. 

1 1/30/07 

East. 

Five  trials,  60  per  cent  perfect,  others  good. 

South. 

One  trial,  perfea. 

Nonh. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

South. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

>o/3>/o7 

E»t. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

South. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

Wat. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

North. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

West. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

North. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

"1/1/07 

East. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

West. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

South. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

North. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

TtniNBDAPPARA-niS  BUT  NOT  CABINET. 

I 1/2/07 

South. 

One  trial,  (Jireaion  perfea  but  distance  shon. 

West. 

One  trial,  rat  confused.     Put  back. 

' 1/3/07 

East. 

One  trial,  direction  correct,  distance  short. 

North. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

West. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

South. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

Blaek-ani-Wbiu  Female  III. 


II/I9/07 

East,  23  in. 

Ten  trials,  80  per  cent  perfect. 

South. 

One  trial,  good. 

West. 

One  trial,  good. 

Nonh. 

One  trial,  good. 

East. 

Eight  trials,  75  per  cent  perfect. 

North. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

South. 

One  trial,  perfect. 

West. 

One  trial,  jumped  to  floor. 

11/21/07 

Very  active  rat;  gets  innervation  before  muscu- 
dom  leaps. 

11/24/07 

Will  jump  only  to  floor.  Tried  several  de\ice8 
to  prevent  this,  but  none  successful.  Series 
discontinued. 

The  black-and-white  rats,  like  the  white  ones,  reached  a 
point  in  the  tests  where  the  accommodation  to  the  distance  and 
the  direction  broke  down  completely,  though  it  did  not  break 


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92  FLORENCE  KICHJKDSON. 

down  SO  soon.  These  rats  had  not  been  at  work  at  the  test 
as  long  as  the  white  animals  which  had  been  trained  upon  the 
old  apparatus  and  retrained  upon  the  new. 

c.    On  Anosmic  Rat. 

The  anosmic  rat  had  just  reached  the  necessary  maximum 
of  22  inches  before  the  test  with  apparatus  rotated  could  be 
made.  He  had  been  given  two  trials  with  the  apparatus  changed. 
Through  some  mishap  on  the  part  of  the  laboratory  attendant 
the  rat  gained  his  liberty,  and  was  not  seen  thereafter.  His 
records  for  the  two  trials  follow: 


R, 

,GrJ  „l  Ammi, 

Ra:  P 

milion  of  Apparatus   Fariable. 

POSITION  OF 
PLATFORM  11. 

T,U.S 

"A5/"7 

South. 

7 

1 

Founh  trial,  scrambled ;  sixth,  shon  and 

fell.     Seems  tired. 
Slow,  but  accurate. 
Good.    Very  slow. 

1.  Four  of  thejsix  rats  were  able  to  direct  their  jumps 
equally  well,  regardless  of  the  direction  in  which  the  jump 
must  be  taken.  The  other  two  animals  were  able  to  accom- 
plish this  in  about  50  per  cent  of  their  trials. 

2.  These  two  other  rats  were  by  no  means  failures  on  the 
problem.  One  of  them.  White  Female  I,  jumped  to  Platform 
n  which  was  south  at  the  first  trial.  She  had  always  previ- 
ously jumped  to  the  east.  After  this  trial  she  often  refused 
to  make  the  effort.  Of  the  twelve  trials  in  which  she  made  an 
effort,  she  was  five  times  successful  in  the  direction  of  her 
jump,  and  failed  seven  times.  Of  these  seven  failures,  four 
were  jumps  to  the  east  and  three  to  the  south. 

The  remaining  rat,  Blaclc-and-White  Female  I,  did  not 
attempt  to  jump  toward  Platform  H  when  it  was  turned  to 
the  south,  but  jumped  five  times  in  succession  to  a  point  in 


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A  STVOr  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  93 

the  wall  of  the  cabinet  where  one  width  of  canvas  overlapped 
another,  and  wriggled  through,  emerging  on  the  outside  of 
the  cabinet.  On  the  following  day  she  jumped  in  the  direction 
of  Platfoim  II,  five  trials,  though  she  did  not  always  strilce  it 
squarely  on  the  first  trial,  then  missed  by  jumping  south  when 
she  should  have  jumped  east.  Soon  after  she  failed  to  make 
any  attempt  to  jump  to  Platform  II,  but  jumped  to  the  walls 
instead. 

^     Effect  of  Altering  Distances  Between  Platforms, 
a.     Effect  of  Altering  Horizontal  Distance. 

During  the  training  period  it  became  evident  that  the  rats 
were  unable  to  accommodate  with  any  degree  of  ease  to  a 
distance  which  was  shorter  than  the  one  for  which  they  had 
established  a  habit.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  rats  had 
to  start  any  given  day's  work  with  a  jump  which  was  slightly 
shorter  than  the  maximum  jump  which  they  had  been  able 
to  attain  the  day  before.  Under  such  conditions  the  animals 
would  often  over-innervate  for  the  first  few  trials  and  jump 
entirely  over  Platform  II. 

A  series  of  tests  was  undertaken  to  determine  (i)  the  num- 
ber of  trials  necessary  for  and  (2)  the  sensory  factors  involved 
in  a  readjustment  to  shortened  distances.  The  experiments 
are  not  so  numerous  as  had  been  planned  by  reason  of  the 
fact  that  the  coordination  had  broken  down  in  many  of  the 
animals.  The  preceding  section  shows  that  changing  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  jump  must  be  taken  tended  to  disintegrate 
the  coordination  with  all  the  animals  but  one.  If  this  had 
been  predictable,  the  present  experiments  would  have  preceded 
those  of  the  last  section. 

The  tests  here  reported  upon  were  made  in  the  cabinet 
under  conditions  closely  similar  to  those  reported  in  the  last 
section.  The  food,  however,  consisting  of  sunflower  seed,  was 
placed  in  a  small  receptacle  which  hung  from  the  far  edge  of 
Platform  11.  It  afforded  no  visual  and  probably  little  olfac- 
tory stimulation. 


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94  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

Before  decreasing  the  distance  between  the  platforms  the 
now  thoroughly  experienced  animals  were  allowed  to  establish 
a  habit  for  the  distance  of  twenty-two  inches.  The  distance 
was  then  shortened  and  the  effort  of  the  animal  to  accommodate 
to  it  was  recorded.  The  notes  below  show  the  changes  made 
and  the  essential  features  of  the  animal's  behavior. 

t.     Statement  of  Results. 

a.  On  Normal  White  and  on  Normal  Black-and-White  Rats. 
The  results  on  the  white  and  on  the  black-and-white  rats 
are  given  together,  since  the  numbers  are  too  small  to  justify 
a  separation.  Only  three  animals  could  be  used  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  test.  The  notes  on  the  behavior  of  Female  III 
are  given  below. 

^bite  FtmoU  III. 


INCHES. 

TRIAL.. 

11/31/07 

11 

First  and  second,  to  left  of  center  of  platform; 
third,  founh  and  fifth,  good. 

I/I/08 

16 

First, long,  went  over  platform;  second, struck 
but  slid  off  far  edge;  third  and  fourth,  good; 
fifth,  perfect,  struck  squarely. 

8 

First,  entirely  over  and  struck  opposite  wall  of 
cabinet;i:econd,third  and  fourth,  shoner  but 
entirely  over;  fifth,  like  first;  siicth,  seventh 
and  ughth,  entirely  over. 

1/1/08 

22 

First  short,  about  one-half  of  distance  to  plat- 
fonn ;  other  four  trials  Rood. 

8 

First,  second,  third  and  fourth,  long;  fifth, 
struck  platform  in  passing  but  slid  off. 

1/3/08 

11 

First  trial,  short;  second,  landed  on  the  right 
side  of  the  platform;  fourth,  scrambled ;  fifth, 
good. 

16 

First,  struck  platform  in  passing  over;  second, 
struck  S(]uardy;third  and  fourth,  scrambled; 
fifth,  good. 

8 

Went  entirety  over  at  first  trial  and  refused  to 
jump  again. 

■/4/08 

" 

° 

Failure — refused  to  jump. 

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A  STVDT  OF  SBNSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  95 

WhiU  MaU  I. 


INCHES. 

TRIALS 

8/2+/07 

11 

4 

All  perfect. 

11 

10 

Fim  trial,  second  and  third,  entirely  over; 
founh,  his  hind  feet  and  tail  grazed  plat- 
form as  he  went  over;  fifth  and  sixth,  over, 
but  shorter  and  struck  platfonn  with  his  tail; 
seventh  and eighth.grazed,  platform  widi  all 
fours  as  he  went  over;  ninth,  struck  plat- 
form on  far  sideand  slipped  off;  tenth,  landed 
on  further  side  of  platform  but  stayed  on. 

8/15/07 

11 

° 

Rat  refused  to  jump;  was  evidently  not  well. 
The  animal  had  a  sore  foot  and  the  tests  were 

discontinued.     It  died  soon  after. 

BIack-and-^^'hite  Female  III  was  experimented  with  and 
her  records  follow. 

Black-ani-lfhiU  FemaJe  III. 


INCHES. 

THIAL8. 

10/14/07 

11 

5 

Fim  trial,  scrambled;  other  four  trials  per- 
fect. 

16 

5 

Jumped  entirely  over  platform  at  every  trial. 

10/15/07 

11 

0 

Refused  to  jump. 

16 

0 

Refuged  to  jump. 

8 

11 

Went  over  platform  at  every  trial;  seemed 
to  be  jumping  about  11  inches. 

1 1/4/07 

21 

5 

All  good. 

8 

All  much  too  long. 

16 

10 

First  trial,  shorter  than  11  inches  but  entirely 
over  platfonn;  second,  shorter  than  first; 
third,  feet  grazed  plane  as  she  went  over; 
fourth,  same;  fifth,  struck  but  slid  off; 
sixth,  good;  seventh  and  eighth,  like  fifth; 
ninth  and  tenth,  good. 

b.     Effect  of  Altering  both  Horizontal  and  Vertical  Distances. 

Up  to  this  time  the  platforms  had  been  at  the  same  height, 
so  that  the  main  direction  of  the  necessary  jump  was  horizontal. 
The  apparatus  was  now  adjusted  so  that  Platform  II  was  6 
inches  higher  than,  and  at  a  distance  of  i6  inches  from  Plat- 
form II.     Several  rats  were  tested  under  this  condition,  but 


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96  FLOREffCE  RICHARDSON. 

the  upward  spring  seemed  almost  impossible  of  acquisition 
and  no  rat  was  successful.  The  attempt  to  jump  upward  was 
unmistakably  made,  with  the  result  that  the  animal  sometimes 
struck  with  considerable  force  against  the  standard  or  the  under 
side  of  the  platform,  or  else  landed  on  the  wall  opposite  or 
upon  the  floor.  No  long  continued  effort  was  made  to  train 
the  few  remaining  jumpers  lest  the  repeated  errors  should  ren- 
der them  unfit  for  further  experimentation. 

The  apparatus  was  then  re-adjusted  so  that  Platform  II  was 
10  inches  below  the  level  of  and  16  inches  distant  horizontally 
from  Platform  I. 

I.     Statement  of  Results, 
a.     On  Normal  White,  and  on  Normal  Black-and-White  Rats. 

The  notes  on  the  behavior  of  the  two  remaining  animals 
follow. 

»'hiu  F*m<Ae  III. 


INCHES. 

TRIALS. 

1/6/08 

Tl 

•> 

All  good. 

f  16  Horizontal 
\ioVenicat 

s 

Was  slow  in  preparing  to  jump;  seemed 

ready  to  spring  several  times  before 

she  finally  essayed  it.     Lool:ed  down- 

ward toward    the   platforni.       First, 

landed  on  left  margin  of  platfonn; 

second,  third,  fouith  and  fifth,  good. 

1/7/08 

/16H. 

\.oV. 

5 

Same  slow  and  elaborate  preparations 

asyesterday.     First  and  second, per- 

fect; third, scrambled  sli^tly;  fourth 

and  fifth,  perfect. 

f  8H. 
\ioV. 

5 

Slow  in  starting.     Jumped  downward 

but  considerably  over  the  platform. 

Did  not  seem  at  any  trial  to  shorten 

her  jumps  from  those  of  yesterday. 

All  trials  a  failure. 

i/«/o8 

8H. 
loV. 

S 

Behavior  as  before,  only  slower.     No 

1/9/08 

8H. 

2 

After  long  intervals  she  jumped  twice 

\ioV. 

discouraged  she  settled  down  for  an 

hour  and  refused  to  make  any  efforts. 

1/10/08 

f8H. 
\ioV. 

0 

Would  make  no  effort. 

Di,ilizcdb,GOOglf 


A  STUOr  OF  SENSOXr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  97 

Black-and-Wbilt  Female  II. 


INCHES. 

TRIALS. 

■/5/07 

11  H. 

5 

All  trials  perfect. 

liiH. 
l,oV. 

5 

Jumped    down    and    struct    plaifom 

(quarefy.but  angle  was  so  great  that 

she  slipped  offjsecond.struck squarely 

and  slid  but  did  not  fall  ofFj  third. 

founb  and  fifth,  perfect  and  with  less 

Totce. 

(16H. 
lioV. 

10 

First,  entirdy  over;  second,  struck  plat- 

form with  hind  legs  and  tail  as  she 

passed;   third,  shorter  but  still  over; 

fourth,  fifth  and  sixth,  landed  but  slid 

off  by  reason  of  momentum;  seventh. 

eighth, ninth  and  tenth, struck  squardy 

on  platform  and  did  not  slide. 

1/6/07 

)  16  H. 

6 

First,  struck  platform  with  hind  feet  only; 

';  10  V. 

others  good. 

/  8H. 
\ioV. 

10 

First  and  second,  over;  third,  over  but 

struck    in    passing;    fourth,  shorter; 

other  six  trials  entirely  over. 

■/7/"7 

1  8H. 

20 

1/8/07 

18    H. 

l.oV. 

8 

As  yesterday;  all  trials  nere  failures. 

The  platform  was  then  moved  out  to  the 

point  which  would  intersect  her  leap. 

The  distance  proved  to  be  15  inches. 

(.5H. 

6 

First,  struck  platform  with  tail;  second, 

1,0  V. 

struck  platform  on  right  side  and  fell 
ofi^;  third,  struck  on  right  side    but 
stayed  on;  fouith,  jump  a  little  long 
but  stayed  on  platform;  fifth,  struck 
it  and  fell  off;  sixth,  good. 

it.     Summary. 

I.  No  rat  was  able  tx>  make  the  adjustment  when  the  dis- 
tance was  changed  from  22  inches  to  8  inches  in  a  rea- 
sonable number  of  trials.  One  rat  failed  after  seventy 
trials.  All  animals  were  able  to  adjust  without  great  Ji^culty 
CO  the  change  from  22  to  16  inches  apparently  by  means  of  a 
trial  and  error  method.  An  average  of  about  one  trial  was 
necessary  in  order  to  effect  this  readjustment.     \\'hen  the  dis- 


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98  FLORENCE  RICHJRDSO.\. 

tance  was  shortened  the  animals  always  jumped  too  far  on  the 
first  trials. 

2.  In  the  few  cases  where  the  distance  was  suddenly 
lengthened  the  jump  was  usually  too  short  on  the  first  trials. 
It  was  impossible  to  compare  the  ease  of  the  readjustment  to 
the  lengthened  distances,  with  that  for  the  shortened  distances, 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  animals  were  taught  to  jump 
long  distances  by  gradually  increasing  the  distance  between 
the  platforms.  The  adjustment  to  an  increased  distance  was 
thus  more  habitual  than  that  to  a  shortened  distance. 

3.  The  animals  were  able  to  adjust  successfully  at  once  for 
the  lowered  position  at  16  inches.  They  could  adjust  for  a 
lowered  and  shortened  distance  more  easily  than  for  merely 
the  shortened  distance.  They  could  not>  however,  adjust  to 
the  lowered  and  shortened  position  at  8  inches.  It  was  evident 
that  they  were  making  the  effort  but  they  invariably  jumped 
out  too  far. 

5.     CONCLUSIONS. 

The  purpose  of  the  foregoing  tests  was  to  estimate  the 
importance  of  vision  in  the  coordination  required  in  jumping. 
Three  aspects  of  the  coordination  as  a  whole  were  considered : 
a  Learning  to  jump  a  given  distance  when  the  direction  of 
the  jump  was  constant;  b  the  effect,  after  the  jump  under 
constant  conditions  had  become  automatized,  of  changing  the 
distance  of  the  jump,  the  direction  remaining  constant  as 
before;  and  c  the  effect  of  changing  the  distance  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  jump  in  either  the  horizontal  or  vertical  planes,  or 
in  both.  The  data  gathered  from  the  various  experiments 
seem  to  justify  the  following  general  conclusions,  stated  in  the 
order  of  the  problems  as  indicated  above. 

a.     Learning  to  Jump — Direction  Constant. 

The  results  indicate  that  the  loss  of  vision  in  some  way 
interferes  with  learning  to  jump  long  distances  and  greatly 
decreases  the  ease  and  rapidity  in  the  acquisition  of  the  coor- 
dination for  short  distances.     In  the  case  of  the  two  blind 


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.*  STUDr  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  99 

individuals  which  failed,  it  seemed  that  some  element  was 
lacking  which  was  essential  to  the  initiation  of  the  act.  The 
fact  that  two  blind  rats  learned  to  jump  even  the  shorter  dis- 
tances, and  that  the  normal  animals  had  to  accommodate  by 
a  trial  and  error  method  to  sudden  increases  and  decreases  in 
the  distance  between  platforms,  indicates  that  up  to  a  certain 
point,  other  than  visual  factors  are  concerned  in  these  adaptations 
to  a  distant  stimulus.  The  blind  animals,  unUke  the  normal 
animals,  did  not  move  about  when  placed  facing  the  east  on 
Platform  I:  they  were  given  their  orientation  and  retained  it. 
The  normal  animals  moved  about  on  the  platform  so  continu- 
ously that  the  experimenter  made  no  effort  to  put  them  down 
in  a  relatively  constant  position.  The  fact  that  their  orientation 
was  given  to  the  blind  rats  was  probably  the  reason  of  their 
success.  An  attempt  was  to  have  been  made  to  test  this  factor 
by  changing  the  initial  position,  but  the  coordination  disin- 
tegrated before  the  test  could  be  made.  Certainly  the  experi- 
ments on  the  process  of  learning  to  jump  are  not  decisive  in 
indicating  what  role  vision  plays  in  this  coordination. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  tactual,  kiniesthetic  and  olfactory 
senses  are  able  to  mediate  accurate  adjustments  to  short  dis- 
tances even  in  the  absence  of  visual  impulses.  The  separate 
role  played  by  each  of  these  senses  in  the  case  of  the  blind 
animals  has  not  been  determined.  Judging  from  the  tests 
upon  the  anosmic  animals  it  would  appear  that  olfactory  stimuli 
can  be  dispensed  with  both  during  the  acquisition  of  the  habit 
and  at  all  later  times.  Touch,  as  a  partially  controlling  factor, 
does,  however,  enter  into  the  early  adjustments  of  the  blind 
animals,  since  they  will  more  readily  form  the  habit  of  jumping 
if  the  snout  or  vibrissa  are  stimulated  by  the  platform  to  which 
the  animal  has  to  jump.  This  latter  statement  applies  in  some 
degree  at  least  even  to  the  animals  possessing  vision.  Once 
the  habit  is  formed,  however,  the  initial  tactual  impulses  can 
be  dispensed  with. 

In  regard  to  the  function  of  kinesthetic  impulses  in  the  case 
of  the  blind  animals,  it  seems  safe  to  affirm  that  they  soon 
come  to  usurp  whatever  function  tactual  impulses  from  the 
snout  and  vibnssx  exert  in  the  learning  process.     TTiey  soon 


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lOO  FLORENCE  RICHAIIDSON. 

become  the  only  indispensable  means  of  control  in  the  blind 
animal  for  such  short  jumps  as  they  were  able  to  accomplish.' 

b.     Effect  of  Lengthening  or  Shortening  the  Jump,  Direction 
Constant. 

From  the  experiments  on  p.  93  it  follows  that  the  change 
in  visual  impulses  conditioned  by  lengthening  or  shortening 
the  distance  between  the  platforms  is  not  adequate  to  effect 
the  change  in  innervation  necessary  for  a  successful  coordina- 
tion. Lengthening  or  shortening  the  distance  between  the 
platforms  may  bring  about  a  change  in  accommodation  and 
in  convergence  (kinesthetic  factors)  and  certainly  occasions  a 
change  in  the  intensity  of  the  visual  impulses  and  the  size  of 
the  area  of  the  retinal  elements  which  receive  the  stimulation 
(change  in  visual  impulse  proper).  In  the  case  of  these  types 
of  animals,  monkey,  cat,  etc.,  where  adjustments  under  similar 
conditions  are  accurate,  the  above  noted  changes  in  the  sen- 
sory complex  in  all  probability  are  sufficient  to  bring  about  the 
proper  modification  in  the  motor  discharge.  In  the  case  of 
the  rat,  however,  these  delicate  changes  in  sensory  stimulation 
are  inadequate  to  modify  the  habitual  motorresponse.  The  rat 
apparently,  in  order  to  accommodate  to  the  changes  in  distance, 
must  make  trial  movements,  that  is,  must  establish  a  habit  of 
jumping  a  given  distance.  Any  change  in  the  distance  calls 
for  learning  factors  similar  to  those  already  discussed  on  p. 
72.  It  is  evident  that  by  means  of  these  trial  jumps  the  animal 
is  bringing  into  play  the  large  muscles  of  the  body  (as  contrasted 
with  the  eye  muscles  and  the  ciliaiy  muscle)  and  is  thereby 
gaining  a  control  over  the  motor  area  which  it  is  perhaps  impos' 
sihle  to  obtain  by  the  visual  changes  and  the  changes  involved 
in  accommodation  and  tn  convergence.  These  facts  in  them- 
selves are  suggestive  of  the  relatively  secondary  importance  of 
vision  in  the  life  of  this  animal. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  attempt  to  eUminate  the  function  of 
kinjesthetic  impulses  by  irregularly  changing  the  distance  has 

'The  tenn  kinaesthetic  as  here  employed  necessarily  includes  whatever 
impulses  come  rrom  the  skin  of  the  feet.  These  impulses  ate  presumably 
fused  with  those  from  the  muscles. 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSOXr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  101 

not  been  successful  in  isolating  the  role  of  vision,  by  reason  of 
the  fact  that  when  the  distance  is  altered  the  habit  breaks 
down  and  readjustment  must  take  place.  Had  the  animals 
been  able  to  accommodate  to  the  changed  conditions  without 
trial  movements,  the  conclusion  that  the  visual  complex  (visual 
impulse,  accommodation  and  convergence)  was  the  essential 
sensory  factor  involved  in  this  coordination  would  be  justified. 
But  since  trial  movements  are  necessary,  the  problem  remains 
as  to  whether  kinxsthedc  impulses  alone  are  responsible  for  it. 

c.     Effect  of  Changing  Direction  of  Jump. 

The  experiments  summarized  on  p.  92  and  p.  98  were  much 
more  successful  in  giving  evidence  of  the  function  of  a  distance 
receptor.  Since  the  possibility  of  the  use  of  olfaction  as  a 
sensory  control  had  been  practically  eliminated  by  previous 
exfteriment  by  precautionary  methods  above  described,  and 
since  audition  could  not  have  furnished  such  guidance,  it  is 
evident  that  vision  or  some  other  undetermined  receptor,  func- 
tioned here  in  such  a  way  as  successfully  to  control  the  adjust- 
ment to  a  distant  stimulus.  Assuming  for  argument  that 
vision  is  the  effective  source  of  control,  it  may  be  maintained 
that  the  visual  impulse  seems  to  afford  evidence  concerning 
the  direction  of  the  stimulus  but  is  apparently  not  alone  capable 
of  controlling  the  amount  of  innervation  necessary  to  make 
the  requisite  adjustments.  In  other  words,  visual  impulses  in 
such  a  form  as  may  be  designated  white  light  vision  are  opera- 
tive' and  afford  a  basis  for  controlling  the  direction  of  the 
adjustments,  but  do  not  operate  so  as  to  furnish  informadon 
concerning  the  third  dimension. 

Four  rats  of  the  six  were  able  to  adjust  accurately  and  imme- 
diately to  any  direction  of  Platform  II,  (p.  92).  A  fifth 
was  successful  in  five  out  of  twelve  trials  including  the  first. 
The  sixth  rat,  (when  she  was  not  jumping  through  a  slit  in 
the  canvas  before  the  cabinet  was  lined  with  other  material) 
made  the  adjustment  correctly  in  five  trials  out  of  six. 

'Wataon  (^Animal  EJucetioa,  p.  85)  remarks  "other  diings  being  equal, 
rao  ihow  a  decided  preference  for  welt-li^ied  rather  than  dark  places." 


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101  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

In  the  experiment  in  which  both  the  distance  and  direction 
were  changed,  the  two  rats  tested  made  the  successful  coordi- 
nation. In  this  test,  it  will  be  recalled,  the  rat  was  obliged  to 
jump  downward  and  outward  to  reach  Platform  II,  a  hori- 
zontal distance  of  i6  inches  from,  and  a  vertical  distance  of 
lo  inches  below  Platform  I.  The  downward  jump  had  not 
hitherto  been  required  in  the  experiment,  and  the  animals 
accommodated  themselves  to  the  change  immediately.  Pos- 
sibly this  immediate  accommodation  was  due  to  the  fact  that 
Platform  II,  being  lO  inches  below  the  level  of  Platform  I, 
afforded  a  visual  stimulus  area  about  four  times  larger  than 
when  in  the  horizontal  plane  of  Platform  I.  The  stimulus  was 
thereby  much  more  effective.  This  fact  of  instant  adjustment 
to  >a  directional  change,  and  a  trial  and  error  method  of  adjust- 
ment to  a  merely  distance  change,  is  the  basis  for  the  assumption 
that  vision  (or  some  other  unknown  distance  receptor)  affords 
information  as  to  the  direction  but  notastothedistance,  of  the 
stimulus.  The  observation  that  while  the  animals  could  jump 
downward  to  Platform  II  at  i6  inches  distant  horizontally 
from  the  support  of  Platform  I  and  lo  inches  below  it,  but 
not  at  8  inches  horizontal  distance  [and  lo  inches  below]  con- 
firms an  earlier  statement  that  vision  is  in  many  instances 
overruled  by  the  habitual  innervation  tendency. 

The  possibility  of  a  directional  factor  seems  to  receive  some 
confirmation  in  the  results  of  the  test.  Of  the  eight  cases  of 
miscoordination  (not  due  to  jumping  toward  the  canvas) 
four  were  jumps  toward  the  east,  the  direction  in  which  the 
jump  was  learned,  and  four  were  toward  the  south,  the  direction 
of  the  first  jump  after  the  change.  What  the  nature  of  such  a 
factor  may  be  the  present  test  made  no  attempt  to  investigate. 
Whether  it  was  this  factor  which  led  to  the  breakdown  of  the 
coordination  in  the  case  of  every  rat  but  one  is  a  question  which 
only  further  experimentation  can  solve. 


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PART  SECOND 


A.      EFFECT   OF   TRAINING   UPON   THE   RATS. 

/.     Experimental  Results. 

I.     Comparison  of  Records  of  Trained  and  of  Untrained  Rats. 

a.     Normal  White  Rats  on  Problem  I. 

While  training  two  female  white  rats  upon  Problem  I  for 

a  purpose  other  than  that  of  these  tests,  it  was  found  that  their 

time-records  were  lower  than  normal.     They  had  previously 

learned  the  Hampton  Court  maze.     Thinking  that  this  lower 

time  record  might  be  the  result  of  tuition,  the  records  of  these 

rats  were  preserved  in  order  that  they  might  be  compared  with 

those  of  normal  untrained  animals  upon  the  same  problem. 

In  Table  XII  is  given  the  averages  of  the  trained  and  of  the 

untrained  groups;  and  on  Plate  V  is  shown  the  averages  of 

both  groups. 

Table  XII. 
Sbtwittg  (l)  ibe  average  time-recorJ  of  8  untrained  normal  vibile  rati,  (l)  ibe 
aoerage  time^ecori  of  tmo  trained  normal  wbiu  ratt,  and  (3)  ibe  time-recordt 


„f„,r.i.,JUi 

J  anojmic  rat  upon 

PniUml. 

NO.  OF  TRIALS. 

I. 

2. 

3- 

J 

7. 04 

Ts? 

■S5 

Z 

1.69 

-23 

.18 

3 

.*« 

09 

■30 

4 

.80 

« 

.12 

5 

■35 

.10 

.07 

6 

■30 

■05 

.11 

7 

■25 

■09 

8 

'3 

.06 

9 

-27 

OS 

30 

10 

.18 

.12 

It 

.16 

■"S 

■05 

12 

■■3 

-"4 

.08 

DiBiiizcdbjGoogle 


FLORENCE  KICHARDSON. 

Table  XII. — Continueci. 


KO.  or   THIALS.          I 

2 

3- 

'3 

'S 

05 

17 

'4 

09 

OS 

OS 

15 

II 

OS 

22 

14 

14 

•7 

■8 

08 

12 

tS 

'3 

04 

07 

19 

19 

06 

22 

10 

09 

04 

OS 

21 

17 

06 

22 

u 

06 

05 

■   23 

II 

07 

10 

24 

33 

37 

II 

25 

14 

07 

05 

26 

10 

27 

08 

'5 

04 

28 

11 

06 

OS 

29 

'5 

10 

04 

30 

07 

09 

08 

31 

07 

06 

06 

32 

06 

05 

OS 

33 

12 

07 

06 

34 

'7 

05 

07 

35 

09 

IS 

07 

36 

'9 

05 

12 

37 

'4 

04 

07 

38 

09 

05 

10 

39 

09 

05 

10 

40 

09 

03 

07 

41 

2+ 

0+ 

08 

41 

IS 

06 

09 

43 

OS 

06 

44 

II 

21 

14 

45 

10 

04 

05 

46 

06 

04 

05 

47 

06 

OS 

07 

48 

06 

06 

49 

06 

OS 

05 

SO 

23 

04 

07 

The  comparison  shows  that  the  averages  of  these  trained 
normal  animals  are  far  below  those  of  the  untrained  normal 
white  rats.  The  average  of  their  records  is — in  themain — 
below  the  minimal  time-records  of  the  normal  untrained  group. 


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A  STVDT  OF  SENSORT  CONTKOL  IN  THE  RAT. 


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■o6 


FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


The  average  of  the  lowest  two  records  of  the  normal  group  is 
considerably  above  that  of  the  average  of  these  two  experienced 
rats.  No  conclusions  are  justifiable  upon  the  results  of  this 
comparison,  since  the  two  animals  might  have  been  extreme 
variations.  The  records  are,  therefore,  tentatively  put  forth 
in  connection  with  those  of  other  trained  and  untrained  groups. 
The  records  of  these  two  trained  females  averaged  by  tens 
in  a  series  are  given  below.  They  may  be  compared  with  other 
records  of  the  same  kind  on  p.  2i. 

Th  Averagf  Time-RecoTdi  of  tbtlwo  Ftmaltt  {or  Enliri  Serin. 


19 

Averagi  Time-Rei 


Female  II 


.,,  ,j  T„ 


l-IO.  . 

11-20  . 

21-30.. 


■  /.    Ftm<iii   11. 
!  .71 


Female  I  made  a  total  of  five  errors,  and  Female  II  a  total 
of  six  errors  in  the  series. 

b.  Blind  Anosmic  Rat  on  Problem  I. 
The  time-records  of  the  blind  anosmic  rat  upon  this  problem 
are  given  in  Table  XII.  He  had  been  trained  in  the  maze 
during  a  long  series  of  tests.  This  rat  was  undoubtedly  a  very 
robust  animal.  His  records  on  Problem  I  are  much  below 
those  of  the  untrained  normal  rats,  the  blind  rats,  or  the  anos- 
mic rats  with  vision.  He  became  very  active  when  put  into 
the  control  cage  and  attacked  the  problem  at  once. 

The  Aviragi  Timt-Record  for  Entire  Series  (50  Trials). 
Blind  Anosmic  Rat 10  mm- 

Average  Timr-Rrcordi  by  Groups  of  Ten. 


\l-ixt  . 
21-30. . 


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A  STVDT  OF  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  107 

This  record  may  be  compared  with  those  of  the  other  rats 
which  are  given  in  the  section  on  Problem  1  (p.  21). 

Each  of  the  two  curves,  representing  the  averages  of  rats 
which  had  had  previous  training,  are  lower  than  any  one  of 
those  representing  the  averages  of  untrained  white  rats.' 

c.     Normal  White  Rats  on  Problem  III. 

Four  untrained  normal  white  rats  were  set  to  work  upon 
the  problem.  Three  of  the  animals  were  males  about  150 
days  of  age,  and  one  female  128  days  of  age.  The  method  of 
conducting  the  experiment  was  the  same  as  in  the  earlier  test. 
The  rats  were  tame  and  in  good  physical  condition. 

Their  method  of  solving  the  problem  was  the  same  as  that 
of  the  trained  animals,  except  that  the  untrained  rats  con- 
sumed much  more  time  in  achieving  their  hrst  successes.  The 
minimal  time  record  for  the  first  trial  was  more  than  29  min- 
utes. The  rats  were  energetic  and  industrious,  but  they 
spent  a  great  deal  of  time  examining  the  control  cage,  though, 
like  the  trained  animals  they  had  been  fed  for  three  days  in 
the  cage  to  accustom  them  to  the  environment.  Their  average 
was  not  reduced  to  one  minute  until  the  fifth  trial.  The 
averages  of  the  trained  rats  on  the  other  hand  did  not  go  above 
one  minute  after  the  first  trial.  The  averages  of  the  untrained 
rats  were  reduced  to. 10  min.  at  the  twenty-first  trial  though  they 
were  higher  thereafter;  while  the  averages  of  the  trained  animals 
dropped  below  .10  min.  on  the  seventh  trial  and  were  later 
no  higher. 

Table  XlII  and  Plate  VI  show  the  averages  of  these  trained 
and  untrained  animals. 

The  curves  show  very  plainly  the  great  difference  in  time- 
records  of  the  early  successes  and  also  show  the  fact  that 
even  from  the  thirty-fifth  to  the  fortieth  trial  the  records  of 
the  untrained  rats  were  not  so  low  nor  so  uniform  as  those  of 
the  trained  rats  from  the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth  trial. 

'  In  view  of  a  possible  difference  in  the  function  of  vision  between  white  rati 
and  those  having  pigmented  eyes,  it  is  no  more  than  fair  to  limit  the  comparison 
here  to  record)  of  albino  rats. 


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I08  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

Table  XIII. 

Showing  the  average  lime-recordi  of  traituJ  and  of  untrained  normal  whiu  rati 
onProbtemlll.  The  first  column  of  averagei  represenlstbt  group  of  leven 
trained  rats;  the  lecond,  the  third,  and  the  fourth  columns,  the  average,  the 
m,  and  the  maximum  time-records  of  the  untrained  rats. 


NO.  OF  T1UAL. 

AVERAGE.       AVEI 

lAGE.      MINI 

-UM.      «AX„ 

™. 

-i.n.           mi 

».        m« 

I 

5-72       40 

14         29 

IS       54 

38 

2 

■32        5 

97          2 

76       13 

'7 

3 

■33 

80          1 

28        II 

17 

4 

■7        7 

77 

61        13 

«7 

5 

.29 

92 

45        1 

17 

6 

.22 

91 

SS        ' 

'5 

7 

.09 

99 

IS        2 

55 

8 

.09 

37 

07 

98 

9 

.06 

43 

11 

75 

10 

.06 

28 

20 

43 

II 

.07 

24 

12 

37 

■2 

-05 

«3 

08 

=S 

'3 

.05 

22 

07 

35 

1+ 

.05 

23 

14 

30 

•5 

■OS 

23 

'3 

35 

i6 

'S 

10 

=5 

17 

10 

45 

18 

19 

12 

27 

'9 

08 

43 

20 

II 

05 

18 

09 

03 

21 

22 

08 

03 

18 

13 

08 

03 

'7 

2+ 

10 

03 

18 

2S 

17 

58 

26 

08 

03 

27 

07 

04 

10 

28 

06 

03 

10 

29 

06 

03 

■5 

30 

04 

03 

»5 

</.     Normal  Black-and- White  Rats  on  Problem  III. 

Table  XIV  and  Plate  VII  show  the  averages  of  the  trained 
and  untrained  groups  of  black-and-white  rats  on  this  problem. 

The  difference  in  the  two  curves  is  rather  startling  and  calls 
for  some  descriptive  comment. 


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A  aruor  of  sensort  control  in  the  r4t. 


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y 

4~  "" 

:::3::  : 

ir^ 

'  '  '  I'll  1 1  1 1  4-I4-L4- -4- 

J 1   '  1   M   L 

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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 


Table  XIV. 

Showing  the  aueragt  timfrecorJt  of  traineJ  and  of  untraintd  normal  ifaci-anJ- 
vAiU  rail  on  Problem  HI.  The  firit  column  gives  the  avtraget  of  the  trained 
amimaii;  the  second,  tbetbird,  and  tbe  fourtb,  give  respectively  the  averaget, 
t,  and  the  maximum  time-rrcorJi  of  tbe  untrained  animals. 


HO.  or    ^^g^ 

TMAl. 

.c.    .v.. 

CE.       HIMU 

*"**■    MAxr 

«,«. 

I 

99       7 

09           I 

61'       n 

% 

3 

49       4 

97        3 

41        6 

42 

3 

12        I 

23 

T                   > 

70 

4 

29        2 

76 

32        4 

2S 

S 

09        9 

15 

40       25 

78 

6 

II 

76 

43        1 

33 

7 

07        2 

4+ 

63 

8 

04 

67 

4> 

87 

9 

08        I 

35       ■ 

00         t 

95 

lo 

06 

57 

18         I 

28 

II 

14 

21 

II 

28 

12 

04 

23 

18 

28 

'3 

OS 

80 

07         I 

42 

14 

07 

■5 

07 

27 

"S 

04 

18 

■3 

22 

i6 

07 

ZI 

'3 

32 

'2 

04 

11 

08 

17 

i8 

04 

10 

03 

17 

'9 

06 

•4 

09 

22 

20 

08 

>4 

05 

28 

21 

09 

08 

"7 

08 

22 

OS 

07 

04 

18 

23 

04 

lo 

05 

10 

M 

04 

08 

°5 

07 

25 

04 

05 

04 

09 

26 

04 

"7 

OS 

08 

27 

03 

09 

07 

28 

05 

10 

»5 

■5 

29 

08 

07. 

10 

30 

06 

"5 

07 

31 

04 

03 

07 

3* 

06 

04 

08 

33 

05 

04 

d6 

34 

04 

03 

08 

35 

07 

04 

36 

05 

04 

06 

37 

»5 

07 

06 

38 

i>7 

06 

06 

39 

05 

04 

05 

40 

06 

OS 

07 

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A  STUOr  OF  SBNSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  KAT. 


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112  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

T^e  untrained  animals  were  tame  but  naturally  not  so  tame 
as  the  trained  rats  when  they  began  on  this  problem.'  Two 
of  them  were  frightened  by  the  opening  of  the  door:  one  rat 
was  particularly  careful  not  to  approach  the  door  from  the 
front,  but  came  up  to  it  cautiously  from  the  left  so  as  not  to 
be  too  near  wiien  the  door  should  fly  back.  The  rats  did  not 
locate  the  position  of  the  door  at  once  as  the  trained  animals 
had  done.  This  is  doubtless  one  cause  of  the  very  high  aver- 
ages up  to  the  tenth  trial,  the  other  apparent  cause  being  the 
avoidance  of  the  door. 

e.     Blind  Rats  on  Problem  III. 

The  experimenter  desired  K)  complete  the  comparisons  with 
a  discussion  of  differences  as  shown  in  the  records  of  the  be- 
havior of  experienced  and  inexperienced  blind  rats  on  Problem 
III.  When  the  records  were  assembled  it  was  found  that  the 
individual  and  accidental  variations  were  so  high  among  the 
defective  animals  that  the  averages  of  so  smalt  a  group  would 
be  valueless  in  a  comparison.  Table  XV  shows  the  time  records 
for  each  individual. 

At  the  time  of  the  experiment,  but  three  inexperienced  blind 
rats  were  available.  Of  these  one  made  exceedingly  poor 
time  records  for  the  first  ten  trials  of  the  series,  and  his  generally 
poor  records  throughout  were  a  marked  variadon.  Another 
animal  made  uniformly  poor  records  as  compared  with  the 
experienced  blind  rats,  while  the  third  rat  was  by  far  the  most 
active  of  the  twelve  bHnd  rats  that  were  experimented  upon. 
His  records  represent  a  marked  variation  in  the  other  extreme. 
Consequently,  an  average  of  the  records  of  these  three  animals 
would  be  valueless  as  a  basis  for  comparison  with  any  other 
group. 


'The  untrained  animals  were  all  of  one  liner,  were  no  days  old,  and  were 
of  the  same  parentage  as  the  litter  of  trained  rats.  The  mother  of  the  rats  was 
the  most  active  and  energetic  animal  that  had  been  tested  in  any  of  the  ctpcii- 


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A  STUOr  OF  SBNSORr  CONTROL  IN  TBE  RJT. 
Table  XV. 
Sbaun»g  tbt  iMJiviJmal  litae-rtcordt  of  tbrte 


•i  blind  Tall  OB  Probltm  Hi. 


NO.    OP    TRIAL. 


HALBI. 


FEMALE  I. 


I 


.     1 

77 

6 

32          6 

47 

2              1 

45 

■5 

72          > 

30 

3 

28 

35 

65 

4 

28 

I 

87 

28 

5 

18 

4 

■7          3 

50 

6 

30 

s 

'3          > 

03 

7 

12 

6 

37 

S3 

8 

■5 

S 

S3 

97 

9         10 

15 

73 

80 

lo 

18 

18 

55 

65 

II 

12 

«5 

98 

90 

12 

'3 

12 

42 

41 

'3 

12 

I 

08          1 

45 

•« 

'3 

45          I 

33 

■S 

12 

20          3 

50 

■6 

08 

to 

98 

10 

■7 

I 

87          I 

95 

il 

27          ■ 

'7 

■9 

I 

"5          2 

28 

ao 

I 

57          ■ 

92 

21 

25          ' 

S8 

22 

28 

88 

»3 

I 

60 

78 

H 

I 

02 

05 

'S 

27          ' 

32 

26 

I 

56 

95 

«7 

'7          ' 

87 

2l 

20          I 

28 

»9 

37 

75 

3» 

I 

38 

68 

3' 

57          ■ 

II 

3» 

»7 

S3 

33 

93 

43 

34 

32 

60 

35 

'7 

75 

36 

22 

37 

37 

38 

08 

39 

45 

40 

.1%               1 

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114  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON. 

2.     Summary  of  Facts  Brought  Out  tn  Foregoing  Experiments. 

The  comparison  of  the  time-records  and  of  the  learning 
curves  of  each  group  of  untrained  rats  with  a  group  corre- 
sponding in  age,  variety  (albino,  or  black-and-white),  and 
condition  (normal  or  defective)  show  that  in  every  instance — 
with  the  possible  exception  of  the  case  of  the  blind  rats  which 
cannot  be  cited  as  either  confirmatory  or  contradictory — the 
trained  animals  made  uniformly  better  records  than  the  corre- 
sponding groups  of  untrained  rats.* 

II.      CONCLUSIONS. 

In  view  of  the  differences  exhibited  between  the  curves  of 
the  several  groups  of  trained  and  untrained  animals,  it  seems 
advisable  to  analyze  the  experience  acquired  in  the  solution  of 
the  previous  problems.  The  first  consideration  is  the  effort 
to  formulate  a  statement  of:  (i)  What  experience  the  animal 
acquires  in  the  previous  series  of  tests,  and  (2)  what  effects 
may  be  carried  ever  from  one  situation  to  another.  Such  a 
carrying  over  might  result  either  in  a  transfer  or  an  interfer- 
ence of  training.  The  curves  apparently  justify  the  statement 
that,  within  the  limits  of  such  problems  as  were  here  employed, 
those  rats  which  had  had  previous  experimental  experience 
were  more  apt  in  learning  a  new  problem.  Trained  animals 
not  only  acquire  the  requisite  association  in  a  less  number  of 
trials  but  the  early  time-records  are  shorter.  Expressed  in  terms 
of  the  neurological  and  physiological  organism,  die  shorter  dme- 
record  might  be  the  result  of  a  modification  of  either  the  motor 
or  sensory  system,  or  both.  If  the  modification  were  one 
affecting  the  motor  centers  of  the  cortex  and  the  efferent  path- 
ways, the  stimulus  might  (l),  release  a  greater  amount  of 
innervation,  resulting  in  greater  general  activity,  or  (2),  release 
movements  which  had  become  habitual  in  the  earlier  experience, 
and  which  would  be  advantageous  in  the  attempts  to  solve 
the  new  problem,  i.  e.,  fewer  random  movements,  and  an 
earlier  accidental  success  would   result.     If  the  modification 

'Yerkes  (Th  Dancing  Mouie,  p.  163)  found  that  the  acquisilionof  one 
labyrinth  habit  facilitated  the  acquisition  of  others. 


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A  STVDT  OF  SENSORT  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  115 

were  one  affecting  the  sensory  pathways  and  centers,  the 
general  result  would  be  (i)  an  increased  susceptibility  to  the 
stimulus — rendering  the  stimulus  more  intense — ^and  (2)  a 
decreased  resistance  in  the  connections  between thesensory  and 
motor  centers,  so  that  the  indirect  effect  of  the  stimulus  upon 
the  musculature  would  be  more  immediate. 

Observations  of  the  behavior  of  the  two  groups  of  animals 
lead  the  writer  to  accept  both  of  these  possibilities  as  facts; 
that  the  stimulus  is  more  intense  and  the  activity  more  imme- 
diate and  better  coordinated  in  the  case  of  the  trained  as  against 
the  untrained  animal. 

Previous  to  the  work  on  Problem  III,-  each  rat  had  each 
day  for  thirty-four  days  been  lifted  from  the  door  of  its  living 
cage,  put  through  the  door  of  the  control  cage  upon  the  table 
and  allowed  to  satisfy  its  hunger  from  food  which  had  to  be 
reached  by  its  own  exertions.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
after  such  a  long  process  of  habituation  to  such  experimental 
situations,  the  experience  of  being  Hfted  from  the  living  cage, 
carried  to  a  distance  and  placed  into  another  cage,  might 
become  for  the  rat  a  stimulus  to  activity  when  placed  in  the 
control  cage. 

In  Problem  II,  given  just  previous  to  III,  the  entrance  of 
the  problem  box  occupied  the  same  relative  position,  i.  e., 
on  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  south  side  of  the  food  box. 
When  the  trained  rats  were  put  into  the  cage  containing  Box 
III,  they  went  to  this  position  and  began  to  'nose'  about. 
The  contact  sensations  apparently  released  motor  impulses 
which  resulted  in  the  scratching,  biting,  pulling  and  clawing 
at  the  spring,  the  latch,  or  the  edge  of  the  door.  The  first 
success  soon  followed.  When  the  untrained  rats  were  put  into 
the  cage,  the  environment  was  a  stimulus  to  only  the  most 
general  and  uncontrolled  activity.  The  rats  examined  the  con- 
trol cage  as  well  as  the  box.  They  sniffed  at  the  food  and  the 
latch,  and  then  went  on  to  examine  other  parts  of  the  box  and 
the  cage.  They  often  sat  down  to  wash  their  faces  and  scratch 
themselves  spending  far  more  time  at  this  procedure  than  did 
the  trained  animals.  Motor  energy  in  these  animals,  in  the 
absence  of  any  more  specific  stimulus,  seemed  to  drainoff  into 


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Il6  FLORENCE  KICBJRDSON. 

these  reflex  channels.  On  the  other  hand  all  problem  boxes 
(on  account  of  past  experience)  served  as  potent  stimuli  to 
the  trained  rats;  the  animals  had  satisfied  their  curiosityas  to 
the  surroundings  during  previous  tests  and  did  not  lack  an 
incentive  to  effort  in  the  present  environment.  Therefore  in 
the  case  of  the  trained  animals  the  stimulus  released  movements 
which  were  more  advantageous  in  the  solution  of  the  problem 
than  it  did  with  the  untrained  animals. 

The  effect  of  the  emotional  attitude  of  the  rat  has  been 
disregarded  up  to  this  point.  The  emotional  element  is  a  most 
important  and  ever  present  factor  in  the  reaction  of  the 
animals.  The  rats,  as  stated  before,  were  tame  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  experiments.  They  were  accustomed  to  being 
handled  and  when  the  door  of  the  cage  was  being  opened,  they 
came  eagerly.  At  the  end  of  the  series  this  lack  of  timidity 
had  advanced  to  a  point  that  might  be  called  familiarity. 
Instances  of  this  were  noted  on  a  number  of  occasions  when 
rats  became  ill  or  aged  and  refused  food  in  their  cages,  they 
ate  quite  freely  from  food  in  the  hands  of  the  experimenter. 

Accompanying  the  change  in  the  emotional  attitude  of  the 
rats  toward  the  experimenter  is  the  change  in  the  emotional 
attitude  toward  the  control  cage  and  to  problem  boxes  in 
general.*  When  this  part  of  the  environment  which  is  com- 
mon to  all  the  tests  has  lost  much  of  its  novelty,  there  is  nothing 
to  interfere  with  the  normal  discharge  of  the  impulses  which 
will  speedily  result  in  adaptive  movements.  Because  the  situa- 
tion as  a  whole  is  novel  to  the  inexperienced  rat,  there  is  a  sute 
of  high  emotional  tension  in  which  motor  impulses,  foreign 
to  the  problem  in  hand,  are  set  up  by  the   strange   sensory 

'  The  same  behavior  as  is  here  commented  on  as  characteristic  of  trained 
animals  was  observed  in  the  case  of  two  brood  rats  which  were  bought  from  a 
$mall  boy.  Theae  rats  had  absolutely  no  fear  and  exhibited  no  signs  of  distur- 
bance when  placed  in  strange  experimental  situations.  Thereactionsof  oneof 
than  which  learned  to  jump  a  distance  of  14  in.  in  thefirst  day's  test  are  detcHbed 
on  page  76,  The  other  rat  solved  Problem  III  in  much  less  time  than  any  other 
untrained  rat.  Her  records  are  not  included  in  the  tables  or  curves  as  she  was  an 
old  rat  and  did  not  conform  to  the  age  requirement  for  these  tests. 

Theseinstancesarecited  in  support  of  the  contention  that  the  emotional  tone 
is  a  great  (if  not  the  greatest)  faaor  in  the  ease  with  which  the  rat  adapts  itsdf 
to  a  new  si 


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A  STVDT  OF  SBNSORr  CONTJtOL  IN  THE  RAT.  1 1 7 

impressions.  In  the  case  of  experienced  rats  no  such  outburst 
of  motor  energy  is  incident  upon  their  introduction  to  a  new 
problem; consequently  they  are  in  a  better  position  to  begin  work 
immediately  upon  the  elements  in  the  situation  which  are  novel. 

B.      INDIVIDUAL  AND  SEX  DIFFERENCES  AS  SHOWN  BY  BEHAVIor. 
/.     Sfx  Differences. 

All  of  the  tables  giving  the  percentages  of  minimum  and  of 
maximum  time-records  made  by  each  animal  (such  as  are 
shown  on  p.  12)  have  been  assembled  and  the  following  table 
compiled  from  the  total  number.  The  animals  are  ranked 
I,  2,  3,  etc.,  according  to  the  percentage  of  maximum  and  of 
minimum  time-records.  For  instance,  the  rat  which  made  the 
greatest  number  of  minimal  trials  is  ranked  i ;  the  rat  with  the 
next  greatest  number  is  ranked  a.  The  rat  ranked  as  1  in 
the  portion  of  the  table  showing  the  rank  in  maximum  time 
records,  is  consequently  the  animal  making  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  maximum,  or  poor  time-records.  The  table  is  shown 
on  next  page. 

The  tabulation  is  of  interest,  showing  as  it  does  the  compara* 
dve  ranks  of  the  animal  in  the  different  problems.  It  is 
rather  striking  that  the  greatest  number  of  minimal  records 
made  in  mixed  groups  are,  with  one  exception,  to  the  credit 
of  the  males,  while  in  such  groups  the  greatest  number  ofmaxi- 
mal  records  are  made  by  the  females.'  The  least  number  of 
minimal  records,  with  one  exception,  were  made  by  females 
and  the  least  number  of  maximal  records  were  made  by  males. 
The  records  are  not  a  sufficient  basis  for  any  general  statement 
as  to  sex  differences. 

It  is  often,  but  not  always  true,  that  an  animal  which  makes 
a  good  record  on  one  problem  makes  good  records  on  the 
other  two.  The  ranking  of  the  group  of  black-and-white  rats 
on  Problem  I  and  II  are  striking. 

'  This  is  noi  true  in  Watson's  work  on  the  maze,  in  which  the  shonest  recocdi 
were  made  by  the  females.  Yerl[es(Z)Dnfin^AfoN/f,  p.  276)alEO  Tound  that  the 
females  were  superior  to  the  males  in  the  labyrinth  test,  although  the  males  were 
superior  in  discrimination  tests. 


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FLORENCE  RICBJRDSON. 


Table  ibouiing  ttx  and  eomforative  Tank  of  each  animal  m  number  of  minima/ 
anj  of  maximal  lime-recorJt  on  PrcAItms  I,  II.  and  II. 


MINIMUM.                                                                MAXIMUM. 

PROBLEMS.          I.                  II. 

III.       PROBLEMS.           1.                  II. 

III. 

Normd  While  Rats. 

Normal  White  Rait. 

Malel 

, 

, 

3' 

o 

Malell 

3* 

3* 

4 

o 

Malelll.... 

3* 

5* 

4 

3 

Male  IV.... 

3* 

1 

2 

Female  I... 

7 

of 

I 

ot 

of 

Female  II.. 

4 

o 

6 

S 

I 

Female  III. 

6 

0 

5' 

3 

Female  IV.. 

5 

o1! 

4 

^ 

on 

Normot  Black-and-Wbile  Rat,. 

Normal  Blatk-and- White 

Ra,. 

Female],.., 

1 

t 

o1 

4 

J 

on 

Female  II... 

3 

3 

01 

3 

4 

oil 

Female  III.. 

1 

3 

3 

Female  IV.. 

+ 

4 

' 

' 

' 

Blind  Rat,. 

Blind  Rati. 

Malel 

ot 

ot 

el- 

ot 

ot 

Malell 

ot 

s' 

ot 

of 

Male  III.,., 

3 

oil 

4 

oil 

01 

Male  IV,.., 

6 

6 

3 

Female  I,.. 

7 

5 

oil 

I 

o1 

Female  II... 

4 

oil 

3 

oil 

Female  III, 

2* 

3 

oil 

5* 

oil 

Female  IV.. 

6 

2 

3 

Female  v.. . 

5 

^ 

3 

5' 

■ 

*  Two  or  more  animals  attained  the  same  rank  in  thete  cases. 

f  Records  noij  included  in  averages  but  given  under  individual  variations. 

X  Would  not  leam  problems. 

i  Died  before  completing  tests. 


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A  STUOr  OF  SENSORY  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT.  1 19 

2.     Individual  Differences. 

The  following  records  of  individuals  are  those  which,  for 
the  reasons  given,  were  not  included  in  the  averages  of  the 
groups,  but  are  appended  here  for  the  purpose  of  comparison 
with  the  average  records  of  the  group,' 

PROBLEM  I. 

Blind  Male  I  made  72  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  maxi- 
mal records,  although  he  made  10  per  cent  of  the  minimal 
records.  After  the  twenty-ninth  trial,  this  rat  made  every 
maximal  record.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  twenty-fourth  trial, 
his  records  were  unusually  long,  but  after  the  twenty-fourth 
his  behavior  was  such  as  to  render  his  records  incomparable 
with  those  of  the  other  blind  rats.  He  was  slow  and  made 
errors  repeatedly.  The  animal  seemed  timid  in  getting  down 
from  the  top  of  the  box.  He  was  generally  disturbed  by  die 
experimentation,  and  would  crouch  and  quiver  when  the 
experimenter  handled  him.  He  became  more  nervous  and 
irritable  as  the  tests  proceeded. 

PROBLEM   II. 

Normal  White  Female  I  was  the  slowest  of  the  group  of 
eight  normal  white  rats  which  were  tested  upon  Problem  I. 
She  was  also  the  slowest  of  the  group  on  Problem  II,  and 
here  her  time-records  represented  a  much  wider  variation  than 
in  Problem  I.  In  the  second  problem  she  was  slow  in  her 
movements  and  did  not  associate  the  act  of  stepping  out  on 
the  plane  with  the  falling  of  the  door  of  the  food  box.  Between 
the  twentieth  and  thirtieth  trials  she  established  the  habit  of 
biting  at  the  string  which  connected  the  plane  with  the  latch 
of  the  door.  She  did  not  always  go  at  once  to  the  string  and 
often  she  made  several  efforts, — at  one  time  six — before  she 
exerted  sufficient  force  to  throw  it.  These  two  causes  of  her 
long  records,  as  may  be  seen,  made  the  results  too  variable  to 
he  included  in  the  average.  In  Problem  III.  her  records  were 
even  more  irregular. 

Yerkes  (iHJ.,  p.  164  ff.)  found  wide  and  important  individual  11 
among  his  mice. 


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120  FLORENCE  RICBJRDSON. 

Blind  Male  I,  the  records  of  which  on  Problem  I  have  already 
been  shown  separately  and  commented  upon,  would  make 
no  effort  to  solve  Problem  II,  and  as  he  seemed  to  suffer 
from  great  timidity,  the  test  was  abandoned  after  five  days. 

Blind  Male  II  was  an  active,  healthy  animal,  and  solved  the 
problem  well  in  his  first  efforts  and  seemed  to  have  established 
the  association  by  the  twentieth  trial,  when  he  became  dis- 
turbed by  the  falling  plane, — evidently  its  noise — and  there- 
after he  avoided  it.  When  he  stepped  upon  it  at  all,  he  did 
not  step  heavily  enough  to  open  the  door.  He  made  many 
trips  to  the  plane,  then  to  the  door;  then  u>  the  plane  again,  and 
finally,  when  his  efforts  were  entirely  too  erratic  to  be  useful, 
the  test  was  discontinued. 

PROBLEM  III. 

Normal  White  Female  II  made  the  maximum  time-record 
for  the  group  at  every  trial.  She  was  slow  in  her  movements 
and  in  addition  often  opened  the  latch  while  leaning  downward 
over  the  door  from  the  top  of  the  box.  She  sometimes  opened 
the  door  from  the  floor  of  the  cage,  but  never  until  after  she 
had  spent  some  time  on  the  box.  Consequently,  her  records 
are  given  separately.  In  this  problem  as  in  the  one  previous, 
she  did  not  learn  to  solve  the  problem  in  the  manner  which 
was  customary  for  the  other  animals. 

Blind  Male  II,  which  was  not  entirely  successful  in  Problem 
II  did  not  in  this  problem  reduce  his  records  to  an  approximate 
constancy  even  after  fifty  trials.  His  early  time-records  were 
both  exceedingly  long  and  variable.  The  cause  of  the  poor 
records,  as  before,  was  slowness  of  movement,  probably  the 
effect  of  his  timidity.  The  sudden  opening  of  the  door  fright- 
ened him  at  the  first  trial,  and  he  crouched  motionless  for  half 
a  minute  before  he  seemed  to  regain  courage  to  move  about 
the  cage.  He  avoided  the  locality  of  the  door  quite  consist- 
ently for  many  trials,  and  when  he  finally  went  to  the  door, 
his  movements  were  so  slow  and  cautious  the  dme-records 
were  incomparable  with  those  of  the  other  blind  rats.  At  the 
end  of  a  series  of  78  trials,  his  time-records  were  still  long 
and  variable. 


A  STVor  OP  SENSORr  CONTROL  IN  THE  RAT. 


Showing  Individual  Diffnenc 

et  on  Ibe  Va 

iou!  ProbUmi. 

PROBLEM  I. 

PROBLEM   II. 

PROBLEM   III. 

no.  OP  TXIAL. 

Noimal 

Normal 

Blind 
Male  1. 

Whitt 
Ftmale  I. 

Blind 
Male  1. 

White 
Female  1. 

Blind 
Male  I. 

.                     6.M 

•55 

■45 

16.05 

5  33 

63 

73 

'9 

74 

25 

5 

.37 

1        '         I 

57 

63 

I 

58 

45 

16 

82 

* 

11 

'5 
'3 

35 

, 

92 

^ 

% 

6 

I 

17 

3 

52 

58 

I 

45 

«3 

42 

7 

37 

75 

43 

1 

41 

11 

9a 

8 

o8 

73 

60 

36 

10 

5" 

9 

98 

9 

08 

70 

25 

5 

'>3 

lO 

27 

55 

83 

22 

6S 

II 

I 

I 

53 

48 

30 

7 

28 

la 

78 

I 

77 

12 

I 

73 

4 

88 

'3 

II       1        [0 

62 

30 

29 

6 

S3 

14 

15 

I 

27 

12 

28 

1 

13 

IS 

17 

88 

62 

33 

4 

32 

i6 

37 

22 

20 

2 

39 

»7 

12 

45 

2 

"7 

s 

78 

tS 

10 

33 

IS 

3 

37 

19 

33 

■7 

03 

I 

47 

20 

■S 

13 

75 

2 

05 

22 

25 
■5 

50 
17 

'3 

3 

47 
75 

13 

43 

04 

28 

42 

24 

18 

05 

33 

37 

as 

■S 

97 

10 

1 

95 

z6 

85 

1 

28 

67 

30 

27 

2 

62 

3' 

55 

53 

28 

1 

♦5 

67 

87 

87 

29 

'3 

42 

n 

I 

17 

30 

1 

79 

22 

82 

79 

3» 

58 

I 

S8 

6 

n 

IS 

32 

50 

3 

75 

71 

«5 

33 

59 

'5 

3 

08 

34 

1 

90 

1 

28 

79 

ii 

1 

08 

48 

62 

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FLORENCE  RICHARDSON 
Table  XVI. — Continued. 


PROBLBU  I 

PROBLEM  [I 

PROBLBU  III 

Blind 

Normal 

Blind 

Noimal 

Blind 

Male  I. 

White 

Male  I. 

White 

Male  I. 

Female  I. 

Female  I. 

40 

■  47 

1  05 

■42 

+1 

68 

'5 

85 

4» 

74 

9° 

I 

S" 

*3 

I 

16 

98 

97 

44 

t 

13 

I 

3S 

71 

4S 

.1 

fA 

S' 

7" 

46 

«5 

38 

I 

38 

47 

67 

'7 

S8 

48 

61 

73 

I 

85 

49 

78 

1 

3" 

I 

17 

50 

.37 

1-73 

85 

dbjGooglc 


PART  THIRD 


GENERAL    CONCLUSIONS. 


The  following  paragraphs  summarize  briefly  and  schemat- 
ically the  different  conclusions  drawn  from  the  results  of  the 
experiments  above  described: 

1.  No  positive  evidence  has  been  revealed  as  to  the  comp- 
arative acuity  of  vision  in  animals  with  albino  eyes  and  those 
with  pigmented  eyes. 

2.  The  tests  with  three  problem-boxes  requiring  manipu- 
lation for  solution  afforded  no  conclusive  evidence  of  the  func- 
tion of  the  visual  impulses  in  the  successful  acdvibes  of  the 
rats.  The  lack  of  vision,  however,  was  disadvantageous  in 
proportion  as  the  problem  demanded  finely  coordinated  and 
narrowly  localized  movements. 

J.  In  the  test  which  necessitated  a  jumping  reaction  on  the 
pan  of  the  animal,  the  visual  stimulus  apparently  afforded  a 
basis  for  the  proper  control  as  to  the  direction  in  which  the 
jump  was  to  be  taken,  but  failed  signally  to  afford  any  adequate 
basis  for  accommodating  to  changes  in  distance  only.  The 
visual  impressions  were  not  a  sufficient  control  when  the  length 
of  the  jump  was  changed  and  after  a  seeming  struggle  between 
visual  and  kinesthetic  factors,  the  coordination  broke  down 
completely.  Blind  animals  learned  to  jump  considerable  dis- 
tances, but  they  were  first  given  their  orientation. 

4.  Olfactory  stimulations  had  evidently  little  importance 
in  the  problems  here  utilized.  Such  impressions  were  quite 
as  likely  to  interfere  with,  as  to  guide  the  formation  of,  the 
requisite  habit. 

5-    Tactual    impressions,    noticeably    from     the    vibrissae, 


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11+  FLORENCE  RICHARDSON 

seemed  in  these  instances,  to  furnish  a  sdmulus  for  many  requi- 
site movements,  but  evidently  did  not  assist  in  the  following 
of  a  pathway.  The  impressions  afforded  by  the  vibrissa  were 
utilized  in  locating  projecting  surfaces  mainly  in  the  vertical 
plane. 

6.  The  kinxsthetic  and  tactual  impulses  have  been  shown 
to  be  of  value  in  the  different  problems  here  employed.  These 
impulses  were  involved  as  essential  factors  in  control  not  only 
in  the  learning  processes,  but  also  in  the  reactions  after  they 
had  become  habitual.  In  the  tests  involving  jumping,  in  which 
the  conditions  were  changed  after  the  habit  had  become  estab- 
lished, the  animals  were  unable  su£Bciently  n>  modify  the 
amount  of  innervation  required,  and,  as  shown  above,  the  reac- 
tions were  consequently  unsuccessful. 

7.  There  were  noted  wide  variations  in  the  capabilities  of 
the  animals  both  as  to  amount  of  activity  and  the  capacity  of 
forming  definite  associations.  There  were  wider  variations 
among  blind  than  among  normal  animals.  Slight  sex  differ- 
ences were  remarked,  though  the  range  of  sex  variation  is  less 
wide  than  that  of  individual  variation. 

8.  The  effect  of  tuition  among  the  rats  employed  in  the 
series  of  problems  is  evident.  The  animals  which  had  had 
previous  experience  in  experimental  situations  were  more  apt 
in  attacking  and  solving  new  problems.  This  was  doubtless 
due  to  two  causes:  (i)  that  the  situations  had  much  in  common, 
so  that  a  transfer  rather  than  an  interference  of  training  resulted 
and  (2)  that  the  decrease  in  emotional  tension  due  to  the  com- 
parative lack  of  novelty  in  the  experimental  routine  made  the 
problem  sdmulus  more  intense,  therefore  more  potent,  and 
the  resulting  activiiy  less  diffuse. 


lyCc 


Psychological  Monographs 


NoveHber,  1H9 
Whole  No.  49 


Psychological  Review 

SDtTSD  BY 
J.  MASK  BALDWIN 
HOWARD  C.  WARREN  JOHN  B.  WATSON 

PanrenoH  Dnivui>tt  Johhi  HoTKiHt  DNiVEiiirrT 

JAMES  R.  ANGEIX,    D>n*»»iT  or  Cbkaoo  {Riim  tf  lit  PijcMmptJ  Ummtptfk,) 


On  the  Influence  of 

Complexity  and  Dissimilarity 

on  Memory 

Harvey  Andrew  Peterson 

Illinois  State  Normal  University,  Normal,  HI. 


THE  REVIEW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

«  NORTH  QUEEN  ST.,  LANCASTER,  PA. 

AND  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


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PREFACE. 

While  the  investigation  contained  in  the  following  pages 
belongs  to  the  field  of  pure  psychology,  the  motives  which 
prompted  it  were  considerations  rather  of  educational  psychol- 
<^,  and  it  is  believed  that  not  the  least  of  its  significance  will 
be  found  in  its  bearing  upon  certain  problems  in  this  latter 
field.  The  experiments  were  carried  out  at  the  University  of 
Chicago  during  the  year  1908-9.  The  subjects  were  eleven 
graduate  students  in  the  Department  of  Psychology,  of  whom 
seven  were  men  and  four  women.  Messrs.  E.  B.  McProud, 
W.  C.  Vogt,  H.  Kimmel,  F.  A.  C.  Perrin,  J.  W.  Hayes,  E.  H. 
Sutherland,  and  J.  W.  Baumgardner,  and  Misses  Emma 
Felsenthal,  Mary  C.  Mcintosh,  Edith  Turner,  and  Jeanette 
Obenchain.  Two  of  them,  Mr.  McProud  and  Miss  Felsenthal, 
were  obliged  by  pressure  of  other  work  to  withdraw  after  the 
Gray  and  the  Violet  Sets  and  the  Renaissance  Set  had  been 
completed.  Their  places  were  taken  by  Mr.  Baumgardner 
and  Miss  Obenchain.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  supple- 
mental experiments,  described  in  V-3,  were  carried  out  with 
Messrs.  Sutherland  and  Hayes  and  Miss  Turner.  They  did 
not  participate  in  the  earlier  experiments. 

For  the  splendid  spirit  in  which  all  eleven  carried  out  their 
part  of  the  investigation  I  wish  «>  express  to  them  my  deep 
appreciation  and  heartfelt  thanks.  To  Professor  James  R. 
Angell,  Director  of  the  Laboratory,  and  to  Professor  Harvey 
Carr  and  Dr.  Karl  T.  Waugh  1  am  glad  of  this  opportunity  ro 
express  my  sincere  thanks  for  assistance  in  the  formulation 
and  execution  of  the  work. 

Harvey  Andrew  Peterson. 


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CONTENTS 

I.     Hictorical  Introduction  and  Pioblem 

III.     Experiments  with  Language  Materials 

rV.    On  Methods  of  Learning  and  Testing  Nonsense  Syllables    

V.  Experiments  with  Kane  Areas    

1.  Adding  Variations  to  a  Material  Containing  in   Itself  L 

Variation 

2.  Adding  Variations  to  More  Varied  Materials 

3.  Methods  Employed  bythe  Subjects  in  Learning  the  Series. 

4.  Analysis  of  Errors 

5.  Other  Experiments  with  the  Same  Bases 

6.  Analysis  of  Errors 

VI.  Individual  Differences  in  Speed  of  Memorizing  and  in  Retentive 
VII.     Experiments  to  Determine  the  Value  of  Arranging 

VIII.    Conclusion 

IX.    Appendix 

I.  Plates 

I.  Description  of  Series 

3.  Analysis  of  Errors  in  V  a 


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ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITY  AND  DIS- 
SIMILARITY ON  MEMORY 

Harvey  Andrew  Peterson 

i.    historical  introduction  and  problem 

The  question  of  the  relative  persistence  in  memory  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  materials  has  been  worked  out  to  a  considerable 
extent.  It  is  known  that  words  in  the  form  of  connected  pas- 
sages are  vasdy  better  retained  than  an  equal  number  of  dis- 
connected words  or  phrases;  and  that  objects,  actions  and 
pictures  are  better  retained  than  their  verbal  equivalents.  Num- 
bers and  abstract  words  belong  to  the  third  stage  of  difficulty, 
while  nonsense  syllables  are  the  most  elusive  and  most  quickly 
forgotKn  of  all  materials  commonly  used  for  experimentation. 
Presentation  of  the  materials  to  several  senses  is  more  effective 
than  presentation  to  one  only.  Up  to  a  certain  stage — ^where 
die  limit  is  we  do  not  know — complex  material  is  retained  better 
than  that  which  is  simpler;  and  recurrent  similarity  in  the 
presentadons  of  series  odierwise  different  is  disastrous.  Why 
all  this  should  be  true  is  not  so  easy  to  find  out.  There  has 
been  little  attempt  to  seek  explanatory  principles  which  would 
unify  these  diverse  facts.  The  relations  of  complexity  and 
simibrity  are  both  intricate  and  close.  It  is  believed  that  a 
comprehension  of  their  relations  will  afford  a  unifying  principle 
for  some  of  the  other  facts  we  have  enumerated.  These  rela- 
tions are  apparendy  somewhat  as  follows,  so  far  as  they  have 
been  worked  out.     We  may  first  take  complexity. 

A  thing  is  complex  when  it  has  many  parts  and  the  parts 
have  many  interrelauons,  that  is,  the  whole  has  a  high  degree 
of  organization.  A  telephone  exchange  is  complex  when  in 
operation,  while  a  corresponding  quantity  of  wire,  colored 
glass  and  electricity  is  simple  because  unorganized.     But  the 


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2  HAtLVEr  ANDRfW  PETERSON. 

fewer  the  parts  the  simpler  the  whole  because  the  possibilities 
of  interrelation  are  less. 

Complexity  affects  the  memory  through  interest  and  atten- 
tion- The  simple  is  easily  mastered.  The  parts  and  their 
relations  are  few  and  the  content  is  soon  exhausted.  The 
complex,  provided  it  is  not  too  far  beyond  us,  whets  our  curios- 
ity. It  gets  the  attention  and  the  thing  is  in  so  far  better 
remembered,  because  it  stays  in  consciousness  long  enough  to 
make  a  deep  impression.  But  the  complex  has  a  superiority 
in  recall  as  well  as  in  presentation,  because  of  the  high  degree 
of  organization.  This  makes  it  a  unity.  One  part  brings 
others.  A  general  idea  of  the  whole  is  also  a  very  effective 
starting  point  for  recall.  We  pass  to  the  experimental  litera- 
ture. 

Meakin  demonstrated  the  superior  persistence  of  the  com- 
plex over  the  simple  in  passive  attendon.'  He  exposed  a  line 
and  an  angle  together  for  five  seconds  directing  the  subject 
looking  at  them  to  divide  the  time  equally  between  them.  As 
soon  as  the  exposure  was  over  the  subject  closed  his  eyes  and 
remained  passive  for  sixty  seconds  reporting  the  entrance  and 
exit  of  the  two  images.  The  angles  were  in  consciousness  an 
average  of  38  seconds;  the  lines,  32  seconds.  In  the  same  way 
he  compared  plain  figures  and  identical  figures  with  concentric 
lines  just  inside  the  periphery,  plain  and  identical  colored 
figures,  and  figures  of  less  and  of  more  complex  outlines.  His 
resultswere,  for  the  plain  and  the  marked,  24  and  37  seconds; 
for  the  plain  and  the  colored,  31  and  38  seconds;  for  the  simple 
and  the  complex  outlines,  27  and  35  seconds. 

Binet  and  Henri  compared  the  memory  of  school  children 
for  disconnected  words  and  for  sentences,  the  material  being 
read  to  the  children.*  Although  the  comparison  was  not  car- 
ried further  than  lists  of  seven  or  eight  words,  it  was  found 
that  about  twenty-five  dmes  as  many  words  were  recalled  from 
the  sentences  as  from  the  fists  containing  equal  numbers  of 
words.  The  reproducdon  was  immediate.  Mere  connecting 
words  in  the  sentences  were  disregarded. 

'  Ptycb.  Rtv.,  1903,  Mon.  Sup.,  no.  4,  p.  135. 

*  Binet  and  Henri:  U Annie  Ptycb.,  1894,  I,  1-59. 


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4  HJRFET  JNDREfF  PETERSON. 

ures  give  the  average  number  of  repetitions  required  for  learn- 
ing and  releaming. 

Firii  Stttad 

¥\un  ayllables  shown  in  one  place 7.05  4.06 

Hain  syllables  shown  in  nine  places 6.60  5.63 

Plain  syllables  shown  in  one  place 6.04  5.40 

Colored  syllables  shown  in  one  place 5.61  2.79 

Colored  syllables  shown  in  nine  places 5.27  5.36 

Dr.  Gordon  su^ested  that  the  advantage  of  increasing  the 
complexity  in  this  way  would  soon  reach  a  limit,  where  more 
potential  clues  would  be  offered  than  the  learner  could  use  in 
so  short  a  dme  of  learning,  and  where  distraction  would  begin 
to  operate.  It  is  the  main  problem  of  the  present  investigation 
to  find  these  Hmits  in  a  few  typical  cases. 

If  the  mind  loves  complexity  somewhat,  it  loves  variety  and 
change  at  least  as  much, — common  sense  would  unhesitatingly 
say,  more, — and  here  again  it  is  through  the  superior  hold 
which  variety  has  on  our  attention  and  interest  that  the  memory 
IS  improved.  Let  us  first  distinguish  the  pair,  variety  and 
sameness  (or  similarity),  from  complexity  and  simplicity;  for 
though  they  have  much  in  common  they  are  not  identical.  Two 
things  are  varied  when  one  is  more  or  less  di'fFerent  from  the  other, 
has  something  not  contained  in  the  other.  It  is  true  that  variety 
presupposes  complexity,  for  without  a  plurality  of  parts  and 
relations  some  of  which  are  now  included  and  now  left  out, 
variety  is  impossible.  But  the  converse  is  not  true,  for  the 
same  complex  may  recur  without  affording  much  variety.  The 
simple  usually  has  sameness  about  it,  though  it  may  have  that 
low  order  of  variety  which  comes  from  a  mere  change  of  parts, 
as  when  one  changes  from  a  collection  of  colors  to  one  of  letters. 
There  is  little  complexity  in  either  because  of  the  relative 
absence  of  organization.  The  distinction  which  will  be  signifi- 
cant for  the  present  investigation  is  the  fact  that  one  might  in- 
crease  the  complexity  without  necessarily  increasing  the  variety. 
It  is  the  varied  complexity  which  in  our  opinion  seems  fruitful 
for  memory  and  which  the  present  investigation  is  concerned 
with. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DISSIUILARITT  ON  MEMOSr.        5 

The  beneficial  effect  of  considerable  variety  upon  memory  is 
a  commonplace.  A  speaker  who  uses  only  a  few  tones  is  at  a 
disadvantage  compared  with  one  who  uses  intonation  properly. 
School  programs  rotate  their  studies  with  an  eye  to  variety,  and 
not  only  interest  but  memory  directly  profits  by  the  change. 
Much  of  the  bad  effect  of  prolonged  sameness  in  work  is  trace- 
able to  fatigue,  but  not  all,  as  we  shall  see.  All  memoiy  is 
associative.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  memorizing  things 
without  relating  them.  With  prolonged  sameness  or  similarity 
the  associations  derived  from  a  presented  material,  quite  apart 
from  fatigue,  become  confused  with  one  another,  jumbling 
begins,  and  the  memory  weakens,  unable  to  straighten  out  the 
tangle  of  similarities.  On  the  contrary  the  dissimilar  are  much 
more  easily  kept  apart,  and  fatigue  is  less. 

In  the  experimental  investigations  variety  is  quite  commonly 
spoken  of  as  vividness.  Miss  Calkins'  investigation  is  well 
known.'  Numbers  were  associated  with  colors  in  couplets, 
twelve  couplets  constituting  a  series.  To  speak  first  only  of 
the  vividness  experiments  proper,  all  the  numbers  in  a  series 
except  one  were  black  two-place  numbers,  the  one  remaining 
was  a  three-place  number  or  had  red  figures,  or  was  differen- 
tiated qualitatively  from  the  others  by  some  other  similar  means. 
One  of  the  ordinary  numbers  was  associated  with  the  same 
color  as  the  vivid' number.  Thus  the  series  of  twelve  couplets 
consisted  often  ordinary  couplets,  one  critical  couplet,  and  one 
so-called  normal  couplet  which  competed  with  the  critical  in 
recall.  The  ordinary  and  normal  couplets  were  two  different 
standards  of  comparison  for  the  critical  pairs.  Tn  the  test  for 
immediate  recall  the  subject  was  shown  the  colors  in  altered 
order  and  was  asked  to  give  the  numbers  which  had  been 
shown  with  each.  The  repeated  color  was  shown  only  once. 
It  might  recall  the  vivid  number  alone,  or  both  the  vivid  and 
the  normal  number,  or  the  normal  alone.  The  vivid  number 
was  recalled  52  per  cent  of  the  possible  number  of  cases,  the 
normal  21  per  cent,  while  the  general  average  of  recall  for  the 
ordinary  combinations  of  all  the  series  was  26  per  cent.     Thus 

■  Calkiiu.  M.  W.:  Association,  Piycb.  Rev.,  1896,  Man.  Sup.,  no.  i. 


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6  HASVET  ANDSIW  PETERSON. 

we  have  a  measure  of  the  effectiveness  ofthis  kind  of  vividness.* 
In  other  experiments  the  critical  number  was  the  same  as  the 
rest  of  the  series  in  all  respects  save  that  it  was  repeated  three 
times.  This  measured  the  effectiveness  of  repetition.  In  a 
similar  way  other  experiments  tested  the  worth  of  the  first  and 
last  positions  in  the  series  (primacy  and  recency).  All  four 
kinds  of  critical  couplets  were  superior  in  recall  to  the  ordinary 
and  the  normal  combinations  by  varying  amounts. 

The  analysis  of  the  relations  of  sameness  and  variety  made 
in  the  preceding  pages  leads  us  to  an  interpretation  of  this 
experiment  which  is  quite  different  from  that  of  Miss  Calkins. 
Just  because  there  was  only  one  of  the  critical  pairs  while  there 
were  eight  or  ten  of  the  ordinary  pairs  in  a  series,  all  four  ^pes 
of  experiments  (vividness,  frequency,  recency  and  primacy)  are 
studies  in  the  effect  of  variety.  All  four  of  the  critical  couplets 
are  a  change  from  the  sameness  of  the  other  couplets  of  the 
series.  The  superiority  of  the  frequent  couplet  for  example 
is  due  in  some  measure  to  the  fact  of  its  repetition.  But  its 
superiority  is  due  quite  as  much  and  perhaps  more  to  the  fact, 
already  mentioned,  that  the  other  couplets  of  the  series  are  all 
pretty  much  alike,  while  the  frequent  couplet  affords  a  change, 
amid  sameness.  It  is  extremely  probable  that  if  the  relations 
were  reversed,  the  mass  of  the  series  being  given  the  threefold 
repetition  and  the  critical  couplet  being  given  only  once, 
the  critical  couplet  would  still  be  better  remembered,  providing 
that  the  subject  knew  which  was  the  critical  couplet  when  he 
saw  it.'  In  the  experiments  of  Miss  Calkins  on  frequency  the 
second  repetition  of  the  critical  couplet  furnished  this  clue. 
The  isolation  of  the  frequency  factor  from  the  sameness-variety 
factor  could  be  secured  only  by  repeating  one-half  of  the  series 
a  larger  number  of  times  Jian  the  other  half.* 

'  The  italics  are  ours. 

'  "It  ji  not  the  mere  intensity  of  the  stimulus  which  is  effective  in  attracting 
the  attention  so  much  as  it  is  the  change  in  intensity.  ...  A  negative 
change  will  have  the  same  general  effect."  Pillsbury:  Attention,  pp.  18-19, 
The  same  is  true  of  memory  to  a  less  extent. 

*  The  question  has  been  worked  out  with  nonsense  syllables  in  the  fonn  of 
che  worth  of  the  individual  repetitions.  Cf.  Ebbinghaus:  Cruni/>u;r.tf.i*i7rW.. 
I,  p.  652.     Zweite  Auflage. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMFLEXITT  AND  DISSIMILARITT  ON  MEMORT.        J 

Take  next  the  results  on  primacy.  Suppose  that  the  length 
of  the  series  had  been  three  couplets  instead  of  twelve,  and  that 
the  color  which  had  stood  in  the  first  place  had  been  repeated 
in  the  middle  place  with  a  different  number:  Would  primacy 
have  been  worth  any  more  than  normal  (here  the  middle)  ? 
Probably  not.  Then  primacy  is  purely  another  form  of  vivid- 
ness. There  is  no  other  factor  involved,  as  there  was  in  the 
frequency  case.  The  experiments  on  recency  involve  two  fac- 
tors, recency  and  sameness-variety.  The  worth  of  the  former 
is  attested  by  the  fact  that  in  memory  work  in  general  the 
terms  just  preceding  the  last  are  better  recalled  than  their  im- 
mediate predecessors.  But  the  last  term  is  so  very  much  better 
recalled  than  the  term  just  preceding  it  (which  is  almost  as 
recent),  that  the  sameness-variety  factor  is  much  the  larger  one.' 
To  summarize  the  foregoing  criticism,  frequency  and  recency 
improve  the  memory  apart  from  the  question  of  sameness  and 
varie^.  Vividness  and  primacy  are  simply  species  of  variety. 
But  the  fewness  of  all  the  critical  combinations  compared  with 
the  large  number  of  ordinary  combinations  gives  the  critical 
ones  the  advantage  which  comes  from  a  change  from  the  rou- 
tine, and  in  view  of  the  greatness  of  the  numerical  dispari^, 
the  whole  investigation  is  a  study  mainly  of  different  forms  of 
vividness  or,  in  our  own  terms,  of  variety.' 

Aside  from  Miss  Calkins'  investigation,  and  the  one  by  Dr. 
Gordon  already  described  (which  may  be  viewed  as  an  experi- 

'Cf.  Ebbinghaus:  Op.  cit.,  p.  653.  Miiller  and  Pilzecker:  Zlub.  f.  Piyeb., 
1900,  ErgSntangstJ.  1,  p.  264. 

'  It  is  significant  that  the  percentages  of  recall  for  the  nonnal  numbers  were 
usually  less  than  that  of  the  ordinary  combinations.  The  fact  is  another  illus- 
tration of  the  disastrous  effects  of  similarity.  The  critical  color  and  the  normal 
number  together  are  similar  to  the  same  color  and  the  unusual  number  taken 
together.  If  ab  be  stands  for  these  two  couplets  respectively,  given  b  (the 
common  color),  a  has  by  no  means  as  Titchener  says  {Expertrntalal  Psychology, 
vol.  I,  pt.  II,  p.  407)  "a  chance  equal  to  that  of  the  other  terms  of  the  series," 
for  it  is  interfered  nith  by  a  competing  association,  be.  For  the  same  reason 
the  figures  ^ven  for  vividness,  frequency,  etc.,  in  to  far  underestimate  the  value 
of  the  factors  since  interference  is  always  mutual.  Of  course  the  factor  of 
dissimilatity  contained  in  them  much  overbalances  the  interference. 


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8  HARVET  ANDSIW  PBTEMSON. 

mem  either  in  variety  or  in  complexity')  the  writer  is  not 
aware  of  other  experiments  on  the  positive  effects  of  variety. 
There  are  however  a  number  of  important  and  extended 
researches  on  the  negative  side,  namely,  the  injurious  effects  of 
increasing  similarity  of  associations,  in  comparison  with  which 
the  material  free  from  the  similari^  is  relatively  varied. 

Miiller  and  Schumann  found  that  syllables  which  had  been 
used  once  in  old  series  were  more  difficult  to  learn  in  new  series 
than  syllables  which  had  not  been  used  before.'  The  old  asso- 
ciates either  appeared  in  consciousness  and  hindered  the  forma- 
tion of  the  new  connections,  or  there  was  a  purely  physiological 
interference  manifested  by  the  poorer  recall.  Here  the  old 
series  and  the  series  in  which  they  were  used  again  constitute 
together  the  less  varied  material,  while  the  series  not  re-used 
are  the  more  varied  material. 

Miiller  and  Pilzecker  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  interfer- 
enct  using  nonsense  syllables.'  These  experimenters  demon- 
strated that  in  the  case  of  two  associations  of  the  type  ab  be 
the  interference  is  mutual.  Their  method  was  in  principle  the 
same  as  that  of  Miiller  and  Schumann,  except  that  they  em- 
ployed the  method  of  successes.  Each  day  the  subject  learned 
four  antecedent  series  and  an  equal  number  of  sequent  series. 
The  antecedent  series  were  normally  constructed  eight-syl- 
lable series.  They  were  read  in  trochaic  rhythm,  hence  each 
series  fell  into  four  feet,  a  foot  containing  an  accented  and  an 
unaccented  syllable.  The  series  were  given  a  fixed  number  of 
repetitions  and  in  the  recall  (to  come  later)  the  subject  was 
given  the  accented  syllables  in  altered  order  and  asked  to  give 
the   unaccented  ones  which  had   accompanied   each.     After 

'  Becauce  the  increase  was  in  the  direction  of  diiiimilar  cotnplenity.  The 
■patial  positions  and  the  colon  which  were  added  to  the  syllables  were  them- 
selves varied. 

'  Miiller  and  Schumann :  Exp.  Beitnige  zur  Untersuchung  des  Gedachtnisses. 
ZUch.  f.  Ptyib.,  1894,  6:177  and  318.  Also  Miiller  and  Pilzecker,  who  on 
p.  83  in  the  work  referred  to  in  the  following  note  summarize  Mullet  and  Schu- 
mann's results. 

*  Miiller  and  Pilzecker:  Exp.  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  vom  Gedachtnisi.  Zutb, 
f.  Ptyeb.,  1900,  Ergiinzung^bd.  I. 


,Gc 


INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITT  AND  DISSIUILABUTT  ON  UEUORT.       9 

learning  the  four  antecedent  series  the  subject  was  given  the 
four  sequent  series.  These  were  formed  by  combining  two  of 
the  accented  syllables  of  the  antecedent  series  with  new  unac- 
cented syllables.  This  furnished  two  of  the  four  feet,  and  the 
other  two  were  made  of  new  syllables.  The  series  may  be 
symbolized  thus: 

Antecedent  series:  nb  cd  ti  g^. 
Sequent  teriea:        ij  ak  Im  m. 

After  learning  the  four  antecedent  and  first  sequent  series  the 
subject  was  tested  on  the  first  antecedent  and  the  first  sequent 
series.  Then  followed  the  learning  of  the  second  sequent  series 
and  the  second  pair  of  tests,  and  so  on  till  all  eight  series  had 
been  learned  and  tested.  The  half  of  the  couplets  represented 
by  the  letters  cd,  gh,  ij,  and  Im  may  be  called  die  normal  coup- 
lets; the  other  half,  ab,  ef,  ak,  and  en,  the  interference  couplets. 
The  former  were  simply  a  standard  with  which  the  interference 
in  the  latter  might  be  compared.  When  the  antecedent  series 
was  tested  (by  giving  a,  c,  e,  and  g),  k  and  n  interfered  with 
the  recall  of  b  and  f.  When  the  sequent  series  was  tested  (by 
giving  i,  a,  1  and  e),  b  and  f  interfered  with  the  recall  of  k  and 
n.     The  following  are  Epical  results. 

Perctntage  of  Comet  Rtealls. 
(Number  of  couplets  168) 

Per  cent 

Normal  Couplets,  Antecedent  Series 66 

Interfetence  Couplets  of  same 36.5 

Normal  Couplets,  Sequent  Series 63.5 

Interference  Couplets  of  same $t.$ 

The  next  day  the  tests  were  repeated  and  the  relations  of 
the  two  interference  groups  to  their  respective  standards  were 
found  to  be  reversed.  It  was  now  the  sequent  series  which 
showed  by  far  the  greater  loss.  This  reversal  is  a  study  in  the 
effects  of  recency,  into  which  it  is  beside  our  purpose  to  go.^ 

'  While  the  second  learnings  were  still  fresh  in  mind  a  and  e  suggested  their 
second  associates  without  mach  difficulty.  But  when  the  tests  were  put  off  or 
repeated  later,  the  first  associates  became  the  stronger. 


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10  HARFEr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

The  extent  to  which  the  interference  might  go  may  be  seen  in 
the  fact  that  in  some  cases  the  interference  recall  in  both  ante- 
cedent and  sequent  series  together  was  less  than  the  normal 
recall  of  the  antecedent  series. 

It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  point  out  the  relevancy  of  these 
experiments  to  the  question  of  the  effects  of  similarity  and 
variety  upon  memory.  The  normal  couplets  are  relatively  a 
more  varied  material  than  the  interference  couplets.  While 
the  sameness  in  the  latter  is  planned  with  malice  aforethought, 
so  to  spealc,  the  same  thing  happens  in  daily  experience  where 
the  sameness  is  unintentional  and  not  so  exactly  measured. 
The  experiments  of  Ranschburg  with  numbers,  described  below, 
illustrate  how  daily  experience  is  full  of  the  ab  be  type  of 
similarity. 

Ranschburg  has  confirmed  the  results  of  MuUer  and  Pil- 
zecker  and  Miiller  and  Schumann.'  Most  of  the  details  are 
omitted  here  because  of  their  similarity  to  the  two  works  last 
described.  Using  the  method  of  successes  this  author  arranged 
what  he  calls  heterogeneous  and  homogeneous  series.  The 
heterogeneous  were  simply  normal  eight-syllable  series.  Of 
the  homogeneous  the  frst  series  was  also  normal,  but  the  rest 
were  not,  for  they  were  all  identical  with  the  first  in  respect  to 
their  consonants.  Only  the  vowels  were  changed  in  each  suc- 
ceeding series.  These  two  kinds  of  series  were  learned  in 
parallel  fashion.  The  confusing  result  may  be  imagined, 
especially  when  an  accumulation  of  eight  series  of  each  kind, 
the  learning  of  which  had  extended  over  a  number  of  days, 
was  given  a  few  renewing  repeduons  and  then  tested  "run 
together."  His  experiments  with  words  are  somewhat  newer. 
In  these  latter  various  series  of  word-couplets  were  devised  in 
which  the  words  in  a  couplet  were  closely  germane  in  thought, 
but  the  couplets  were  drawn  from  quite  disparate  thought  uni- 
verses. In  other  series  the  couplets  were  internally  as  before, 
but  several  couplets  were  drawn  from  similar  and  in  some 
cases  practically  the  same  thought  universes.     The  similarity 

'  RanKhburg.  P.;  Ueber  die  Bedeutung  der  Aehnlichkeit  beim  Erietnco, 
Behalten,  und  bei  der  Reproduction.    J.  f.  Ptycb.  u.  Ntur.,  1905,  5»)3. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COIUPLBXITT  AND  DJSSIMILARITr  ON  UEUORr.     It 

was  entirely  on  the  side  of  thought.  In  recall  the  subject  was 
very  much  more  certain  of  the  dissimilar  series,  and  the  per- 
centages of  recall  were  much  higher  than  in  the  similar  series. 
In  the  latter  the  subject  was  quite  apt  to  hesitate  between  the 
correct  response  and  a  word  in  another  couplet  which  was 
similar  in  meaning,  but  might  be  quite  removed  in  the  time  of 
learning. 

In  another  investigation  on  the  conditions  of  perception  of 
similar  and  dissimilar  numbers  Ranschburg  showed  that  the 
fusion  of  similar  things  which  we  have  seen  talcing  place  in 
memory  exists  even  in  the  perception,  when  the  time  of  expo- 
sure is  short.?  Indeed  he  traces  the  memory  confusion  back 
«>  perceptual  confusion,  in  cases  where  the  successive  presen- 
tations possess  considerable  similarity.  The  experiment  is  for 
this  reason  relevant  to  our  problem:  it  offers  an  explanation  for 
a  considerable  part  of  the  interference  in  similar  memory 
material.  It  is  also  important  for  our  problem  because  it 
endeavors  to  measure  the  degree  of  interference  due  to  inherent 
similarity,  and  not  to  the  fact  that  the  associations  were  made 
to  interfere.  In  experimenting  upon  the  span  and  accuracy  of 
visual  perception,  using  six-place  numbers  exposed  one-third 
of  a  second,  Ranschburg  observed  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  errors  were  traceable  to  the  inherent  similarly  of  certain 
figures,  for  example  6,  9,  and  o,  3  and  8,  9  and  %,  i,  4,  and  7. 
He  was  able  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  errors  with  con- 
siderable certainty  because  in  nearly  all  cases  they  involved 
only  one  or  two  figures,  and  the  figures  were  nearly  always  in 
the  fourth  or  fifth  positions,  less  often  in  the  third,  from  the 
left.  Where  only  one  figure  was  wrong,  it  belonged  in  nearly 
every  case  to  one  of  the  five  following  types;  (i)  Substitution  of 
a  similar  reproduced  number,  e.  g.,  an  8  for  a  3;  (2)  assimila- 
tion to  a  similar  nearby  figure,  e.  g.,  6842^3  instead  of  6842^3; 
(3)  assimilation  to  a  dissimilar  nearby  figure,  e.  g.,  162^5 
instead  of  162^^5;  (4)  change  of  one  of  two  identical  figures  to 
any  other  figure;  (5)  substitution  of  a  figure  either  preferred  for 

*  Ranschburg:  Ueber  Hemmung  Gleichzeitiger  Reizwirkungen.  Zttrb.  f. 
Pijth.,  1902,  30:39. 


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II  HARVET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

some  temperamental  reason  or  connected  closely  inexperience 
with  the  given  figure.  The  fifth  seldom  occurred.  Where  two 
figures  were  wrong  nearly  all  the  cases  were  either  simple  inver- 
sion (78  instead  of  87)  or  a  combination  of  inversion  with  one 
of  the  types  enumerated  above.  The  first  four  classes  of  errors 
are  types  of  similarity.  The  fifth  and  inversion  are  not.  The 
large  propwrdon  of  similarity  Wrors  makes  it  highly  improbable 
that  they  are  due  to  chance. 

In  the  light  of  this  statistical  analysis  of  the  errors  in  num- 
bers not  devised  to  test  similarity,  but  cut  from  a  statistical 
handbook,  he  constructed  numbers  of  several  different  kinds 
of  similarity  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out  whether  "the 
threshhold  of  perception  is  higher  for  homogeneous  than  for 
heterogeneous  material."  In  the  first  experiment  he  gave  in 
the  same  way  as  before  20  six-place  numbers  lacking  similarity 
internally,  and  20  six-place  numbers  two  figures  of  which, 
usually  in  the  right  part  of  the  series,  were  identical,  e.  g., 
1 1{74{75,  or  14IPP3.  In  a  second  experiment  the  critical  figures 
were  only  similar.  The  results  confirmed  his  hypothesis. 
Where  two  of  the  figures  were  similar,  the  errors  were  about 
three  times  as  great  as  in  the  dissimilar  numbers,  but  where 
two  figures  were  identical,  the  errors  were  four  times  as  great 
as  in  the  dissimilar  numbers.  The  threshold  of  perception  is 
therefore  higher  in  proportion  to  the  similarity.  These  figures 
are  valuable  because  they  are  among  the  few,  to  the  writer's 
knowledge,  in  which  the  amount  of  visual  similarity  is  con- 
trolled. Whether  they  bear  upon  the  effects  of  similarity  on 
memory  is  another  question.  There  is  no  objection  to  viewing 
the  responses  of  the  subjects  as  immediate  recall,  providing  the 
conditions  of  exposure  are  comparable  to  the  conditions  of 
exposure  in  memory  work.  It  may  be  said  that  in  memory 
tests  the  subject  is  assured  of  a  long  enough  interval  to  prop- 
erly perceive  the  material.  But  it  may  be  quite  fairly  said  in 
reply  that  while  the  absolute  exposure  is  usually  much  longer 
than  was  used  here,  the  adequacy  of  it  to  distinguish  the  terms 
from  each  other  depends  upon  their  similarity.  I  should  say 
that  the  conditions  are  comparable  to  those  in  memory  in 
many  cases.     On  the  other  hand  the  confusion  in  such  experi- 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COiiPLEXlTT  AND  DISSIMILARITT  ON  MEUORT.      1 3 

ments  as  those  of  Miiller  and  Pilzecker  are  not  confusions  in 
perception  but  in  memory.* 

To  summarize  the  various  investigations  of  the  influence  of 
relative  sameness  and  variety  on  memory:  anything  which 
serves  to  distinguish  a  thing  from  a  group  makes  it  better 
remembered.  A  greater  length)  a  different  color,  a  more  fre- 
quent repetition,  an  unusual  position  spatially  or  temporally 
are  some  of  the  variations  which  have  been  shown  to  be  eff'ect- 
ive.  Where  the  similarity  results  from  the  triangular  associa- 
tion of  two  things  with  a  third,  if  the  recall  proceeds  from  the 
common  element  towards  one  of  the  extremes,  the  other  extreme 
interferes  and  diminishes  the  chances  of  recall.  The  result  is 
the  same  if  the  start  be  made  toward  the  other  extreme.  The 
conflictmay  be  purely  physiological,  and  apparent  in  conscious- 
ness only  as  a  delayed  recall.  The  injurious  eff"ects  of  simi- 
larity are  however  not  confined  to  artificially  constructed  over- 
lapping associations,  but  also  occur  where  the  similarly  is 
inherent  in  the  nature  of  the  material.  In  contrast  with  this, 
wherever  the  diff^erent  parts  of  the  material  learned  are  dis- 
similar, the  associations  are  more  lasting  and  their  recall  pro- 
ceeds more  promptly,  because  they  do  not  interfere  with  one 
another.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  the  threshold  of  per- 
ception is  higher  for  similar  material  than  for  dissimilar.  It 
requires  a  longer  time  to  get  a  clear  perception  of  a  material 
the  parts  of  which  are  similar  than  it  does  of  one  the  parts  of 
which  are  not  similar.  The  differentiation  here  referred  to  is 
however  purely  involuntary  and  almost  instantaneous.  If  the 
perceiving  process  is  cut  off  before  clearness  has  been  reached, 

'  Other  experiments  on  ihe  effects  of  simiUrity  on  memoiy  are  those  of  Berg- 
•trom  on  the  interference  arising  from  sorting  the  same  cards  into  different 
arrangements  of  the  same  positions,  in  </in.  your,  of  Psych.,  1893,  V,  356,  and 
1894,  VI,  432.  Also  Miinsterberg,  in  Beitragt  »ur  Exp.  Psych.,  Hejt  4,  p. 
69.  Both  of  these  deal  with  the  interference  of  automatic  habits  of  movement. 
The  latter  shows  how  opposed  habits,  after  being  made  automatic  separately, 
may  be  used  for  alternate  periods  of  considerable  length  without  interference, 
e.  g.,  keeping  one's  watch  first  in  one  pocket  and  then  in  another,  the  same  arm 
being  used  for  both  movements.  It  certainly  offers  something  for  reconcilia- 
tion with  the  otherwise  uniform  outcome  of  the  similarity  lite 


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14  HARFET  ANDRIW  PETERSON. 

the  errors  in  recall  are  largely  of  the  type  of  confusion  of  sim- 
ilars. 

Summarizing  the  inBuence  of  complexity  on  memory  we 
may  say:  the  complexity  afforded  the  mind  by  sentences  or 
connected  passages  is  superior  to  the  simplicity  of  disconnected 
words  because  of  the  unity  of  the  whole  passage  and  the  result- 
ing greater  dilFerentiation  of  the  parts.  In  assimilating  a 
simple  linguistic  material  such  as  nonsense  syllables,  letters  or 
even  disconnected  words,  a  person  not  only  tries  to  give  it  a 
unity  by  connecting  it  with  his  experience,  but  also  seeks  dif- 
ferentials by  which  to  distinguish  the  parts;  and  in  theabsence 
of  preformed  associations  which  may  serve  the  purpose  (for 
example  the  English  words  suggested  by  nonsense  syllables), 
any  peculiarity  such  as  spatial  location,  background,  etc.,  will 
be  utilized.  But  the  peculiarities  thus  utilized  are  increases  in 
complexity.  In  these  cases  the  secondary  associations  (loca- 
tion, background,  etc.)  are  formed  during  the  memorizing  of 
the  principal  associations. 

We  are  thus  brought  to  the  problem  of  the  present  investi- 
gation. Two  factors  are  involved  which  are  inversely  related 
to  each  other.  Increasing  the  complexity  diminishes  the  simi- 
larity, and  this  is  favorable  to  memorizing.  On  the  other 
hand,  //  the  materia!  is  not  a  unity  in  advance,  complexity 
increases  the  association  processes,  the  mental  effort  presumably 
required,  and  consequently  the  possibilities  of  distraction. 
Under  these  conditions  how  much  will  variation  added  to  a 
material,  highly  similar  in  itself,  shorten  the  learning  time  and 
improve  the  retention  ?  Is  there  a  resulting  profit  to  the  mem- 
ory only  when  the  original  material  is  highly  similar,  or  may 
it  possess  considerable  variety  f  When  does  distraction  enter  ? 
Is  there  a  relation  between  the  amount  of  complexity  which  a 
person  will  make  use  of  and  his  retenriveness  ? 

II.      APPARATUS 

With  slight  changes  the  same  apparatus  was  used  throughout 
the  investigation.  The  essential  part  was  an  electro-magnetic 
shutter  which  by  its  movements  opened  and  closed  a  small 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLBXtTT  AND  DISSIMlLARITr  ON  MEUORV.      1$ 

aperture  in  a  screen.  The  screen  was  2  m.  ir  cm.  long  and 
58  cm.  high.  Near  the  middle  was  an  aperture  9.5  cm.  wide 
and  2  cm.  high.  The  subject  sat  in  front  of  the  screen,  and 
when  he  looked  at  a  series  he  brought  his  eyes  within  about 
3  cm.  of  the  aperture.  Behind  the  screen,  74  cm.  from  it  and 
parallel  w  it,  was  a  track  somewhat  longer  than  the  screen, 
supported  by  adjustable  standards,  and  carrying  a  car  i  m. 
long  and  1 1  cm.  wide.  On  the  floor  of  the  car  and  running 
the  length  of  it  was  a  groove,  into  which  any  kind  of  series 


EXPOSUKE  APPAKATUa 

The  apparatus  is  described  in  the  text.  A  ii  apenurei  E  S,  electro-mag- 
nedc  shutter;  T,  track;  ^S,  wide  screeni  C,  car;  A  S,  adjustable  screent;  L  S, 
lower  screen;  S,  shunt;  MB,  metronome  box;  R  B,  rubber  bands,  upper  and 
lower,  which  limit  the  play  of  the  shutter. 

mounted  on  heavy  cardboard  could  be  slid  preparatory  to 
exposing  it.  On  the  back  of  the  car  were  four  upright  steel 
rods  25  cm.  high  on  the  top  of  which  were  four  spring  clasps. 
Small  cardboard  flaps  on  the  back  of  the  series  when  put  into 
the  spring  clasps  held  the  series  rigidly  in  place.  Two  black 
screens  71  cm.  high  and  56  cm.  wide,  extending  from  the  large 
screen  on  the  front  of  the  tables  to  the  track,  could  be  so 
adjusted  by  the  operator  as  to  confine  the  subject's  gaze  to  as 


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1 6  BARVET  ANDRilF  PETERSON. 

small  a  space  as  desired.  They  could  be  widened  so  as  to 
expose  a  whole  series  at  once.  The  car  would  of  course  then 
remain  motionless  during  exposure.  Or  they  could  be  narrowed 
to  the  width  of  a  single  term  of  a  series,  15  cm.  for  example. 
For  successive  exposure  the  car  would  then  be  moved  past 
this  space  by  the  operator  during  the  intervals  while  the  aper- 
ture was  closed.  The  great  advantage  of  the  apparatus  was 
that  whenever  the  subject  was  looking  the  series  did  not  move. 
A  scale,  25  cm.  in  length  on  the  front  of  the  track,  enabled  the 
screens  to  be  quickly  adjusted  to  any  desirable  width.  The 
operator  was  cut  off  from  the  subject  by  a  strip  of  cardboard 
extending  across  the  upper  part  of  the  space  between  the  con- 
verging screens.  The  essential  part  of  the  apparatus,  the  shut- 
ter, remains  to  be  described.  This  consisted  of  an  iron  lever 
55  cm.  long  carrying  a  movable  counterpoise  on  the  short 
arm  and  the  shutter  on  the  end  of  the  long  arm.  An  electro- 
magnet under  the  lever  drew  down  the  short  arm  when  the 
circuit  was  closed,  at  which  the  long  arm  carrying  the  shutter 
moved  up  and  closed  the  aperture.  When  the  circuit  was 
broken  a  coiled  spring  connected  with  the  wooden  base  drew 
the  arm  down  and  thus  opened  the  aperture.  The  current 
was  led  first  to  the  commutator,  then  through  the  electro- 
magnet and  a  metronome.  A  small  rheostat  connected  at  the 
commutator  with  the  apparatus  furnished  a  shunt  to  the  current 
at  the  moment  when  it  was  broken  by  the  metronome.  The 
metronome,  enclosed  in  a  felt-ltned  box,  regulated  the  move- 
ments of  the  shutter,  while  a  small  rod  passing  through  the 
wall  of  the  box  intercepted  the  pendulum  or  set  it  free  when 
desired.  A  j'ear's  constant  use  of  the  apparatus  has  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  is  a  satisfactory  exposure  mechanism  for 
memory  work  of  this  kind. 

III.       EXPERIMENTS   WITH    LANGUAGE    MATERIALS 

The  first  effort  was  to  extend  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Gordon. 
Series  of  nonsense  syllables  of  the  length  used  by  her  (nine 
Syllables)  were  varied  in  size,  color  and  style  of  type.  The  rules 
of  Miiller  and  Schumann  were  followed  in  constructing  the 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITr  AND  DISSlUIUtaTT  ON  MBMORr.     17 

series.  No  syllable  was  used  twice.  The  variations  were  first 
tried  out  separately  and  later  in  combination.  Variations  in 
size  were  secured  by  using  Willson  Gummed  Letters  numbers 
I,  20,  21,  23  and  25.  The  largest  letters  were  38,  the  smallest 
7  mm.  high.  The  letters  were  all  of  heavy  type,  the  lines  of  the 
largest  being  8  mm.  thick.  T^us  a  strong  difference  in  sensation 
was  secured.  A  medium  size,  No.  21,  was  used  for  the  standard 
and  colored  series.'  Colorvariationwasobtainedby  painting  white 
letters  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  brown,  neutral  gray,  and 
black.  White  furnished  the  ninth  variation.  In  the  series  in 
which  the  size  varied  there  were  two  syllables  in  each  of  four 
sizes  and  one  in  a  fifth  size,  while  in  the  color-varying  series 
each  syllable  was  of  a  different  color  or  brightness.  Five  dif- 
ferent styles  of  lettering  were  used  in  the  form-varying  series, 
all  presenting,  as  nearly  as  could  be,  about  the  same  area  of 
stimulating  surface  as  the  standard  letters.  The  styles  of 
type  used  were  the  most  varied  that  could  be  found  and  still 
be  legible.  They  were  (i)  a  heavily  shaded  style  of  print, 
{2)  old  English,  (3)  plain  script,  (4)  an  alphabet  of  closed  letters 
similar  to  the  old  English,  but  having  more  flourishes,  and  (5) 
an  alphabet  of  hollow  letters.  All  of  these  were  done  in  black 
by  hand.  Four  series  of  each  kind  of  variation,  size,  color, 
and  style  of  type,  were  given  to  six  subjects  without  varying  the 
spatial  position  of  thesyllables.*  Thusthevalueofeach  variation 
separately  was  obtained.  Theeffectsof  practice  were  distributed 
by  giving  four  series  each  week,  one  of  each  kind,  and  rotating 
the  time  situation  of  each  kind  each  week.  A  hard  rubber 
mouth  piece  held  between  the  teeth  was  used  to  aid  the  subject 
in  eliminating  enunciation.  It  was  found  as  shown  in  the 
table  below  that  in  immediate  recall  the  series  varying  in  size 
gave  slightly  better  results  than  the  standard — a  gain  of  9  per 
cent,  but  that  color  variation  was  of  no  aid,  while  variation  in 
the  style  of  print  was  a  detriment.  In  recall  after  24  hours, 
however,  the  result  was  quite  different.     Size  was  again  the 

'The  standard  series  did  not  vary  in  siz«,  color  or  style  of  type.     They 
were  die  itandard  with  which  the  others  were  compared. 
'  For  further  details,  see  p.  25. 


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l8  HARFET  ANDMW  PETESSON. 

best  variation,  showing  a  gain  over  standard  of  §8  per  cent. 
Co/or  was  next  with  52  per  cent  gain,  while  even  form  variation 
showed  a  gain  of  ig  per  cent.^ 

The  next  step  was  to  increase  the  complexity  by  combining 
the  variations.  In  each  syllable  shown  him  the  subject  faced  a 
new  combination.  The  most  complex  type  were  series  which 
varied  in  four  ways:  size,  color,  form  or  style  of  lettering  and 
spadal  position.  A  second  type  varied  in  two  ways  only,  the 
two  which  in  all  probablii^  were  the  most  effective  singly, 
namely,  position  and  size.  The  third  type  was  simply  the 
standard  without  variation  in  position.  Four  series  of  each 
were  given  as  before,  and  it  was  found  that  one  had  not  far 
to  go  to  reach  the  limit  of  effectiveness  in  this  direction.  In 
immediate  recall  the  two  variations  showed  a  gain  of  15  per 
cent,  while  the  series  containing  four  was  no  better  than  stand- 
ard, a  gain  of  3  per  cent.  In  recall  after  2^  hours  the  two  varia- 
tions showed  a  gain  over  standard  of  only  ^  per  cent,  while  the 
four  gave  the  same  as  standard  again.  The  improvement  shown 
hy  the  subjects  in  the  standard,  jtS  per  cent  gain  over  the  show- 
ing made  in  the  first  four  weeks,  is  worth  noting.  It  is  due 
to  practice.  The  unexpected  fact  ts  that  the  size  variation  with 
the  addition  of  position  variation  has  not  gained  proportion- 
ately. This  is  probably  due  to  a  concealed  loss  consequent 
upon  increasing  the  complexity.  In  any  case  taken  with  the 
fact  that  four  variations  gave  the  same  as  none  (5.21  and  5.21), 
it  shows  that  the  limit  has  been  reached  vrith  this  material, 
unless  more  effective  variations  can  be  found. 

During  the  fifth  and  sixth  of  the  eight  weeks  spent  on  syl- 
lables, the  combination  of  size  and  position,  and  the  combina- 
tion of  four  variations  were  tried  with  words.  It  was  expected 
that  the  variations  would  be  of  no  positive  value  here  because 
words  contain  so  much  variation  in  themselves,  especially  in 
meaning,  as  compared  with  syllables.  The  result  as  shown  by 
the  table,  based  on  two  series  of  each  kind,  confirmed  the 
expectation.  Interesting  light  is  thrown  by  the  introspections 
of  the  subjects  on  the  cause  of  the  failure.     They  made  mean- 

'The  tix  horizontal  rows  of  figures  in  the  tables  represent  the  six  subject*, 
and  give  the  average  number  cl  syllables  or  words  out  of  nine  correctly  recalled. 


dbyGoO^lc 


INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITr  AND  DISSIUILABITT  ON  MEMORr.      19 

ing-cUssifications  such  as  'farm  products'  or  'machinery,' 
which  united  not  only  two  or  more  words  in  the  same  series, 
but  even  words  from  different  series.  With  rare  exceptions, 
position  was  the  only  'mechanical  aid,  but  even  it  was  not 
needed  in  view  of  the  variety  afforded  by  meaning.  In  sylla- 
bles they  found  variety  in  ways  not  provided  by  the  operator, 
all  of  which  is  on  the  positive  side  of  our  thesis,  but  which 
cannot  be  reduced  to  tables.  At  the  outset  of  the  experiment 
the  subjects  were  asked  to  lend  their  cooperation  in  shifting 
the  emphasis  of  the  attention  to  the  variations  introduced  by 
the  operator,  and  they  did  so.  Nevertheless,  resemblance  to 
words,  despite  their  efforts  to  exclude  it,  was  one  of  the  two 
main  aids  in  recalling  the  syllables,  the  other  being  position. 
The  fact  that  an  error  had  been  made  in  the  case  of  a  certain 

Table   i.     Sboiuiag  mirragei  and  mean  varialioni. 
A.  NONSENSE  SYLLABLES. 

ImmeJiatt  Recall. 


,rr^« 

OMl  tA 

KtK  IIMIHT. 

StudlTd. 

Caian. 

Sim. 

Fomu. 

Sui]d.rd. 

TwoVir. 

FourVir. 

Av. 

M.V. 

Av. 

M.V. 

Av. 

.V. 

Ai. 

M.V. 

Av. 

M.V. 

Av. 

M.V 

Av. 

M.V. 

6..J 

LIS 

6.8, 

1. 01 

7.92 

.., 

6.67 

.SO 

7-14 

I.OO 

8.4. 

.39 

7  00 

-SO 

6.6; 

1. 17 

'■7S 

.4ft 

7-41 

1.04 

tip 

.79 

6.SC 

i.oa 

I.OC 

7-'i^ 

.80 

TV 

7-T 

M 

8.5c 

.7S 

6.0I 

■  St 

6. .7 

b.f. 

■  Qt 

^V 

«1 

■i-JS 

i-?": 

4-Sc 

6.0c 

.8. 

S  42 

■qi 

«.v 

6.66 

i.r 

7.16 

1.42 

S-iS 

.2( 

!6J 

■7; 

b.i; 

■  V 

6.0( 

.90 

6., I 

I.O& 

!■'; 

1.0c 

7-i; 

[.17 

7.o» 

'■59 

'.7S 

M 

5  33 

SO 

S  75 

■  75 

5  33 

i.oH 

6.50 

1.00 

b.oo 

I.OO 

S3' 

1.15 

«.3S 

■74 

6.89 

.68 

s». 

1.08 

6,70 

9' 

7.68 

1. 10 

6.88 

.96 

Recall  after  Twenty-four  Ht 


.yGoogle 


20  HARVEr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

B.   WORDS. 
Immtdiate  Ricall  Recall  after  Forlyeigbt  Hoars. 

Stind.         Two  V»r.     Four  V»r.  S(ind.  Two  V»r.        Four  Vu. 

7.2  7.00  6.1  1.94  3.40  1.69 

syllable  individualized  the  syllable  and  was  likely  to  fix  it. 
Thus  one  subject  said  paradoxically  that  the  syllables  that  he 
didn't  get  in  immediate  recall  were  the  ones  he  got  in  the  test 
for  permanence.'  For  a  while  white  type  on  white  cardboard 
individualized  and  fixated  its  syllables  more  than  colors  or 
grays,  simply  because  it  was  difficult  to  see.  A  doubt  as  to 
the  identity  of  a  letter,  after  being  settled,  was  certain  to  fixate 
the  syllable  concerned. 

If  meaning  is  a  kind  of  variety  which  persons  naturally  seek, 
as  the  work  with  nonsense  syllables  and  words  indicated,  it 
should  be  susceptible  to  measurement.  A  series  of  twenty 
adjectives,  and  another  of  twenty  short  sentences  were  given  to 
five  subjects.     The  adjectives  were : 

Fat,  humble,  young,  happy,  broad,  disiracted,  violent,  privileged,  sleek, 
Kversed,  cautious,  immediate,  idea),  polite,  cold,  gabled,  serene,  imaginative, 
various,  trifling. 

The  sentences  were: 

Mammoth  Cave  is  a  wonderful  place.  Cats  are  not  very  teachable.  He 
gave  a  prodigious  snifF.  The  naval  gunner  is  often  a  noble  fellow.  Chicago 
is  a  windy  city.  Genteel  is  a  word  seldom  used  today.  Damp  weather  is 
bad  for  rheumatism.  The  need  of  protecting  our  industries  is  a  worn  argument. 
The  mistletoe  is  a  parasitic  plant.  Dogs  are  sociable  companions  for  men. 
The  theatre  is  potent  for  good  as  well  as  evil.  Gambling  is  expensive.  The 
steamer  hit  the  dock  a  hard  bump.  This  thread  is  rotten.  Parks  at  public 
expense  are  easily  justifiable.  Granite  is  a  handsome  building  stone.  The 
lake  is  rough.  The  Japanese  are  a  small  race.  Is  abusive  language  ever 
justifiable  ?  The  owner  of  the  horse  gave  a  sarcastic  smile,  and  declined  the 
offer. 

The  subjects  were  allowed  two  minutes  in  which  to  study 
each  of  the  series,  which  were  given  them  in  typewritten  form. 

'The  series  were  shown  again  between  immediate  recall  and  the  test  for 
permanence    See  IV  below. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMFLEXITT  AND  DISSiMILARlTT  ON  MEMORr.     21 

Following  directions  they  did  not  run  together  successive  terms 
into  larger  units,  and  tried  not  to  expand  words  into  phrases 
or  sentences.  They  were  required  to  read  each  list  through  at 
least  once.  In  the  test  for  immediate  recall  and  for  retention 
after  twenty-four  hours  they  were  required  to  give  only  the 
substance  of  the  sentences,  but  the  words  verbatim.  They 
Tfcalled  an  average  of  12.8  words  and  11.6  sentences  in  imme- 
diate recall,  and  y.6  words  and  7  sentences  after  twenty-four 
hours.  One  of  the  five  did  worse  in  the  sentences  than  in  the 
words,  the  other  four  did  as  well  in  one  as  In  the  other.  The 
subjects  said  it  was  difficult  to  keep  the  words  from  arousing 
mentally  a  thought-situation  which  expressed  in  language 
would  have  been  one  or  more  sentences.  Yet  it  is  not  to  be 
inferred  that  the  two  lists  became  equivalent.  The  tendency 
existed  in  that  direction,  and  the  attempt  to  inhibit  it  was 
partially  a  failure.  The  difficulty  of  controlling  the  material 
led  to  its  discontinuance.  Perhaps  the  significant  feature,  aside 
from  the  tendency  toward  expansion  mentioned,  is  the  fact 
that  the  sentences  are  remembered  as  well  as  the  words. 

Numbers  are  a  material  apparently  difficult  to  read  connected 
thought  into,  especially  when  given  in  extended  series.  They 
seem  at  times  not  very  far  from  a  dead  level  of  monotony.  Yet 
they  may  be  vivified  by  associated  material.  Three  series  of 
each  of  the  following  two  kinds  were  given:  on  the  one  hand 
series  of  two-place  numbers,  seven  numbers  in  a  series;  on 
the  other  hand  three  series  of  similar  numbers  and  beside  each 
a  biographical  fact  from  the  Renaissance  period  of  It'ilian 
history.  The  facts  were  varied  and  some  were  striking.  One 
of  the  series  of  numbers  and  facts  was  as  follows: 

Series  III. 
51     A  sculptor. 
95     Famous  for  an  impromptu  oration  in  Latin  congratulating  the  Emperor 

Frederick  III  on  his  coronation. 
14    A  merchant  of  Pisa.     Introduced  the  Arabic  aotation  into  European 

commercial  life. 
47    A  monk. 
a6    Naples. 


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22  HARVEr  ANDHEfF  PETERSON. 

79    An  instance  of  the  revival  of  oraiory.     Funerals,  marriages  and  installa- 
tions of  bishops  were  among  the  occasions  of  his  effoits. 
85    A  bishop. 

It  was  expected  that  the  numbers  without  facts  would  be 
learned  in  less  time  than  those  accompanied  by  facts,  but  it 
was  thought  that  the  latter  might  be  retained  better.  Two 
new  series  were  given  each  week,  one  of  each  kind.  Typewritten 
cards  each  containing  a  series  were  given  the  subject,  one 
at  a  time.  In  the  case  of  the  numbers  without  the  facts  he 
memorized  the  list  as  rapidly  as  possible,  the  time  record  being 
kept  by  the  operator  with  a  stop  watch.  As  soon  as  the  subject 
thought  he  could  give  the  list  correctly  he  tried.  If  he  failed, 
the  learning  process  was  resumed,  and  this  continued  until  he 
gave  the  list  correctly.  The  next  day  the  series  learned  on  the 
previous  day  was  tested,  and  if  an  error  was  made,  that  series 
was  relearned,  and  so  on  until  the  subject  held  the  series  cor- 
rectly for  24  hours.  This  was  the  standard  of  learning  up  to 
which  the  series  were  brought  before  they  were  dropped.  With 
no  subsequent  renewings  they  were  tested  for  permanence  of 
retention  seven  days  and  again  thirteen  days  after  the  comple- 
tion of  learning.  The  series  of  numbers  and  facts  were  learned 
in  the  same  way,  except  that  in  the  tests  the  subject  was  required 
to  give  the  substance  of  the  facts  with  their  appropriate  num- 
bers.    We  refer  here  to  the  learning  process. 

The  results  are  given  in  Table  2.  The  first  half  gives  the 
total  learning  times  in  minutes  and  seconds.  3:31  means  3 
mins.  31  sees.  In  the  second  half,  in  which  the  recall  is  given, 
the  figures  indicate  the  number  of  numbers,  or  numbers  and 
facts  which  were  correctly  recalled.  Seven  would  be  a  perfect 
score  for  a  series.  No  credit  was  allowed  for  partially  correct 
numbers,  or  for  numbers  or  facts  apart  from  their  correct 
coupling.  Several  cases  where  the  recall  could  not  be  secured 
are  marked  by  dashes  in  the  table. 

The  numbers  alone  are  learned  in  less  than  one-half  the  time 
taken  by  the  numbers  and  facts,  and  are  retained  quite  a  little 
better. 

This  ended  our  experiments  with  language  materials.  We 
may  summarize  them  as  follows:     Typographical  variations 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITT  AND  DISStMlLaHlTr  ON  MBMORr.     2$ 
Table  2.        Rtnoiisance  Stries. 

LEARNING  TIMES. 


McP 
G... 
H..., 


3:3 


39     9 

M 

7 

r.    10 

"v 

2t      7 

V 

4 

49    10 

2) 

42     9 

,6 

6 

23     8 

6 

9:37 

5  :1S 

:od  12 

7 

5:0s 


4:07 
3 


9:21 
5    S9 


2  :  S»^  3  ■  H    9  ■  '4     7:15 


7:4> 


NUMBER  OF  TERMS   RECALLED. 


a™,    «™    .AT.. 

APT,,  ,««.»    PAr.. 

Numben. 

No*,  ud  Fica. 

Numben. 

Not.  ud  FuM. 

L 

n. 

DL 

I. 

n. 

m. 

I. 

n. 

in. 

I. 

n. 

in. 

McP. . 

G 

H 

{ 

4 

7 

7 
s 

7 
I 

3 
3 

2 

6 

2 

S 
7 

4 
2 

5 

2 
3 

7 

5 

7 
5 

3 

S 
S 

1 

3 

4 

5 

F 

2 

Ay 

4 

4-^ 

4.7 

4-7 

2.2 

4.3 

27 

1.8 

6 

2.7 

'7 

2.3 

AVERAGES. 

Numben  toA 
Kumbcn.  Ftcti. 

After  (even  day* 4.3  3.7 

After  thirteen  days 3,2  2.4 

are  at  first  a  strong  aid  in  retaining  nonsense  syllables,  but  in 
the  course  of  two  and  a  half  months  the  advantage  o(  series 
varying  in  this  way  is  lost,  because  of  improvement  of  the 
ordinary  series  through  practice.  With  words  the  typograph- 
ical variations  are  of  no  aid  whatever.     The  meaning  variation 


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HARFET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 


is  far  more  imporunt  and  is  the  kind  of  variation  relied  on. 
The  results  have  an  interesting  bearing  on  the  theory  of  adver- 
tising and  printing.  Our  own  conclusion  is  that  if  typc^raph- 
ical  variations  have  any  value  here  for  memory  they  must  offer 
a  constant  novelty.  Mere  variation  without  a  very  consider- 
able amount  of  newness  is  of  no  aid.  If  there  is  to  be  simply 
change  from  one  familiar  variation  (or  even  new  combination 
of  familiar  variations)  to  another,  then  the  variation  in  the 
sense  is  the  more  attractive  and  influential,  in  fact  the  only 
thing  that  is  influential.  This  may  Ux  the  printer  rather 
severely,  but  it  is  some  encouragement  to  those  who  depend 
on  the  content  of  their  advertisements,  rather  than  on  the  form. 

When  mechanical  variations  are  left  and  the  attempt  is  made 
to  secure  variety  through  meaning,  the  first  part  of  our  results 
are  positive,  the  second  part  indecisive.  Sentences  are  as  well 
remembered  as  words,  when  the  learning  time  is  long  enough 
to  comprehend  both.  Binet  and  Henri  and  others  had  already 
shown  this,  but  our  lists  of  words  and  corresponding  sentences 
were  much  longer  than  theirs.  A  still  further  increase  in  the 
length  of  the  selections  would  without  doubt  show  the  same 
result.  The  negative  results  of  our  experiments  vrith  numbers 
and  biographical  facts  are  to  be  interpreted  as  a  superiority  of 
preformed  associations  over  associations  required  to  be  formed 
during  the  learning  process.  In  the  series  of  numbers  without 
facts  the  subjects  could  not  prevent  the  numbers  from  suggest- 
ing associations  from  their  past  experiences.  57  became  57th 
St.,  65  the  age  of  a  member  of  the  family,  etc.  Dates,  too, 
were  suggested  by  some  of  the  numbers.  The  impossibility  of 
controlling  the  associations  led  to  the  discontinuance  of  the  use 
of  numbers.  A  similar  difficulty  has  been  mentioned  already 
in  connection  with  the  use  of  lists  of  words. 

In  the  next  section  we  propose  to  make  a  brief  digression  to 
discuss  a  question  of  nonsense  syllable  technique.  It  may  be 
omitted  without  detriment  to  the  comprehension  of  the  main 
problems  under  consideration. 


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INFUJENCE  OF  COUPLEXITr  AND  DISSIMILARITr  ON  MEMORT,     25 

IV.      ON   METHODS   OF   LEARNING   AND   TESTING   NONSENSE 
SYLLABLES. 

The  method  of  learning  the  series  of  nonsense  syllables  in 
III  consisted  in  giving  the  various  series  to  be  compared  equal 
numbers  of  repetitions,  extending  the  learning  process  over  two 
days,  and  securing  an  immediate  recall  on  the  first  day  and  a 
recall  after  24  hours  on  the  third  day.  On  the  first  day  the 
subject  was  given  2  repetitions  of  a  series  in  practically  imme- 
diate succession  and  then  tested  for  immediate  recall,  the  test 
being  the  quantity  of  syllables  recalled  and  the  cue,  simply  the 
direction  to  begin.  This  was  followed  by  5  repetitions.  The 
next  day  the  subject  spent  from  5  to  10  minutes,  the  exact 
amount  determined  by  the  operator  and  depending  on  the 
number  of  series,  in  recalling,  as  before,  as  many  syllables  as 
he  could.  Placing  in  the  proper  series  was  understood  «>  be 
not  essential.  This  was  followed  by  3  repetitions.  On  the 
third  day  without  further  seeing  the  series  and  with  no  other 
cue  than  an  enumeration  by  the  operator  of  the  varieties  of 
series  which  had  been  given,  the  subject  again  wrote  as  many 
syllables  as  he  could  recall.  There  was  no  time  Hmit  on  this 
test.  TTie  intervals  between  repetitions  and  series  were  prop- 
erly regulated,  and  kept  constant.  Reviewing  was  permitted 
during  the  progress  of  a  repetition  but  not  between  repetitions. 
The  rate  was  50  beats  of  the  metronome  per  minute  with  an 
exposure  on  every  alternate  beat.  The  large  percentages  of 
recall  in  the  tables  speak  in  favor  of  the  workableness  of  the 
method. 

The  method  has  advantages  over  several  of  those  currently 
in  use.  In  the  Ebbinghaus  method  of  entire  learning  and  re- 
learning,  if  the  series  are  short,  for  example  nine  syllables,  the 
repetition  is  too  gross  a  measure  to  detect  small  differences. 
The  difference  of  i  repetition  between  the  4  and  the  5  (let  us 
say)  necessary  for  perfect  immediate  recall  of  two  nine-syllable 
series  may  represent  the  recovery  of  a  single  consonant,  or 
18  seconds  of  hard  work  on  the  part  of  the  subject.  Our 
method  gets  over  this  difficulty  by  giving  a  fixed  number  of 
repetitions,  the  same  for  the  various  types  to  be  compared  and 


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26  HARVSr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

measures  the  difference  by  the  percentases  of  recall.  The 
method  of  successes,  used  by  Miiller  and  Pilzecker  and  many 
others,  also  has  this  advantage,  but  has  one  objection  that  in 
our  opinion  is  fatal  to  it  for  many  subjects,  in  fact  most  sub- 
jects. It  encourages  word  associations.  The  two  syllables 
constituting  a  couplet  are  likely  to  suggest  to  a  subject  single 
words  or  phrases  which  form  a  unity  in  his  past  experience  and 
serve  here  to  link  the  two  syllables  together.  Qan  muc  sug- 
gests gander  mud,  laj  gul  suggests  large  girl.  The  difficulty 
is  a  well-known  one  and  is  treated  by  Ebbinghaus  in  his  Gnind- 
ziige,  p.  676.  It  is  present  to  some  extent  in  the  non-couplet 
methods,  but  the  couplet  methods  (TrelFermethoden)  greatly 
increase  the  frequency  of  occurrence.  In  an  investigation 
made  some  years  ago  it  was  demonstrated  that  couplets  in 
which  word  associations  of  this  sort  occurred  were  better 
retained  than  the  rest  of  the  series,  and  the  superiority  was 
measured.'  Under  certain  conditions,  which  do  not  concern  us 
here  since  they  were  the  same  for  both  kinds  of  material, 
couplets  in  which  word  associations  did  not  occur  had  a  recall 
of  63  per  cent  correct  after  one  day,  which  sank  to  19  per  cent 
after  fifteen  days  more.  In  contrast  with  this,  couplets  in  which 
word  associations  occurred  had  a  recall  of  82  per  cent  correct 
after  one  day,  which  sank  only  to  64  per  cent  after  fifteen  days 
more.  The  results  were  based  on  six  subjects  and  64  couplets 
altogether,  of  which  somewhat  the  larger  share  were  couplets 
in  which  no  word  associations  occurred.  If  the  couplets  in 
which  word  associations  occurred  were  thrown  out  or  separated, 
there  would  be  no  objection  to  this  method,  but  the  waste  of 
effort  is  great,  and  it  has  never  been  done  to  the  writer's  knowl- 
edge, except  in  the  investigation  just  quoted. 

Our  method  makes  an  economical  use  of  the  experimenter's 
and  the  subject's  time  by  using  short  series  and  distributing  the 
learning  over  two  days.  By  making  the  amount  recalled, 
instead  of  the  number  of  repetitions  required  to  learn,  the 
means  of  measurement,  it  measures  small  differences.  It  keeps 
the  word  association  factor  at  a  minimum.     If  it  has  an  objec- 

'  Peterson,  H.  A.  Recall  of  Words,  Objecis  and  Movements.  Psych.  Rev., 
1903,  Mon.  Sup.,  iv,  p.  231. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITr  AND  DlSSIMILARITr  ON  MEMORT.     17 

tion,  it  is  the  possibility  that  the  recall  after  the  last  twenty- 
four  hours  may  not  be  enough  for  purposes  of  comparison. 
This  is  doubtless  true  of  some  subjects.  In  the  foregoing  experi- 
ments, P  was  such  a  subject.  This  objection  would  not  hold 
for  the  five  other  subjects  employed  by  us,  with  all  of  whom 
the  recall  was  sufficient  for  comparison. 

V.  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  PLANE  AREAS 
I.  Adding  yartations  to  a  Material  Containing  Little 
Van  at  ion 
The  next  material  selected  was  both  simple  and  highly  sim- 
ilar internally.  Different  shades  of  gray  were  associated  with 
their  spatial  positions  on  a  cardboard  area.  Four  series  were 
given,  the  first  of  which  varied  in  shades  of  gray  only,  the 
second  in  gray  and  the  color  of  the  center,  the  third  in  gray 
and  the  size  of  the  different  presentations  of  the  series,  and  the 
fourth  in  gray  and  the  shape  of  the  presentations.  The  same 
seven  grays  were  used  in  all  four  series.  They  were  the  Her- 
ing  papers  Nos.  i,  2,  5,  8,  19,  35  and  49.  Each  series  had  seven 
terms  or  presentations  in  it,  and  the  shades  of  gray  ranged 
from  black  to  white  with  about  equal  differences  between 
nearest  shades.  All  seven  terms  were  exposed  simultaneously. 
The  gray  sizes  may  be  given  as  a  sample  series.  They  were, 
from  left  to  right  as  follows: 

Oblongs,  Kei^t  twice  (he  width.  Dark  gray  128  sq.  cm.;  very  light  gray, 
40.5  >q.  cm.;  white,  60.5  iq.  cm.i  bliclc,  2  sq.  cm.;  medium  gray,  84.5  sq.  cm.; 
light  gray,  8  sq.  cm.;  veiy  dark  gray,  24.5  sq.  cm. 

The  form-vatying  series  is  shown  tn  the  plates  in  the  Appen- 
dix.' All  of  the  series  except  the  one  which  varied  in  size  were 
composed  of  terms  whose  areas  were  50  sq.  cm.,  and  even  the 
size  series  had  the  same  total  area  as  the  other  three,  viz:  350 
sq.  cm.  The  color-varying  series  were  made  by  pasting  small 
oblongs  of  color  1.5  cm.  wide  and  3  cm.  high  on  the  gray 
oblongs,  themselves  5  cm.  wide  and  lo  cm.  high.  Each  of  the 
series  was  mounted  on  a  sheet  of  white  cardboard  22  X  28 
inches,  with  the  longer  side  as  the  base. 

'  Gray  Forms. 


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28  HARFEr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

Conceivably  the  ease  of  memorizing  such  series  would  depend 
greatly  on  the  order  o(  succession  of  the  terms.  However, 
inasmuch  as  one  of  the  purposes  of  the  investigation  was  to 
obtain  information  on  this  point,  aside  from  certain  obviously 
easy  arrangements,  it  was  thought  best  to  determine  it  by 
chance.  The  following  cases  embrace  all  exclusions:  (i)  in 
sizes,  a  continuous  increase  followed  by  a  continuous  decrease, 
or  vice  versa;  or  a  condnouus  increase  alone  or  decrease  alone; 
(2)  in  shades  of  gray,  or  violet  (the  latter  series  to  be  described 
later)  a  continuous  change  from  black  to  white  or  vice  versa, 
or  from  red  to  purple  or  vice  versa;  (3)  in  grays,  colors,  and 
sizes,  the  same  arrangement  as  some  previous  series.  This 
rule  resulted  probably  in  less  uniformity  of  material,  but  at  least 
was  free  from  the  influence  of  unconscious  subjective  favoring. 

To  increase  the  number  of  series  a  group  of  four  series  was 
next  made  which  in  all  respects  was  similar  to  the  gray  group 
except  that  shades  and  tints  of  violet  were  used.  The  colors 
in  the  series  with  colored  centers,  and  the  shapes  in  the  form- 
varying  series  were  different  from  what  had  been  used  in  the 
gray  group.  The  shapes  are  given  in  the  plates.  The  same 
sizes  were  used  in  the  size-varying  series  as  in  the  grays,  but 
to  diminish  interference  from  the  gray  sizes  they  were  right 
triangles.  Tlie  effort  was  made  to  secure  violets  which  would 
be  about  as  difficult  to  discriminate  as  the  grays.  The  ones  , 
selected  were:  blue  violet,  violet,  violet  tint  i,  red  violet,  red 
violet  tint  i,  violet  red.  To  these  purple  was  added.  The 
grays  were  learned  the  first  week  and  the  violets  the  second  week. 

The  method  of  learning  the  series  was  the  same  as  the  one 
used  in  experiments  with  numbers  and  biographical  facts.  We 
shall  describe  the  process  in  its  several  steps.  When  the  shutter 
opened  the  subject  began  to  learn  the  series.  As  soon  as  he 
thought  he  had  mastered  it,  so  that  he  could  give  it  the  next 
day,  he  gave  a  signal,  whereuf>on  the  shutter  closed.  The 
subject  then  turned  to  a  small  table  on  his  right,  uncovered  a 
set  of  unmounted  duplicates  of  the  series,  and  tried  to  arrange 
them  in  the  right  order.  As  soon  as  he  had  arranged  the 
series  as  best  he  could  he  gave  a  signal,  whereupon  theoperator 
at  once  removed  the  duplicates.     If  the  attempt  was  unsuc- 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITr  AND  DISSIMILARITT  ON  MBiiOST.     29 

cessfui,  the  duplicates  were  returned  bunched  and  covered,  the 
series  was  again  exposed  and  the  teaming  process  resumed,  and 
again  tested,  rill  the  series  had  been  perfectly  arranged.  The 
lengths  of  exposure  were  kept  with  a  stop-watch. 

Where  more  than  one  exposure  of  the  series  a  day  was  neces- 
saty,  the  lengths  of  the  exposures  were  recorded  separately, 
and  the  number  of  arrangements  which  the  subject  required. 
The  next  day  the  series  given  on  tlie  previous  day  were  tested 
again  by  use  of  the  duplicates.  If  the  arrangement  of  any 
series  contained  an  error,  that  series  was  again  exposed  for 
such  a  length  of  rime  as  the  subject  required,  and  again  tested. 
llie  subject  could  not  omit  the  arranging  if  he  desired.  If  he 
showed  by  his  preliminary  arrangement  on  the  second  day  that 
he  had  held  the  series  perfectly  for  a  day,  it  was  not  again  shown. 
Having  been  brought  up  to  the  standard,  the  series  was  dropped 
for  thirteen  days,  when  the  retention  test  took  place.  The 
learning  was  usually  completed  by  the  third  day.  Tlie  pur- 
pose of  all  this  was  to  bring  the  series  up  to  a  point  of  imme- 
diate fixation  that  would  insure  enough  recall  after  two  weeks 
for  purposes  of  comparing  the  different  types  of  series.  The 
test  which  was  given  after  thirteen  days  consisted  in  the  sub- 
ject's again  arranging  the  series.  No  introspections  were 
allowed  and  no  comments  could  be  given  dll  after  this  test, 
because  such  introspections  or  comments  would  fixate  the 
senes,  and  do  it  unevenly.  For  introspections  our  main  reliance 
was  on  series  given  especially  for  this  purpose  and  not  recorded 
in  the  tables.  Reviewing  after  an  arrangement  had  been  made 
was  not  allowed.  Having  arranged  the  duplicates  the  subject 
who  followed  instructions  dismissed  the  series  from  his  mind. 
The  intervals  between  exposures  and  between  series  were  regu- 
lated. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  invesrigarion  a  series  of  experiments 
was  carried  out  upon  the  same  subjects  with  similar  material 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  value  of  the  pracrice  of 
allowing  the  subject  to  arrange.  The  details  are  given  on  pp. 
65-7,  which  may  be  profitably  read  at  this  pwint.  The  method 
employed  consisted  in  giving  parallel  series  as  nearly  equal  in 
difficulty  as  possible.     In  one-half  of  them  the  learning  was 


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30  HAItFEr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

carried  on  solely  by  looking  at  the  series  through  the  aperture. 
The  other  half  were  given  the  same  lengths  of  exposure  and  in 
addition  the  subject  was  allowed  the  usual  arrangement  of 
duplicates.  The  recall  after  the  lapse  of  a  week  gave  the  rela- 
tive efficiency  of  the  two  methods  of  learning,  and  by  sub- 
tracting the  toul  recall  of  all  the  series  in  which  there  was  no 
arranging  from  the  total  recall  of  the  series  in  which  arranging 
had  been  allowed,  the  value  of  the  arrangements  alone  was 
obtained.  Since  a  given  number  of  arrangements  produced  a 
certain. number  of  units  of  recall  and  a  given  amount  of  time 
of  exposure  produced  a  certain  number  o(  units  of  recall,  by 
reducing  both  to  the  amounts  of  each  necessary  to  produce  one 
unit  of  recall  it  was  possible  to  hnd  for  an  arrangement  its 
equivalent  in  minutes  and  seconds  of  learning  time.  With  this 
average  value,  one  for  each  subject,  the  arrangements  were 
converted  into  learning  time  and  added  to  the  amounts  actually 
consumed  by  a  subject  in  looking  at  the  series  through  the 
aperture.  Thus  our  two  time  measurements  were  reduced  to 
one. 

This  in  brief  was  our  method.  In  one  way  it  lacked  exact- 
ness, namely,  in  the  distribution  of  the  learning  periods  over 
varying  numbers  of  days.  But  in  another  way  it  had  exactness. 
By  making  the  subject  the  judge  of  the  time  necessary  for 
learning,  learning  times  were  secured  which  minute  for  minute 
represented  equivalent  degrees  of  effort.  A  comparison  of  the 
subjects'  speed  of  learning  given  on  page  64  will  convince  any 
one  of  the  impossibility  of  getting  accurate  results  when  giving 
the  same  exposure  intervals  to  all  subjects  and  for  all  materials. 
The  difficulty  of  appraising  the  value  of  the  tests  allowed  the 
subjects  during  learning — a  difficulty  which  has  been  felt  by 
many  experimenters  on  memory — ^was  satisfactorily  solved  by 
the  method  described.  Again,  one  of  the  principal  advanrages 
of  our  method  is  the  opportunity  it  affords  for  studying  different 
types  of  learners.  The  fact  that  one  series  was  learned  more 
thoroughly  than  another,  that  the  subject  could  not  judge 
accurately  his  ability  to  hold  a  series  for  a  day,  did  not  introduce 
error  into  the  results  if  the  assumption  be  granted  that  recall 
after  thirteen  days  is  in  proportion  to  the  thoroughness  of  the 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLBXlTr  AND  DISStMILAXITr  ON  MEUORr.     3 1 

original  mastery.  Any  one  who  doubts  this  can  find  evidence 
in  our  tables  in  the  form  of  mean  variations. 

The  use  of  duplicates  as  a  means  of  testing  was  adopted  to 
avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  inequalities  which  would  be  intro- 
duced into  the  material  by  the  ready  presence  or  absence  of 
names.  Lehmann'  and  Angell,'  among  others,  have  shown 
that  colors  which  can  be  readily  named  are  better  discrimi- 
nated and  remembered  than  those  which  cannot  be.  Again, 
the  desire  of  the  author  was  to  guide  the  whole  investigation 
away  from  language  and  into  retention  and  learning  of  the 
material  presented.  The  initials  of  the  colors  could  be  made 
into  a  mnemonic  word  and  thus  remembered,  and  similarly 
sizes  and  forms.  There  was  no  desire  to  experiment  in  the 
linguistic  field  here,  and  the  subjects  were  repeatedly  turned 
in  the  opposite  direction  and,  judging  by  their  own  testimony, 
with  success.  The  part  played  by  language  is  discussed  on 
p.  47  in  connection  with  methods  of  learning. 

The  results  of  the  gray  and  violet  sets  are  given  in  Table  3. 
The  learning  rimes  are  given  in  minutes  and  seconds  and 
arrangements;  for  instance,  F.  learned  the  grays  in  4  mins. 
I  sec.  and  2  arrangements.  The  abbreviation  'arrs.'  means 
number  of  arrangements  which  the  subject  required  in  bringing 
the  series  up  to  standard.  The  recall  in  the  second  half  of  the 
table  is  based  on  a  method  of  scoring  which  briefly  was  this. 
Perfect  score  for  a  series:  14.  Each  term  allowed  i  for  correct 
absolute  position  (left  end,  or  second  from  there,  etc.)  and  i 
for  correct  relative  position  (having  the  correct  terms  on  both 
sides  of  it).  One-half  for  next-to-correct  absolute  position, 
e.  g.,  4th  or  6th  from  left  end  instead  of  5th.  One-half  for 
one  neighbor  correct,  and  one-quarter  for  each  neighbor  cor- 
rect but  on  the  wrong  side.  Terms  whose  relative  positions 
are  made  incorrect  by  the  errors  of  the  other  terms  lose  no 
credit  themselves. 

The  table  shows  that  when  the  shades  of  gray  and  violet  are 
varied  in  form  and  size,  or  when  they  are  given  colored  centers, 
there  is  a  marked  reduction  in  the  learning  times  and  a  large 

■  Phil.  Studien,  V,  1S89,  p.  96. 
'  Phil.  Studien,  XIX,  1901,  p.  1 


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HARFEr  ANDK£W  PETERSON. 


Table  3.    Atioi  variti  in  Color,  Sixt  and  Form. 
A,    Ltaming  Timet. 


CIUT.. 

a.ro««. 

COi.O.>*T.. 

Tune. 

Am. 

Time. 

Am. 

Tinw. 

Am. 

TiiM. 

Am. 

01 

2 

I 

2 

3 
S 

'        ' 

+1 

30 
43 
II 

3 

I 

12 
03 

38 

3:30 

2  :OI 

2:15 

2  :20 

I 

L.:;::::::::::::::::: 

Av 

3  "'" 

4-5 

,-.. 

2.17 

4 

2  :  12 

2.67 

' 

vo.«.. 

».  rouit. 

.„.„. 

C.  TIOLm. 

F 

3 

1 
4 

2 

6 

4 

4 

I  :3o 
I  :45 
I   123 
I  :oS 

1  :5'^ 

2  :22 

Mc.P 

G 

s 

4 

45 
S' 
41 

43 
54 

35 
39 

47 
19 
09 
13 

4 

4 

H 

2 

1  "":::: 

6 

" 

7  ." 

5.33 

■  j5 

!.67 

3-33 

'  -39 

3-33 

■ 

B.    Recall  after  Thirteen  Days. 


o„„. 

noun 

a.,<,«« 

,.ro«.. 

o...„. 

,.m.. 

CMt. 

„r„. 

F 

6.50 
4.00 

4.00 
6.00 

6.00 
8-75 
4.00 
9.00 
7.00 
11.50 

6.00 

11,50 

14.00 

4.00 
:4.oo 
6.2s 
4.00 

4.00 
4.00 

6.50 
6.00 

4.00 

n.50 
8.50 

4-00 

4.00 
6.50 

14.00 
9.00 
4.00 
10.50 
4.00 
4  75 

Mc.P 

G 

4.00    6.50 

500  1  4  00 
4.00  1  9.00 

I 

i 

(   m  1    c  ni 

7.71 

12.25 

6.04 

6.17 

7.42 

7-71 

*  ^ 

J   f 

increase  in  recall.  If  the  arrangements  be  converted  into  learn- 
ing times,  and  an  average  be  taken  of  the  gray  and  violet  sets 
together,  the  addition  of  a  form  variation  reduces  ike  learning 
time  68  per  cent  and  increases  the  recall  75  per  cent.     The  adii- 


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INFIMENCE  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DtSSIMILAEITT  ON  MEMORT.      33 

tion  of  a  variation  in  size  reduces  the  learning  time  about  50  per 
cent  and  increases  the  recall  7  per  cent.  The  addition  of  a 
variation  in  color  reduces  the  learning  time  ^5  per  cent  and 
increases  the  recall  32  per  cent.  Form  is  therefore  the  most 
effective  variation,  color  next  and  size  the  least.  All  six  sub- 
jects benefit  by  all  three  variations.  The  improvement  is 
extremely  marked  and  very  general. 

The  question  arises  whether  the  variations  in  color,  form 
and  size  were  not  easier  to  associate  with  position  than  the 
grays  and  violets,  and  were  therefore  taken  as  the  thing  to  be 
learned,  the  grays  and  violets  being  neglected.  In  other  words, 
was  the  improvement  due  to  substitution  rather  than  to 
increasing  complexity  ?  Did  the  subjects  use  the  shades  of 
gray  and  the  violet  colors  at  all  ?  The  likelihood  that  this  did 
occur  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  interference  was  likely  to 
enter  from  the  connection  of  the  same  shades  of  gray  with 
different  positions  in  different  series,  and  the  same  for  violets. 
The  opinion  of  the  subjects  on  this  point  is  of  value.  They 
said  that  the  grays  (or  violets)  and  their  added  variations 
formed  unities  before  the  learning  process  was  completed,  but 
that  the  variations  added  to  the  grays  or  violets,  being  the  more 
easily  discriminated,  were  the  main  reliance  in  learning  and 
recalling. 

The  experiment  does  not  tell  us  whether  the  combination  of 
two  variations,  in  themselves  about  equal  in  discriminability, 
would  be  more  readily  associated  and  better  retained  than  either 
alone.  For  example,  the  table  shows  that  shades  of  gray  and 
violet  colors  without  additional  variations  were  about  equal. 
Would  their  combination  result  in  a  learning  time  and  retention 
better  than  either  alone  ?  While  the  experiment  was  not  per- 
formed, there  is  no  doubt  that  at  this  low  level  of  variation  it 
would. 

To  summarize  the  present  situation  in  the  solution  of  our 
problem:  in  the  shades  of  gray  or  shades  and  tints  of  one  color, 
a  material  has  been  found  which  has  a  rather  large  amount  of 
sameness  and  simplicity  about  it,  and  still  is  free  from  the 
preformed  associations  which  hindered  the  linguistic  experi- 
ments.    So  far  as  this  material  is  concerned  the  experiments 


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34  HAXFEY  ANDREH'  PETERSON. 

just  completed  answer  the  first  part  of  our  thesis.  Adding 
variations  improves  both  the  learning  times  and  retention  of  all 
the  subjects  by  targe  amounts,  the  precise  amount  differing  with 
different  variations.  The  next  step  is  to  try  adding  variations 
to  materials  similar  in  their  general  character  to  grays  and 
violets,  but  containing  in  themselves  more  variety  and  com- 
plexly. 

z.     Adding  Variations  to  More  Varied  Materials. 

In  this  set  of  experiments  there  was  not  only  an  ascent  to 
more  varied  bases  than  grays  and  violets,  but  there  was  also 
an  effort  to  add  variations  that  were  equal  or  less  in  discrimi- 
nability  than  the  bases  to  which  they  wereadded.  Color,form 
and  size  were  suspected  of  fulfilling  these  conditions.  Twenty- 
four  series  of  six  different  kinds  were  made. 

i    4  series  of  colore  iv    4  series  of  colored  sizes 

ii     4  series  of  sizes  v    4  series  of  ndored  forms 

iii     4  series  of  fonns  vi    4  series  of  colored  forms  of 

difierent  sizes.* 

The  twelve  series  on  the  left  aim  to  find  the  value  of  color, 
size  and  form  separately;  the  twelve  on  the  right,  rfieirvalue  in 
combination.  Together  they  should  answer  such  questions  as 
the  following:  Suppose  it  should  result  diat  colors  and  sizes 
each  by  themselves  are  learned  about  equally  well.  Are  series 
which  vary  in  both  ways  simultaneously  (colored  sizes)  learned 
more  quickly,  and  retained  better,  or  not  ?  If  better,  it  can  be 
due  only  to  the  increase  in  complexity  and  resulting  differ- 
entiation, and  not  to  substitution.  In  the  same  way  the  last 
two  groups  on  the  right  may  be  compared  with  the  last  on  llie 
left. 

The  general  plan  of  these  series  differed  from  that  of  the 
series  of  grays  and  violets  in  one  important  respect.  The  col- 
ored sizes,  for  example,  did  not  add  a  size  variation  to  the  colors 
of  the  previous  color  series,  but,  as  far  as  the  realm  of  colors 

*  It  will  be  found  helpful  in  the  comprehension  of  the  following  general 
description  to  read  for  illustrative  purposes  the  construction  of  a  few  typical 
series  in  the  Appendix,  pp.  74-80.    The  Bradley  papers  were  used. 


dbyGoOgk 


i\ 


INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXlTr  AND  DlSSlMlLARJTr  ON  MEMORT.     35 

offered  variety,  combined  size  with  colors  not  heretofore  used. 
Similarly  when  in  the  third,  fifth  and  sixth  groups  of  series 
above  enumerated,  form  became  a  base,  the  same  forms  were 
not  used  over  again,  as  was  the  case  with  the  shades  of  gray 
and  violet,  but  new  forms  were  found.  This  change  was  in 
the  interest  of  a  reduction  of  interference.  The  principle  could 
be  carried  out  most  fully  in  the  case  of  forms,  less  completely  with 
colors,  and  still  less  with  sizes.  Our  guiding  idea  was  to  use 
all  the  wealth  of  variety  which  each  realm,  color,  size  and 
form  afforded.  Our  attitude  was  therefore  an  entirely  prac- 
tical one.  Of  the  76  different  colors  used  in  this  set  and  in  the 
gray  and  violet  sets,  38  were  used  only  once,  18  twice,  14  three 
times  and  6  four  times.  Of  course  the  subjects  did  not  dis- 
criminate in  memory  nearly  as  many  colors.  Of  the  78  differ- 
ent shapes  used  in  the  investigation  vrith  these  subjects,  48 
were  used  only  once,  26  twice  and  4  three  times.  The  repe- 
tition of  forms  was  confined  entirely  to  two  series  in  each  of  the 
form-varying  groups,  namely.  Forms  I  and  II,  Colored  Forms 
II  and  III,  Colored  Forms  of  different  Sizes  III  and  IV, 
and  these  six  series  were  composed  wholly  of  forms  which  had 
been  used  once  before.  Thus  there  was  a  restricted  area 
within  which  the  effect  of  repeating  forms  could  be  observed. 
It  is  essential  to  note  that  in  respect  to  this  feature  the  three 
form-varying  groups  were  on  an  equal  footing,  for  otherwise 
they  could  not  be  compared.  Wherever  a  form  was  used 
again,  it  was  altered  markedly  in  size  and  color.  With  series 
of  sizes  the  limitations  of  the  apparatus  and  work-room  made 
the  variety  small.  In  certain  extra  series  not  included  in  the 
results  we  tried  the  effect  of  larger  sizes,  but  in  the  size  series 
given  in  the  tables  the  aggregate  area  of  the  seven  terms  of  a 
series  was  in  every  case  350  sq.  cm.,  which  was  the  same  as 
for  all  the  other  series.  Now  within  this  limit  the  numberof 
sizes  which  are  favorable  for  inter-term  discrimination  is  rela- 
tively very  small.  We  found  the  best  showing  for  sizes  could 
be  made  by  restricting  the  choice  to  about  twelve  sizes,  which 
we  did.  The  other  devices  used  for  reducing  interference  were 
to  give  each  series  which  did  not  vary  in  form  or  color  a  dis- 
tinctive color  and  form  of  its  own;  similarly  each  series  of 


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36  HARFET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

colors  had  a  distinctive  serles-fomi,  etc.  The  series  were 
mounted  on  white  cardboard,  14  X  2S  inches,  all  the  terms 
resting  on  a  horizontal  base  line.  A  full  description  of  all  the 
series  used,  including  some  extra  ones  not  reported  in  the 
tables,  but  used  in  the  analysis  of  errors  to  follow  later,  will 
be  found  on  pp.  74-80.  A  few  further  remarks  here  will  give 
a  sufficient  account  of  the  series  for  most  purposes. 

As  it  was  the  intention  to  compare  the  results  of  pure  sizes 
and  colored  sizes  it  was  necessary  to  keep  them  equally  dis- 
criminable  in  size.  This  was  done  by  using  the  same  sizes 
(though  not  in  the  same  shapes)  in  both.  Thus  two  series  of 
pure  sizes  and  two  of  colored  sizes  increased  in  area  in  the 
geometrical  ratio  of  2.77  beginning  with  a  minimum  area  of 
.5  sq.  cm.  The  other  two  series  of  sizes  varied  by  irregular 
ratios  which  decreased  somewhat  toward  the  largest  terms,  but 
they  were  repeated  in  the  other  two  series  of  colored  sizes. 
The  order  in  which  the  terms  of  the  series  were  arranged  was 
determined  by  chance,  excluding  the  exceptions  made  on  p. 
28.  The  twelve  series  varying  in  form  are  reproduced  in  the 
plates  on  a  reduced  scale  and  need  little  further  description. 
All  of  the  forms  in  the  third  and  fifth  types  were  of  the  same 
area,  50  sq.  cm.  The  guiding  ideas  in  die  selection  of  forms 
were  to  keep  within  the  three  classes:  conventional  geometrical 
figures,  very  simple  decorative  designs,  and  relatively  meaning- 
less forms.  The  word  relatively  is  emphasized,  for  those 
subjects  who  looked  for  meaning  in  forms  usually  found  it, — 
meaning  of  some  sort.  The  forms  vary  from  simple  to  some- 
what complex,  but  there  are  no  intricate  forms.  Considerable 
care  was  taken  to  make  the  series  as  nearly  equal  in  difficulty 
as  possible,  with  what  success  will  appear  in  the  sequel. 

These  twenty-four  series  were  given  in  the  same  way  as  the 
gray  and  violet  sets.  The  subjects  worked  on  three,  and  if 
necessary  to  learn  the  series  four,  successive  days  each  week; 
on  one  or  two  occasions,  five  days.  To  distribute  tne  effects 
of  practice  and  interference,  toe  six  types  were  learned  con- 
currently, although  the  Roman  numerals  I,  II,  III  and  IV  do 
not  indicate  the  order  in  which  the  series  were  learned.  All 
the  conditions  not  specifically  mentioned  were  the  same  as  in 
the  gray  and  violet  sets. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXtTT  AND  DISSIUILARlTr  ON  MEMORr.     37 

Tablb  4.     Artas  varttd  in  Color,  Shu  and  Form.     Associalti  with 
Spotted  Position. 

A.      LEARNING  TIMES. 


.. 

„. 

.... 

.V. 

AV.^0... 

Tune. 

Atn. 

Time. 

Am. 

Time. 

Am. 

Tune. 

Am. 

Timt. 

Am. 

G 

H 

I::::::. 

N 

R 

SI 
:14 

=39 
44 
IM4 
4> 

2 
Z 

4 
3 

^35 
4" 

1:2s 
■'5 
=38 

:30 
:5> 
■43 
1:02 
:i4 
.19 

4 

1:29 
1:02 

r29 

3-75 
3-«> 
3  25 
3  25 
3-2S 
3  as 

Av 

:S« 

3"7 

-45 

2.50 

^59 

4-33 

:38 

3  17 

■SO 

329 

G     . 

H... 
J.... 

L 

N... 
R.... 

G... 
H... 
J.... 


V 

4- 

3' 

,1- 

12 

V 

♦S 

1- 

40 
24 

6. 
3- 

367 


467     45 


4.83 


29 

2. 

■vi 

w 

38 

18 

2.83 


d 

^eJ  Shei. 

G 

■■*!• 

=34 

2 

=23 

4         , 

»5 

8 

4= 

4  50 

m 

40 

2 

:29 

4         I 

12 

50 

4.00 

[:;.;;:: 

2»5 

=39 

2 

■45 

2         1 

33 

4          I 

S.oo 

1:23 

■40 

4 

i»4 

5' 

4 

4.25 

:« 

:t1 

2 

:"5 

26 

5 

1" 

3.75 

^59 

35 

4 

:■? 

■7 

4 

32 

425 

Ay 

7' 

4 

■36 

2.67 

^32 

4 

54 

SI7 

48 

39^ 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


RARFEr  ANDSEW  PETERSON. 
Cotortd  Forms. 


• 

.„„™. 

Time. 

Am. 

■^- 

Am. 

■nme. 

Am. 

Time. 

Am. 

Time. 

Am. 

G 

H 

J 

L 

N 

R 

■■'S 

3 

2 

3 

:I9 

7:15 
M 
:i3 
:"3 

33 
37 

4 

:2S 
:22 
:22 
^38 

■■•s 
■•s 

25 
26 
45 
39 
■S 
14 

3.00 
2  75 
2  75 
2.50 

2.25 

«.'5 

A. 

:26 

J.33 

:3» 

2.50 

'1 

2.67 

■^3 

'.83 

:=7 

2.58 

Coiored  Formt  of  Digmnt  Sixes. 


G 

■20 

:il 

4' 

43 

2 

29 

2.00 

H 

4* 

2 

46 

^ 

30 

41 

2.00 

J 

m 

2 

:.34 

38 

40 

2.50 

L 

;28 

2 

■52 

■■V> 

35 

36 

2.50 

N 

:20 

2 

:l6 

:25 

■5 

19 

2.(0 

R 

:i6 

« 

fi6 

:i4 

' 

«4 

«5 

2.50 

Av 

129 

2 

■36 

2.67 

:3^ 

=  ■33 

»9 

2.3^ 

31 

233 

Recln. 

RcuU. 

ReciU. 

Rcc^U. 

AOII. 

ReealL 

5  25 

It 

4.50 
6.00 
5-50 

11.50 

8.00 
6.75 
7.00 
14,-00 
8.15 

7.00 
♦  SO 
4.50 
6,7s 
7.50 
8.00 

8.50 
7.25 
6.00 
6.00 

4.00 
6-75 

H                  

6  Si 

6.31 

t :;::::::::;:::;::::::: 

N                         

7.88 

7->3 

6-13 

9- as 

6.38 

6.41 

705 

7.00 
14.00 

4,00 
11.50 

5.25 

5.00 

6.00 

6.50 
4- SO 

4-00 

8.00 
4.50 
4.00 

11.50 
5.25 
8.2s 
6.50 
7.00 
4.00 

6.63 
9.81 

H                             

i :::::;;;:;:::;:;:;:;: 

8'3 
531 
4  25 

N                             .... 

Av 

7-79 

5.00 

6.92 

7.08 

6.70 

„Go(ij(lc 


INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DlSStUILAMlTT  ON  UEMOHr.     39 


itJk 

R«cJL 

HwJL 

If. 

RuiO. 

ACE*. 

ReciD. 

11.50 
14-00 
II. so 
11.50 

4.00 
8.00 
+  .00 
6.7s 
7.00 
5.00 

6.75 
525 
il.So 

lo.so 
6.00 

8.50 
11.50 
11.50 

9.00 
11.50 

8.00 

7.69 
9.69 
9  63 
9-31 
10,13 

J 

L 

N.. 

Av 

11.38 

5  79 

8.33 

,0.00 

s  n 

G. 

5.00 
6.50 
11.50 
5.00 
4.00 
8..5 

4.00 

6.50 
S«5 
8..S 
9!S 

6.00 
(,.%$ 
5-5» 
4.00 
8.50 
10.00 

10.50 
14.00 
8.50 
4.00 
10.50 
6.00 

6.38 

H 

1 

8  00 

L.    

4.56 
7.81 
8.38 

N 

«.... 

A..... 

6.71 

6.46 

6,7. 

8.92 

7.20 

Colortd  Formt. 


Colored  Forms  of  Different  Siti 


a.. 

8.00 

l+.OO 

7-So 
4.00 
11  50 
14.00 

6.50 
14.00 
■4.00 

6.25 
14.00 

5  50 

5.00 
6.75 
5-5» 
5-75 
6.00 
9.00 

*-75 
10.50 
6.25 
7.00 
10.50 
14.00 

H.  . 

11.31 
8.31 
5-7S 
10.50 
10.63 

f-. :::::::::;:::::::::::::: 

«...   

''- . 

983 

10.04 

'33 

8.83 

8.76 

9.00 
10.50 

9.00 
9.CX) 
11.50 

4-75 
8.50 
14.00 
11.50 
5-75 
5.00 

14.00 
10.50 
4.00 
10.50 
11.50 

+■'5 
4.00 
6.75 
6.25 
10.00 
6.50 

7.00 
9.25 
9.81 
7.69 
S  St 

8.63 

9-SO 

8.25 

10.08 

6.29 

8.53 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


HARrsr  ANDREW  PETERSON 


Table  5.    Artas  varied  in  Color,  Siv  anJ  Form 
Recall  per  Ten  Seconds. 


COLOM. 

■nit. 

Fomui. 

COL.  (IZII. 

COL.  roui*. 

c.  r.  d.  a. 

Rec 

M.V. 

Km. 

M.V. 

R=. 

M.V. 

Rec 

M.V. 

«. 

M.V. 

Rec 

M.V. 

I. 

7'J 

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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DtSSlUILdRITr  ON  MEUORr.     4.1 


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DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


43  HARFEr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

The  results  are  given  in  Tables  4  and  5,  In  part  A  of  Table 
4  the  learning  times  are  given  in  minutes  and  seconds,  and 
arrangements;  in  part  B  the  amounts  recalled  after  thirteen 
days  are  given  on  the  scale  of  14  for  perfect  recall  of  the  series.' 
In  Table  5  the  recall  of  Table  4  is  recalculated  by  finding  the 
equivalents,  in  learning  times,  of  the  arrangements,  adding 
them  to  the  net  learning  times,  and  then  calculating  the  amounts 
recalled  per  ten  seconds  of  aggregate  learning  time.  A  sum- 
mary of  Table  5  follows  it,  and  a  verbal  summary  is  given  last. 
"Rec."  means  recall  and  M.  V.,  mean  variation. 

Summary  of  results.  For  reasons  evident  in  what  follows  it 
will  be  necessary  to  consider  the  subjects  individually.  It 
may  be  well  to  recall  the  fact  that  we  are  seeking  limits  to  the 
effectiveness  of  increasing  variety,  the  combination  being  each 
time  new,  and  that  from  the  very  nature  of  attention  limits 
will  certainly  be  reached.  It  may  be  well  to  recall  also  that 
with  the  less  varied  bases — the  shades  of  gray  and  violet — all 
of  the  subjects  profited  very  markedly  by  all  of  the  added 
variations.  But  color  is  a  more  varied  base  than  gray  or 
violets  and,  to  say  nothing  of  isolated  series,  a  dozen  series  of 
forms  contains  more  variety  than  a  dozen  series  of  colors. 
Accordingly  it  may  be  expected  that  before  long  the  subjects, 
according  to  their  powers  of  discrimination,  retendveness,  and 
span  of  consciousness  and  consequent  ability  to  resist  distrac- 
tion, will  begin  to  diverge.  Some  will  reach  a  limit  sooner  than 
others.  Under  such  conditions,  averages  of  different  subjects 
are  worth  little.  In  what  follows  it  will  be  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  memory  for  size  and  color  separately  as  well  as  in 
combination.  Two  very  important  results  shown  by  all  the 
subjects  in  marked  degree  may  be  mentioned  first,  however. 
First,  all  six  subjects  retain  forms  muck  better  than  sizes  and 
colors.  Secondly,  all  six  subjects  retain  colored  forms  better  than 
colors.  The  second  of  these  two  results  is  comparable  to  the 
results  obtained  in  the  gray  and  violet  set,  for  in  both  cases 
the  variations  added  were  much  more  easily  discriminated  than 
the  bases  to  which  they  were  added. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMFLBXITr  AND  DlSSlMILdXlTT  ON  MEMOSr.     43 

Subject  G.  Pure  colors  and  pure  sizes  are  retained  about 
equally  well.  Colored  sizes  are  retained  at  least  no  better  than 
either  alone,  while  colored  forms  and  colored  forms  varying  in 
size,  in  themselves  about  equal,  are  not  as  well  retained  as 
pure  forms.     G.  says :' 

Color  in  colored  sizes  is  a  slight  aid,  but  less  than  the  natural  fluctuation  in 
eaM  and  difficulty  in  passing  from  one  size  series  to  another.  In  the  form- 
vaiying  series,  in  the  long  run  color  is  of  no  value,  unless  there  arc  no  peculi- 
arities in  torn  or  size  sufficient  to  hold  the  series.  This  seldom  happens. 
The  size  variation  in  colored  foims  of  diffcTcnt  sizes  may  be  of  value 


Subject  H.  Pure  sizes  are  better  retained  than  pure  colors. 
Colored  sizes  show  no  improvement  over  even  the  poorer  of 
the  two.  Colored  forms  are  slightly  better  retained  than  pure 
forms,  but  the  series  with  two  additions  (color  and  size)  are 
not  as  well  retained  as  pure  forms.  H.  says:  "Colored  sizes 
are  easier  to  learn  than  either  sizes  or  colors,  but  variations 
added  to  form  are  a  distraction  in  learning.  However,  in 
recall  they  may  confirm  the  arrangement  after  it  is  made." 
H.'s  learning  times  in  Table  4  do  not  confirm  his  remarks  as  to 
the  greater  ease  for  him  of  learning  colored  sizes.  They  took 
more  time. 

Subject  L.  Sizes  are  much  better  retained  than  colors.  Col- 
ored sizes  are  more  poorly  retained  than  either  sizes  or  colors. 
If  the  four  series  of  each  kind  be  arranged  in  order  of  increased 
retention  per  ten  seconds  of  total  learning  time,  all  four  colored 
sizes  are  poorer  than  even  the  corresponding  color  series.  Only 
one  of  the  former  group  is  as  good  as  any  of  the  latter.  Here 
the  combination  is  actually  poorer  than  either  of  the  elements. 
Colored  forms  and  colored  forms  of  difi^erent  sizes  are  also 
not  as  well  retained  as  pure  forms.     L.  says: 

Colored  sizes  are  harder  than  colors  and  sizes  because  of  conflicting  methods. 
In  colors  I  associate  (he  end  and  middle  colors  with  their  positions,  and  link 

'  Tliese  opinions  of  ihe  subjects  were  obtained  in  all  cases  after  all  experi- 
menting had  been  completed.  The  subjects  did  not  know  what  any  of  the 
results  of  the  investigation  were  except  what  they  may  have  inferred  from 
observing  themselves. 


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44  BARyEV  ANDRSW  PETERSON. 

the  intermediate  ones  with  them  or  with  each  other,  depending  on  the  color 
associations  they  offer.  In  sizes  1  make  groups  of  regularly  increasing  and 
decreasing  sizes.'  In  colored  sizes  the  color  distracts  me  from  using  my  size 
method  and  (he  me  vaiiadvns,  from  using  the  color  method.  The  result  is 
1  use  both.  As  a  rule  (brms  are  easier  than  colored  ibrms.  Oeeaiionally  color 
is  an  aid,  ibr  example  when  the  forms  are  closely  similar.  The  reason  for  the 
difficulty  is  the  same  as  in  colored  sizes,  namely,  conflict  of  habitual  methods. 
Whether  the  addition  of  both  color  andsize  to  form  is  an  aid  I  am  not  sure. 

Subject  N.  Colors  are  much  better  retained  than  sizes, — 
the  reverse  of  the  two  preceding  subjects.  Colored  sizes  are 
retained  better  than  sizes  and  about  the  same  as  colors.  Color 
alone  added  to  form  shows  some  gain  over  pure  form,  but  the 
large  mean  variation  makes  the  advantage  uncertain.  When 
both  color  and  size  variations  are  added,  the  result  is  no  better 
than  in  pure  forms.     N.  says : 

The  color  in  colored  sizes  makes  the  size  stand  out,  but  introduces  a  conflict 
of  methods  of  learning,  and  resulting  distraction.  The  result  is  a  mixture  of 
methods.  1  usually  use  size  to  fix  the  largest  and  smallest  ones  and  color,  and 
size  to  fix  the  intermediate  ones.  The  variations  added  to  form  also  produced 
distraction  in  learning,  the  forms  affording  sufficient  variety  io  themselves. 
The  eoior  anJ  lite  variationt  aJJeJ  la  formt  juit  gaoe  me  more  to  notice.  However, 
sometimes  color  aids  in  recalling  the  position  of  a  form. 

With  the  four  persons  above  limits  were  reached.  With 
the  next  two,  however,  they  were  not. 

Subject  y.  Colors  and  sizes  are  retained  about  equally  well, 
and  colored  sizes  are  retained  considerably  better  than  either. 
If  the  series  of  each  group  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  increasing 
retention  per  ten  seconds,  all  of  the  colored  sizes  except  one 
series  are  better  than  the  corresponding  series  of  colors  alone 
or  sizes  alone.  In  the  case  excepted  the  colored  sizes  are  at 
least  as  good.  Colored  forms  and  colored  forms  of  different 
sizes  are  not  quite  as  well  retained  as  pure  forms,  although  the 
difference  is  quite  sihall.     J.  says: 

The  element  of  color  in  colored  sizes  is  an  aid, — it  gives  each  member  in  the 
•eries  an  individuality  and  thus  helps  to  fix  it  in  its  ab»dute  position;  at  the 

'  On  the  methods  of  learning  pure  sizes,  see  p.  48. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITr  AND  DISSIMILARITT  ON  UBMORr.     45 

tame  time  it  tends  to  break  the  'slcy-line'  ichemes.'  It  is  a  larger  factor  than 
the  natural  fluauations  in  ease  and  difficulty  of  different  series  of  pure  sizes, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  tn  general  all  three  variations  were  aids,  alone  or  in 
combination:  size,  because  it  makes  a  'sky-line,'— to  which  alto  forms  may 
contribute;  color  because  it  fixes  the  center,  or  a  term  left  out  of  my  series- 

Subject  R.  Colors  alone  are  better  retained  than  sizes  alone. 
Colored  sizes  are  about  the  same  as  colors.  Both  colored 
forms  and  colored  forms  of  different  sizes  are  considerably 
better  retained  than  pure  forms.  If  the  series  of  each  group 
are  arranged  in  order  o(  increasing  retention  per  ten  seconds, 
all  the  colored  forms  and  all  the  colored  forms  of  different  sizes 
exceed  the  corresponding  series  of  pure  forms.  There  seems 
to  be  no  question  that  the  variations  added  to  forms  are  an 
aid  to  this  subject.     She  says : 

The  presence  of  color  in  colored  sizes  is  an  aid  because  it  makes  the  middle 
terms  (middle  in  area)  easier  to  discriminate.  It  does  not  prevent  the  use  of 
the  pure  size  method  (the  method  used  by  all  the  subjects).  The  addition  of 
color  and  size  variations  to  form-varying  series  helps  materially  in  differentiat- 
ing similar  forms  both  in  learning  and  remembering. 

Summary:  To  recapitulate, — four  subjects,  G,  H,  L,  and  N, 
show  practically  no  gain  in  retention  in  either  of  the  two  prin- 
cipal types  of  increased  variation  used  here.  In  quite  a  number 
of  cases  the  recall  is  actually  poorer  with  the  combination. 
The  subjects  are  eidier  unaffected  by  the  variations,  finding 
sufficient  variety  in  the  base,  or  they  are  distracted  by  a  con- 
flict o(  methods  of  teaming  which  they  do  not  succeed  in  har- 
monizing, or  by  the  presence  of  variations  which  they  use  only 
occasionally  but  cannot  help  noticing  most  of  the  time.  In 
contrast  with  them  are  the  subjects  f.  and  R.  To  them  all  the 
additional  variations  were  an  aid  subjectively  both  in  learning 
and  recalling,  and  the  tables  quite  decidedly  bear  out  their  intro- 
spections in  the  case  of  colored  sixes  with  y.  and  colored  forms 
and  colored  forms  of  varying  sixes  in  the  case  of  R.  That  a 
type  of  variation  should  be  an  aid  to  J.  and  R.  and  still  not 

'  On  the  method  of  learning  pure  sizes,  see  p.  48. 


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46  HARVET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

show  a  gain  in  their  results  is  possible.  It  may  be  too  small 
to  show;  or  it  may  cause  an  unconscious  diminution  in  eflbrt. 
ir  a  conflict  of  methods  exists  in  colored  sizes  they  have  har- 
monized it.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  use  a 
combination  of  both  methods,  retaining  the  'sky-line'  scheme,' 
and  still  using  color  for  the  terms  intermediate  in  size,  or  for 
a  term  left  out  of  the  size  scheme.  They  are  not  distracted  by 
the  multiplicity  of  variations  in  series  of  the  most  varied  type. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  natural  retentiveness  and  speed 
of  learning  J.  and  R.  represent  opposite  extremes.' 

J.     Methods  Employed  by  the  Subjects  in  Learning  the  Series 

Between  the  5th  and  6th  weeks  of  the  regular  work  series 
were  given  for  the  sole  purpose  of  studying  the  subjects' 
methods.  During  this  week  no  other  series  were  given.  On 
the  introspections  of  these  series,  and  to  a  less  extent  on  those 
given  after  the  final  tests  of  the  regular  series  the  following 
paragraphs  are  based.  They  refer  to  methods  of  learning 
only.  Recall  methods  were  a  survival  of  some  of  the  learning 
methods. 

Fundamentally,  the  subjects  did  not  differ  in  the  methods 
they  employed.  Briefly,  they  all  discriminated  the  terms  of  a 
series  from  each  other,  and  partly  at  the  same  time,  partly 
afterward,  associated  them  with  each  other  and  with  their 
spatial  positions.  The  less  the  terms  differed  from  one  another 
the  more  necessary  it  was  to  differentiate  them.  In  the  two 
series  which  varied  only  in  gray  and  violet,  discrimination 
overshadowed  association,  and  to  the  former  the  long  learning 
times  of  those  series  were  due.  In  series  of  pure  colors  and 
pure  sizes  discrimination  was  easier  and  briefer,  while  In  the 
series  in  which  form  variation  entered,  voluntary  discrimination 
was  at  a  minimum.  It  was  much  more  nearly  instantaneous 
and  Involuntary.  As  one  subject  put  It,  'discrimination  was 
less  necessary,  because  there  was  not  much  likelihood  that  the 

'  The  meaning  of  these  conflicts  of  method,  etc.,  will  become  clear  from  the 
discussion  of  the  next  topic. 
'  See  p.  63. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITT  AND  DlSSlUlLARlTr  ON  MEMORT.     +7 

terms  would  be  mistaken  for  one  another.'  It  will  be  shown 
in  the  analysis  of  errors  that  with  exceptions  this  remark  was 
true.  The  subjects  came  to  feel  automatically  on  seeing  a  new 
series  whether  there  would  be  in  future  much  or  little  liability 
of  mistaking  one  term  for  another,  and  increased  or  reduced  the 
discrimination  process  accordingly.  Except  in  the  grays,  vio- 
lets, and  pure  sizes,  perceptual  discrimination  in  the  simul- 
taneous exposure  was  easy.  It  was  the  discrimination  in  mem- 
ory which  gave  trouble.  The  other  half  of  the  learning  process, 
the  association,  consisted  in  grouping  the  terms  of  a  series. 
They  might  be  grouped  either  because  they  were  adjacent 
(contiguity),  or  because  they  were  similar.  Discrimination 
itself  was  likely  to  have  impressed  similarities,  because  it  was 
similarity  that  provoked  discrimination.  The  grounds  of  classi- 
fication presented  an  ever-changing  variety.  A  few  of  the  most 
common  will  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  particular 
types  of  series,  to  which  we  pass  after  a  word  on  the  subject  of 
language. 

Language  played  small  part  in  learning  and  retaining  the 
series.  Several  subjects  said  that  when  the  forms  and  colors 
were  quite  familiar  they  were  apt  to  suggest  names,  and  one 
said  that  sizes  were  thought  of  by  the  numbers  i  to  7,  but  that 
the  numbers  were  not  run  together  at  all.  This  was  the  sub- 
ject R.  Not  a  single  subject  reconstructed  the  series  from 
language  cues,  according  to  testimony  taken  at  the  close  of 
the  investigation. 

Colors.  The  ends  and  the  middle  were  conspicuous  posi- 
tions with  all  the  subjects.  They  looked  to  see  what  was  there, 
and  if  a  striking  color  was  in  any  one  of  them  it  was  likely  to 
be  made  the  basis  of  a  contiguity  group  or  at  least  make  the 
association  of  the  term  with  its  place  easier.  Other  con- 
tiguity groups  are  illustrated  by  the  introspections:  'Red  and 
green  are  complementary  and  in  5th  and  6th  positions,'  'blue 
green  is  a  familiar  phrase  and  blue  is  on  the  left  of  green  here.' 
Some  of  the  similarity  classifications  which  united  non-contigu- 
ous  terms  were:  'The  bright  and  the  relatively  colorless  or 
dead  ones,'  'the  heavy  and  the  light  ones,'  'the  violet  pair,' 
the  'reddish    ones,'  'colors  on    the    border-Hne  between  the 


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48  HARFET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

seven  spectral  colors.'  There  was  no  hesitation  in  classing  a 
blue  green  or  a  green  blue,  or  even  die  lighter  tint  of  blue  as  a 
blue  in  one  series  and  a  green  in  another  according  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  situation.  //  is  significant  that  the  recogni- 
tion of  several  colors,  or  sizes,  or  forms  for  that  matter,  as  similar 
was  both  an  aid  and  a  risk, — the  latter  because  it  opened  the  way  to 
subsequent  confusion  of  the  positions  of  the  similar  terms.  Two 
'blue'  colors  or  two  'low'  forms  were  peculiarly  liable  to  exchange 
of  positions.  The  corrective  was  of  course  further  discrimina- 
tion. The  number  of  groups  in  a  color  series  was  necessarily 
relatively  large,  because  the  series  were  constructed  so  as  to  give 
as  much  variety  as  was  compatible  with  keeping  inter-series 
interference  at  a  minimum.  This  number  varied  from  three 
to  five. 

SiT^s.  When  in  one  series  the  3d  and  5th  in  size  were  next 
to  each  other,  in  another  the  3d  and  7th,  and  in  another  the 
istand  7th,  and  since  six  such  series  had  been  learned  before  the 
first  two  came  up  for  final  test,  contiguity  could  not  hope  to 
prove  a  successful  method  of  learning  sizes,  and  was  only 
rarely  employed.  Similarity  was  not  used  extensively  if  we 
exclude  such  contrasts  as  smallest  and  largest),  because  it  led  to 
the  confusion  mentioned  in  the  case  of  similar  colors.  All  of 
the  subjects  employed  the  same  method.  They  grouped 
together  a  number  of  terms,  often  not  contiguous,  which  formed, 
abstracting  from  the  intermediaries,  a  continuous  increase  or 
decrease  in  size.  A  variation  of  the  same  method  consisted  in 
remembering  the  length,  direction  and  position  of  the  lines 
running  through  the  tops  of  the  groups.  These  lines  were 
called  'sky-lines.'  Some  of  these  'systems'  or  schemes  were 
simple  and  natural,  others  complicated  and  natural,  and  quite 
a  number  both  complicated  and  forced.  By  forced  is  meant 
not  true  without  exceptions  so  numerous  that  the  value  of  the 
scheme  must  have  been  shght.  Several  illustrations  of  the 
method  may  be  given. 

Sizes  B.  The  correct  order  was  3416275.'  The  subject's 
system  was  an  ascending  'sky-hne'  from  ist  to  6th  places,  the 

*  The  numben  denote  the  relative  size  of  the  tenni,i  representingthe  smallest. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COHiPLBXJTT  AND  DISSlUtLJRITr  ON  MEMOKT.     49 

smallest  and  next  smallest  forming  a  second  ascending  series 
interpolated  in  the  first  at  the  3d  and  5th  positions.  The  last 
term  stood  apart. 

Sizes  A.  The  correct  order  was  5416372.  The  subject's 
system  consisted  of  three  'sky-lines:'  541,  167  and  132. 

One  additional  instance  is  given  to  illustrate  the  fact  that 
subjects  are  not  likely  to  hit  upon  the  same  scheme,  unless  it 
is  very  obvious. 

A  series  of  circles  varying  in  size  and  shade  or  tint  of  red  and 
arranged  in  the  order  3261547  was  given.  One  subject  ob- 
served that  the  smallest  was  in  the  middle  and  the  largest  on 
the  right  end,  that  there  were  two  pairs  which  decreased  in 
size  to  the  right  (32  and  54),  that  4  was  nearest  in  shade  to  7, 
and  that  the  next  largest  was  on  the  left  of  the  middle.  The 
second  subject  agreed  with  the  first,  as  to  the  smallest  and 
largest,  but  his  further  grouping  was  321  and  654,  in  which  two 
groups  the  direction  and  rate  of  decrease  was  the  same,  or  was 
taken  to  be.  The  third  subject  made  a  rightwardly  ascending 
group  out  of  147,  a  rightwardly  descending  group  of  32,  while 
6  was  discriminated  from,  and  thereby  associated  with,  4  which 
it  resembled  in  color.  The  fourth  subject  thought  this  series 
was  easy  for  sizes,  an  opinion  which  the  other  subjects  did 
not  share.  For  her  the  middle  one  was  the  smallest,  while 
each  wing  consisted,  in  order  from  left  to  right,  of  a  medium, 
a  small  and  a  big  one,  with  the  larger  three  on  the  right.  2 
was  discriminated  from  possible  rivals  by  its  color,  and  6  was 
the  one  nearest  7  in  color. 

It  becomes  evident  that  the  schemes  varied  greatly  in  effect- 
iveness. In  the  third  illustration  the  one  used  by  the  last  sub- 
ject was  extremely  good,  while  that  used  by  the  third  subject 
was  poor.  This  fluctuation  in  the  simplicity  and  naturalness 
of  the  systems  explains  the  large  variations  in  the  retention  of 
certain  series  of  pure  sizes  and  colored  sizes  as  compared  with 
the  remaining  series  of  the  same  types  with  the  same  person. 
For  example,  the  unusually  larger  retention  of  Sizes  I  with 
certain  persons  was  due  to  the  discovery  of  the  grouping  45, 
12,  67,  3. 

In  the  colored  sizes  the  variation  in  color  made  the  size 


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50  HARVET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

Stand  out  but  it  also  tended  to  check  and  break  up  the  size 
schemes.  The  result  was  a  mixture  of  the  two  methods,  the 
superiority  of  which  to  either  system  alone  the  subjects  were 
not  agreed  upoot  according  to  their  testimony  quoted  in  the 
verbal  summary  of  the  last  table. 

Forms.  Here  again  the  subjects  agreed  in  their  methods,  and 
it  was  substantially  the  same  wherever  form  entered  as  a  varia- 
tion. If  the  color  and  size  varied  also,  these  were  always  sub- 
ordinate means  of  recall.  The  form  was  the  thing,  and  the 
detailed  analysis  of  errors  given  in  the  Appendix  shows  con- 
clusively that  to  the  subject  it  was  the  same  thing  whether  it 
was  large  or  small,  black  or  orange.  Nevertheless,  color  and 
size  variations  were  by  no  means  ignored.  They  entered  as 
secondary  means  of  fixation,  especially  wherever  a  form  was 
similar  to  another  in  the  same  series  or  a  past  series.  Here 
the  subjects  differed  some  according  to  their  own  testimony 
already  given. 

It  is  surprising  that  only  one  subject  in  the  six,  R.,  habitually 
looked  for  resemblances  to  natural  objects  in  the  forms.  There 
had  been  no  instruction  on  this  point. 

Compared  to  the  methods  employed  in  the  series  of  pure 
sizes  and  pure  colors  the  form  method  was  much  more  similar 
to  the  color  method,  but  less  strenuous.  Voluntary  inter-term 
discrimination  was  at  a  minimum  because  it  was  unnecessary. 
The  discrimination  was  involuntary,  immediate  (the  subject 
usually  did  not  hunt  for  it)  and  sensorial  rather  than  logical- 
Here  alone  was  contiguity  grouping  a  leading  and  effective 
method.  The  middle  was  frequently,  though  not  always,  fix- 
ated and  one  or  both  wings  might  then  form  units  consisting 
for  instance  of  a  tall  figure  balanced  by  low  ones  on  either  side 
of  it,  as  in  Forms  B,  and  III.  The  subjects  repeatedly  said 
that  in  form-varying  series  more  than  elsewhere  they  decided 
doubtful  cases  by  the  appearance  of  the  series  asawhole.  Not 
that  they  had  an  image  of  the  appearance  of  the  series.  Rather 
certain  arrangements  tentatively  made  did  not  look  right.  In 
thiiJ  feeling  they  were  more  often  right  than  wrong.  ^Esthetic 
considerations  were  prominent  in  series  varying  in  form  or 
color,  but  discord  was  as  effectf"-  -  —''■:':'■-  ""  i."™".".. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITT  AND  DISSIUILAKITT  ON  MEUORT.      51 

4..     Analysis   of   Errors. 

For  3  detailed  and  probably  more  enlightening  account 
of  all  the  errors  made  by  two  subjects,  N.  and  R.,  pages  80-7 
should  be  consulted.  A  general  summary  of  the  errors  of 
all  the  subjects  will  be  sufficient  here.  Two  types  of  errors 
are  distinguishable:  confusion  and  simple  fading  out.  By 
confusion  is  meant  all  cases  where  the  subject's  arrange- 
ment has  wrongly  followed  an  arrangement  in  some  other 
series  or  in  another  part  of  the  present  series,  because  of 
some  similarity  in  color,  size,  form,  or  what  not.  The  confu- 
sion need  not  be  mental.  Quite  as  often  it  is  purely  physio- 
logical, as  will  be  noticed  below.  We  shall  class  all  errors  not 
due  to  confusion  as  due  to  fading.  An  extreme  case  of  fading 
is  the  following:  A  young  man  who  had  recently  spent  five 
years  in  the  tropics  was  conscious  that  his  mental  processes 
had  become  slu^sh,  and  his  memory  less  impressionable. 
On  the  second  morning  of  work  in  our  experiment,  although 
only  one  series  of  a  kind  had  been  learned  the  day  before,  and 
only  three  in  all,  he  said,  when  the  duplicates  of  some  of  the 
series  were  laid  before  him,  that  if  he  had  been  shown  that 
series  the  day  before,  he  was  not  aware  of  it!  Our  classification 
is  the  result,  however,  of  the  detailed  analysis  of  errors.  The 
two  types  are  not  meant  to  be  mutually  exclusive,  but  only  to 
define  predominant  characteristics.  It  is  true  that  confusion  is 
apt  to  occur  only  after  a  certain  amount  of  fading  has  taken 
place. 

In  the  series  of  sizes,  colors  and  colored  sizes  the  type  of  error 
which  we  have  called  confusion  is  overwhelmingly  the  prepon- 
derant type.  In  the  earlier  series  of  colors  the  subject  associates 
certain  colors  with  certain  positions.  In  later  color-varying 
series  he  has  to  associate  with  the  same  positions  colors  which 
in  memory  at  least  he  does  not  distinguish  from  the  earlier 
ones.  Interference  arises,  which  is  more  often  not  noticeable 
at  the  time  of  learning,  if  the  learnings  occur  on  different  days, 
but  which  becomes  marked  in  recall  after  twenty-four  hours, 
and  still  more  marked  after  two  weeks.  With  the  accumula- 
tion of  series  in  which  the  color  varies,  recollection  in  the  final 


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51  HARVET  ANDKXW  PETERSON. 

test  becomes  worse.  The  interference  may  or  may  not  be 
mental.  It  frequently  Is  so,  but  on  the  other  Hand  if  the  sub- 
ject is  following  an  arrangement  in  another  similar  group  (sim- 
ilar in  almost  any  respect),  he  is  apt  to  feel  quite  sure  that  he 
is  correct.  After  a  number  of  color-varying  series  the  subject 
is  apt  to  say  when  trying  to  recall  their  order  in  a  final  test 
that  the  colors  look  about  as  well  in  one  place  as  in  another. 
By  this  he  means  that  colors  which  he  has  classed  as  yellow, 
for  example,  have  stood  in  a  good  many  different  positions, 
and  he  is  uncertain  which  one  this  yellowish  term  belongs  in. 
Exchange  of  colors  in  the  same  series  is  not  as  common  as 
confusion  of  different  series,  because  in  construction  the  colors 
were  intentionally  varied;  still,  it  does  occur,  for  example 
when  two  or  more  colors  have  been  groupied  on  account  of  a 
common  property  not  reckoned  with  by  the  operator,  as  dull- 
ness, brightness,  complementariness,  togetherness  in  the  sub- 
ject's past  experience.  We  have  had  occasion  before  to  speak 
of  intellectual  classifications  as  a  cause  of  confusion  of  position 
when  not  followed  by  further  discrimination. 

In  series  of  sizes  and  colored  sizes  confusion  of  terms  within 
the  same  series  is  much  more  frequent  than  in  colors.  This 
means  the  sizes  are  less  discriminable  perceptually.  Confusion 
of  one  series  with  another  may  occur  within  the  same  half 
hour  (for  example,  pure  sizes  with  colored  sizes),  and  is  more 
marked  with  longer  intervals.  On  the  second  and  third  day 
of  learning  the  subject  may  be  aware  of  it  and  correct  it  panly 
or  wholly.  Or  he  may  be  unconscious  of  it.  The  different 
types  of  situations  are  the  same  as  described  above  for  colors. 
It  has  frequently  happened,  however,  that  a  size-varying  series 
has  been  arranged  in  a  final  test  in  the  order  of  some  other 
series  with  entire  correctness,  and  still  the  subject  was  not 
aware  of  the  mistake  in  identity!  This  has  never  happened 
with  colors  or  with  form-varying  series,  and  is  an  evidence  of 
the  high  degree  of  unity  of  the  size-varying  series,  especially 
pure  sizes.  In  this  respect  they  are  the  equal  of  form-vaiying 
series.  This  is  due  to  the  'sky-line'  and  mass-^roup  systems 
used  in  such  series,  and  described  above  in  connection  with 
the  methods  of  learning.     The  absence  of  errors  of  the  fatting 


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INFU/ENCE  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DlSSIMlLdRJTr  ON  UEMORT.     53 

out  type  in  sizes  is  striking.  Almost  all  of  the  errors  made  dur- 
ing learning  were  exchanges  of  sizes  nearest  each  other  in  area, 
or  nearest  but  one.  Proof  of  this  in  the  form  of  a  quantitative 
statement  is  given  on  pp.  61-62  in  connection  with  some 
experiments  similar  to  these,  and  it  is  also  shown  very  con- 
clusively in  less  convenient  form  in  the  detailed  analysis  of 
the  errors  of  R.  and  N.  in  the  present  experiment,  to  be  found 
on  pp.  80-7. 

In  series  in  which  form-vartatton  enters  confusion  is  rela- 
tively much  less  frequent  than  in  colors^  sizes  and  colored  sizes, 
and  fading  out  is  more  common,  the  total  number  of  errors 
being  also  much  less.  Exchange  of  adjacent  terms,  or  inver- 
sion, IS  the  most  frequent  error.  It  is  due  to  not  noticing  the 
individual  terms  closely  enough  (insufficient  discrimination). 
The  subject  relies  on  his  sensory,  non-logical  impression,  at 
the  point  where  the  error  later  occurs.  This  is  adequate  for 
the  test  which  follows  immediately  after  learning,  but  by  the 
next  day  many  of  these  details  have  faded  out.  We  agree 
with  Ranschburg  that  this  type  of  error  is  relatively  unimpor- 
tant for  studying  the  effects  of  similarity,  because  it  is  not  a 
stmibrity  ^pe  of  error.  However,  confusion  is  by  no  means 
absent  from  form-varying  series.  Confusion  of  terms  within 
the  same  series  seldom  occurs.  Inspection  of  the  plates  shows 
why.  But  the  single  re-using  of  an  old  form,  or  the  occurrence 
of  forms  which  generically  are  the  same,  for  instance  two  vases, 
crosses,  figures  whose  general  contour  is  triangular,  etc., 
produces  interference  and  confusion,  the  more  striking  only 
because  it  can  be  identified  with  more  certainty,  on  account  of 
the  individuality  of  forms.  The  poor  average  recall  of  Forms 
II,  Col.  Forms  III,  and  C.  F.  d.  S.  IV,  and  the  individually 
poor  recalls  of  N.  and  R.  in  C.  F.  d.  S.  II  are  due  to  the  re-using 
of  old  forms.* 


N.  and  R.  took  the' placet  of  F.  and  Mc.P.  in  the  experiment  and  learned 
the  aeriea  in  a  lomewhat  different  order  from  the  one  followed  by  the  four 
other  (ubjeciB. 


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54  HARFET  ANDBIW  PBTEKSON. 

§.     Other  Experiments  with  the  Same  Bases 

Association  with  Temporal  Order  and  with  Numbers.  In 
the  last  set  of  experiments,  limits  to  the  benefit  of  increasing 
the  complexity  in  the  direction  of  dissimilarity  were  found  for 
four  subjects  at  the  level  of  pure  colors  and  pure  forms.  The 
combination  of  color  and  size,  themselves  equal  in  difficult, 
was  no  better  than  either  alone;  nor  were  the  additions  of 
color  and  size  variations,  in  themselves  poorer  than  forms, 
when  added  to  forms,  an  aid.  With  two  other  subjects,  how- 
ever, the  combinations  were  better  than  the  variations  singly. 
With  them  the  limits  lie  in  some  further  increase  in  complexity. 
We  might  have  experimented  with  these  two  subjects  further, 
adding  still  more  variations  to  the  same  bases,  or  using  more 
variable  bases  than  colors  and  forms.  Inviting  as  this  was, 
we  preferred  to  test  the  generality  of  the  conclusion  that  a 
limit  is  to  be  expected  with  any  subject  on  the  level  of  pure 
colors  and  pure  forms.  This  we  did  by  repeating  the  experi- 
ments with  new  subjects,  successive  exposure  and  association 
of  the  colors  and  forms  with  other  associates  than  spatial 
position. 

The  24  series  used  in  the  foregoing  section  were  given  to 
one  new  subject  with  successive  instead  of  simultaneous  expo- 
sure, and  he  was  required  to  associate  each  term  with  its  tem- 
poral position  in  the  series.  The  cardboard  screens,  which 
stood  between  the  aperture  through  which  the  subject  looked 
and  the  carriage  by  which  the  series  were  moved,  were  nar- 
rowed so  as  to  expose  only  one  term  at  a  time.  The  series  were 
entirely  remounted  for  successive  exposure  on  cardboard  sheets, 
1 1  inches  high  and  42  inches  or  more  long.  Instead  of  having 
all  the  terms  rest  on  a  base  line,  the  middle  points  in  the  ver- 
tical diameters  of  the  terms  were  placed  on  a  line  running  the 
length  of  the  sheet,  midway  between  the  lower  and  upper 
margins.  When  a  form  arranged. in  this  way  appeared  top- 
heavy,  it  was  lowered  until  the  unpleasant  effect  disappeared. 
No  fixation  point  was  enforced.  All  of  the  conditions  under 
which  the  previous  series  were  given  as  to  avoiding  names, 
reviewing,  use  of  duplicates  to  show  the  learner's  progressive 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITT  AND  DISSIMIZJRITr  ON  MBUORr.      55 

mastery  of  the  series,  the  requirement  that  the  series  be  held 
perfecdy  for  24  hours  before  the  learning  was  discontinued, 
were  maintained  here.  The  only  changes  were  successive  expo- 
sure, final  test  after  6  days  instead  of  13  and  arrangement  of 
the  duplicates  by  the  subject  in  their  temporal  instead  of 
spatial  order.  The  interval  before  the  final  test  was  shortened 
because  successive  exposure  made  the  task  more  difficult.  In 
the  various  tests  the  subject,  as  before,  did  not  see  the  dupli- 
cates until  the  exposure  was  over.  He  then  uncovered  them 
and  arranged  them  in  their  time  sequence,  one  on  top  of  the 
other,  face  down.  Six  series,  one  of  each  kind,  were  given 
each  week.  The  subject  worked  on  four  successive  days  each 
week  and  a  fifth  if  necessary  to  bring  the  series  up  to  stand- 
ard. Four  new  series  were  begun  the  first  day  and  the  remain- 
ing two  on  the  second  day.  The  rate  of  exposure  was  50 
strokes  of  the  metronome  per  minute  with  an  exposure  on 
each  alternate  stroke.  A  term  was  thus  exposed  about  1.2 
seconds.  The  subject  regulated  the  number  of  repetitions  of 
the  series  which  he  took,  but  less  than  a  repetition  of  the  whole 
series  was  never  given.  Thus  the  measure  of  the  rapidity  of 
learning  was  the  number  of  repetitions  and  arrangements 
required  to  bring  the  series  up  to  perfect  retention  after  24 
hours.  The  following  table  gives  the  results.  The  figures  on 
the  left  and  right  sides  of  the  dashes  give  the  number  of  repe- 
titions and  arrangements  respectively  required  to  learn  the 
series;  the  figures  under  them  give  the  amount  recalled  in  the 
final  test,  14  being  a  perfect  score.  In  the  lower  half  of  the 
uble  the  same  recall  is  recalculated  per  repetition  of  learning, 
after  reducing  arrangements  to  their  equivalents  in  number  of 
repetitions.  This  equivalent  was  found  by  special  experiments 
given  for  the  purpose  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  subjects 
of  the  preceding  group  of  experiments.' 


'See  pp.  65-7. 


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HJRFET  ANDREir  PETERSON. 


trieJ  in  Color,  Si'w  anJ  Form  aiioci^rJ  with  Tiim 
Pot  il  ion. 


M;«< 

U. 

™.... 

.,™. 

I. 

n. 

m. 

IV. 

I. 

n. 

m. 

IV. 

4-1 
S-2S 

♦-4 
3  5= 

4-2 
5  so 

6-3 
4.00 

6-4 
8.25 

n-8 

1 1. 25 

7-i 
5.50 

6-3 

6.50 

,.„.. 

COLO»D  tiat. 

3-4 
8.7S 

4-4 

3-1 
11.50 

3-2 
10.00 

6-t 

5.00 

*-* 
5.00 

6-4 
6.50 

+  .00 

„„...„™. 

c  .■.  d.  t 

11.50 

3-4 
14.00 

2-a 
6.50 

.1^ 
14.00 

3-2 
11.50 

'  a-2 
9.00 

3- 

700 

*-3 
8.75 

cou,„. 

lUII. 

rORMI. 

R«c 

M-V. 

Rec. 

M.V. 

Rec 

M.V. 

I 

■7<S 

■337 

■749 
-363 

;:;2 

176 

.650 
.472 
.402 
.589 

.122 
.056 
.116 
.061 

■903 

49' 

1. 811 

.589 

.046 
458 
862 

III 

IV 

.360 

Av 

■539 

.194 

.5^8 

.091 

■949 

.432 

COL.  SRU. 

COL.  T 

CUM. 

c.d... 

Rte. 

M.V. 

Rec. 

M.V. 

Rcc. 

M.V. 

1 

304 
.468 

512 
-443 

.060 
014 
.058 

.906 
I.44S 
1.215 
1.44S 

.347 

.038 
.539 

1.812 
1.683 
1.103 

970 

.420 
.291 
.89 
.422 

11... 

Ill 

Av 

454 

.034 

1  253 

.366 

1.392 

■356 

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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITY  AND  DlSSlMtLAKlTT  ON  MESiORT.     57 

A  Study  of  Table  6  shows  that  colors  and  sizes  are  remem- 
bered about  equally  well  and,  as  usual,  forms  better  than 
either.  7^e  combinadon  of  color  and  size  is  not  as  effective 
as  either  separately,  but  both  colored  forms  and  colored  forms 
of  different  sizes  are  more  effective  than  forms  alone. 

Wth  the  subject  U,  and  two  new  subjects,  W.  and  X.,  the 
same  24  series  were  next  associated  with  the  numbers  2  to  8. 
The  same  seven  numbers  were  used  in  every  series.  They 
took  the  place  of  the  seven  spatial  and  seven  temporal  posi- 
tions. Certain  substitutions  were  also  made  in  the  series  of 
pure  forms,  the  result  of  which  was  that  no  form  was  used 
twice  in  all  the  form-varying  series.  This  was  effected  by 
substituting  Forms  A  and  B  for  Forms  III  and  IV,  and  the 
altemabve  figures  called  B  in  the  plates  for  those  of  the  same 
number,  e.  g.,  Fig.  6Bwas  substituted  for  Fig.  6.  Naturally 
the  order  of  presenting  the  terms  was  frequently  changed  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  position  associations.  The  numbers 
were  of  a  large,  fairly  heavy  style,  16  mm.  high.  Nos.  3,  4.,  6 
and  7  were  black  and  2,  5  and  8  were  red,  to  reduce  the  labor 
of  learning, — an  application  of  the  advantage  of  variety  to 
our  own  experiment.  The  series  in  the  form  in  which  they 
had  been  arranged  for  U-  were  used,  and  the  numbers  were 
pasted  on  the  centers  of  the  terms.  Where  a  term  had  been 
lowered  for  xsthetic  reasons  the  number  was  put  on  the  hori- 
zontal axis  of  the  series,  equally  distant  from  the  right  and 
left  sides  of  the  term.  The  altered  orders  used  to  prevent 
position  association  were:  ist  rep.,  1234567;  2nd  rep.,  2134567, 
3d  rep.,  1235746,  4th  rep.  1234576,  then  If  more  repetitions 
were  necessary,  the  same  order  over  again.  In  the  tests  the 
subject  took  a  set  of  duplicate  numbers  mounted  on  circular 
microscope  slide  covers  and  placed  them  on  his  duplicate  set 
of  terms.  All  of  the  other  conditions  were  the  same  as  for 
the  subject  U.,  as  described  above.  With  X.  the  interval 
between  the  completion  of  learning  and  the  final  test  was 
reduced  to  3  days,  because  a  greater  interval  was  too  long  to 
produce  sufficient  recall.  U.  was  used  again  in  this  experiment, 
mainly  because  his  time  was  at  our  disposal.  This  was  a 
divergence  from  the  fundamental  assumption  of  our  problem, 


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j8  HARFET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

namely  that  the  combination  of  variations  must  not  already 
have  formed  a  unity  in  the  subject's  past  experience.  While 
he  had  not  associated  numbers  with  the  series,  the  combina- 
tions of  color,  form  and  size  were  not  wholly  unfamiliar  to 
him.  Nevertheless,  his  results  present  no  important  difference 
from  his  previous  work  or  from  the  results  of  the  other  subjects, 
and  they  are  consequently  included. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  are  given  in  Table  7.  The 
numbers  on  the  left  and  right  of  the  dashes  give  the  number  of 
repetitions  and  arrangements  respectively  required  to  bring  the 
series  up  to  standard,  the  numbers  under  them,  the  terms 
correctly  associated  after  three  days  for  X.  and  six  days  for  U. 
and  W.     There  were  seven  couplets  in  a  series  and  a  score 

Table  7 — ^.     Anas  varied  in  Color,  Sii/  and  Form,  astociatti  vjtlh  Numhert. 


COLOM. 

.™. 

I. 

n. 

m. 

IV. 

I. 

n. 

ra. 

IV. 

6-3 

7 
10-6 

8-4 

5 
5-3 

3 
■7-5 

5-6 

2 

s-» 

3 

lO-II 

5 

3-2 

4 
4-2 

22-11 

3 

6-6 
5 
5-5 

9-7 

9-7 
5 
7-3 

i-s 

3-2 

7-4 

5 

lo-s 

3 

6^ 

5 
9-7 

5 
7-6 

5 

X 

FOMHa. 

COLORtD  tni*. 

6-6 

7 

+-2 

3 

9-6 
5 
5-3 

7 
4-4 
3 

2-2 

4 
5-2 

7 
6-6 

3 

4-6 
7 
6^ 

7 

6-4 

4 
4-3 

9-6 
3 

S-4 

5 
9-4 

7 
14-1J 

7 

4-3 
3 

6-2 

2 
5-3 

3-4 

5 

5-2 

5 

10-7 

7 

w.. 

,.„.„,..... 

cr.d.i. 

u 

3-2 

7 
6-4 

7 
5-5 

4 

4-4 
5 
6-4 

5 
3-1 

3 

3-2 
7 
5-2 

4 

i-z 

7 

»-3 
S 
5-4 

7 

7-4 
5 

6-4 

7 
4-2 

3 
6-6 

3 

4-4 

7 
5-4 

7 
3-4 

5 

4-5 

5 
4-2 

7 
3^ 

7 

6 
4-2 

7 
3-' 

3 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITT  AND  DISSIUILASITT  ON  UEUORr.     59 


Table  7.- 


vied  in  Color,  Site  and  Form,  atiocialtJ  viitb  Number: 
Recall  per  Repetition. 


,OL„. 

..„. 

,.„.. 

c.u.„... 

„u,.«,. 

c. 

d... 

Bcc 

M.V. 

Rec 

M.V. 

^ 

M.V. 

Rrt. 

M.V. 

R«. 

M.V. 

Rcc 

M.V. 

I. 
11. 
III. 

IV. 

.♦S3 

.347 
.630 

.062 
.044 
.259 
.239 

.30s 
.*♦' 
.156 

.237 

.060 
.006 
.079 

43* 

3 

!26l 

■3>5 
.427 
.332 

.Sl« 

.083 
.02^ 
.066 

.119 

1. 103 
.468 

1. 103 
.712 

.isfi  .552 

m 

.028 

Av. 

.39' 

.151 

■ns 

■037 

.486 

"37 

.398 

■074 

■847 

■'51\ 

..33 

.219 

I. 

•87S 

.231 

.400 

.o« 

1.7(0 

.321 

.(00 

.1(3 

■  .167 

...7 

7(0 

.66, 

.04^ 

.14- 

.310 

1.401 

.02. 

.77: 

.■3( 

.8,, 

.217 

i.40t 

.013 

ill. 

.000 

.044 

.7'^ 

.261 

i.40t 

.029 

.33. 

..32( 

.80c 

.2(0 

i.7(" 

■337 

.500 

.144 

■sss 

.102 

1.167 

1.000 

.347 

1.400 

35° 

"75" 

.337 

Av. 

.444 

.116 

453 

..8^ 

1.419 

.160 

.653 

.177 

1.050 

.234 

.4.^ 

338 

I. 

.000 

.0(5 

■073 

.033 

.182 

.006 

.121 

.049 

.22, 

.1(8 

.138 

.210 

11. 

.03- 

.022 

.000 

.io( 

.20; 

.019 

.23: 

.062 

■  Wi 

.014 

■371 

.023 

111. 

.iit 

.07. 

.120' 

.02: 

.138 

.0(0 

.07! 

.092 

.64. 

.26( 

(19 

.171 

IV. 

.059 

.004 

.220. 

.114 

.226 

.03« 

.247 

.077 

.280 

.093 

364 

.016 

A.. 

.055 

.039 

.106 

.069 

.188 

.028    .170 

.070 

.379 

.133 

.34^ 

.105 

•  Mtmtmd  ar^  af  nunAtri  ailj. 

Summary  of  Part  B. 


COLOU. 

tun. 

rouu. 

„.„™. 

.o^ro^.. 

c.  r.  d... 

lUc 

M.V. 

Rec 

M.V. 

R.C 

M.V. 

Rec. 

M.V. 

Rec 

M.V. 

R«. 

M.V. 

D 

W 

X 

ioi 

.039 

■J3S 

•453 
.106 

.069 

.486 
i.t!9 
.188 

•137 

.170 

•07^ 
.040 

.847 
1.050 
■379 

.321 
-234 

-'33 

■  683 

■:*3^ 

:3;s' 

.105 

*'■■•■ 

■363 

■02 

.36s 

.096 

.70. 

.08., 

■V>1 

.108 

■759 

.219 

,8.5 

«. 

L 


Di,i.izodlyGOOgle 


60  HARVEr  ANDREW  PETERSON 

of  1  was  allowed  for  each  correct  association,  with  no  partial 
credits.  Part  B  of  the  same  table  gives  the  same  recall  per 
repetition,  after  calculating  in  the  equivalents  of  the  arrange- 
ments in  terms  of  learning  time  according  to  the  method 
described  on  pp.  65-7.  A  numerical  summary  follows  the 
table  and  a  verbal  summary  is  given  last. 

Summary.  Two  of  the  subjects  do  considerably  better  with 
colors  than  with  sizes,  while  the  third,  X.,  does  not  recall 
enough  of  either  for  comparison.  For,  as  indicated  in  a  foot- 
note to  Table  7,  part  B,  he  learned  only  the  numbers  in  Sizes 
III  and  IV.  During  learning  he  mentally  arranged  the  num- 
bers in  the  order  which  they  would  have  if  the  sizes  had  been 
exposed  in  the  order  from  smallest  to  largest.  These  two 
series  should  therefore  perhaps  not  be  counted,  /til  three 
subjects  Jo  markedly  better  ivith  forms  than  with  sizes  and 
colors,  ffith  U.  and  W.  colored  sizes  are  not  better  than  color 
alone,  but  size  is  substantially  improved  by  the  addition  of 
color  as  would  be  expected.  But  with  X.  colored  sizes  are 
much  better  than  either  color  or  size  alone.  This  is  confirmed 
unqualifiedly  by  the  introspections  of  the  subject.  For  him 
pure  colors  or  sizes  were  almost  impossible  after  the  first  series 
of  each,  partly  on  account  of  their  inherent  difficulty,  but 
more  because  of  the  interference  of  past  associations.  He 
made  in  memory  few  if  any  more  color  discriminations  than 
the  seven  of  the  spectrum,  ^ilh  U.  colored  forms  and  colored 
forms  of  different  sixes  are  both  more  effective  by  considerable 
amounts  than  forms  alone, — an  outcome  which  duplicated  his 
records  in  the  associations  with  temporal  order.  The  subject 
X.  also  profits  by  the  increased  complexity  in  both  cases, — colored 
forms  and  colored  forms  of  different  sizes.  His  recall  is  prac- 
tically doubled  in  both  cases,  compared  with  pure  forms. 
Here  again  the  introspections  confirmed  the  results,  ff.  on 
the  contrary  is  not  benefited  by  the  additions  to  form.  Colored 
forms  are  even  poorer.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  three 
subjects  differed  very  widely  in  natural  retentiveness,  that  the 
one  who  remembered  the  least  profited  the  most  from  increased 
variety,  while  the  one  who  remembered  the  most  did  not  profit 
by  the  additions  in  any  case.     U.  occupies  a  middle  place  in 


.yGoOtjIr 


INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXITT  AND  DISSIUILARITT  ON  MEMOBT.      6l 

respect  both  to  natural  retentiveness  and  die  use  made  of  the 
addidonal  variations.  When  asked  at  the  close  of  the  inves- 
dgadon  whether  the  presence  of  color  and  color-size  variations 
in  the  form-varying  series  was  a  help,  as  constrasted  with  pure 
forms,  W.  replied,  "Only  occasionally,  when  the  forms  are 
similar.  As  a  rule  I  find  sufficient  variety  in  the  form  alone." 
And  yet  she  did  not  take  the  forms  to  be  copies  of  objects, 
except  in  the  most  obvious  cases.  They  were  simply  colored 
areas.  On  the  other  hand  X.  looked  for  resemblances  to 
objects  constandy,  and  found  them  usually. 

The  distribudon  of  the  benefit  of  increased  variety  is  the 
same  as  we  have  found  before.  The  learning  dme  is  shortened 
and  snil  the  amount  recalled  after  a  week  isgreater.  U.  learns 
forms  in  an  average  of  5.25  reps,  and  5  arrs.,  colored  forms 
in  3  reps,  and  2.75  arrs.,  and  colored  forms  of  different  sizes 
in  4  reps,  and  3.75  arrs.  His  average  recalls  are  5.75.  6  and 
6.25  terms  respecdvely.  X.  learns  colors  in  an  average  of 
14.75  I'^ps-  ^nd  8.25  arrs.,  sizes  in  8.50  and  5.75,  colored  sizes 
in  9.50  and  6.50.  His  average  recalls  are  2.25,  2.50  and  4.50, 
respectively.  He  learns  forms  in  5.75  reps,  and  5.75  arrs., 
colored  forms  in  4.50  reps,  and  3.50  arrs.,  colored  forms  of 
different  sizes  in  3.75  reps,  and  4  arrs.  His  average  recalls 
are  4,  4.75  and  4.50. 

The  results  with  these  three  subjects  simply  confirm  and 
extend  the  conclusion  reached  with  the  six  subjects.  The 
change  to  successive  exposure  and  a  different  association  has 
shown  no  change  in  the  conditions  of  learning  nor  in  the  results. 
After  a  brief  treatment  of  two  somewhat  different  topics  in 
the  next  three  sections,  the  results  of  the  whole  investigation 
will  be  brought  together  in  the  Conclusion. 

6.     Analysis  of  Errors. 

In  the  24  simultaneous  series  begun  in  V  2,  it  was  found 
that  in  colors,  sizes  and  colored  sizes,  confusion  was  quite 
decidedly  the  most  frequent  cause  of  error,  and  the  detailed 
analysis  of  R.'s  and  N.'s  errors  would  have  shown  that  both 
of  the  possible  kinds  of  interference,  namely  of  terms  within 


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62  HARFEr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

the  same  series,  and  of  ditFerent  series  with  each  other,  were 
equally  prominent.  In  the  present  experiments  successive  ex- 
posure made  single  schemes  for  the  whole  of  a  series  prac- 
tically impossible  and  the  influence  of  past  series  became  less. 
Memorizing  became  much  more  a  couplet  affair.  The  inter- 
ference in  the  series  of  sizes  and  colored  sizes  particularly  was 
almost  wholly  traceable  to  terms  in  the  same  series,  as  shown 
in  the  following  summary,  in  which  is  included  every  error 
made  in  all  the  series  in  which  there  were  three  errors  or  less. 
It  includes  U.'s  temporal-order  series  and  U.'s  and  X.'s  num- 
ber association  series. 


Sit,. 

ind  Colored  Stxet 

•IIB]ICT 

—  "— "■ 

«»■. 

HUIUT 

•lUtlUT 

ALL 

TOTAL. 

8 

21 

'7 

* 
♦ 

5 

O 

4 

'1. 

u 

Total 

+6 

'3 

6 

H 

By  nearest  sizes  is  meant  sizes  nearest  each  other  in  area. 
These  sizes  were  simply  mistaken  for  each  other.  In  the  new 
summary  the  proof  is  less  certain  only  because  color  similarity 
cannot  be  so  objectively  defined.  Its  definition  is  due  to  the 
opinion  of  the  experimenter,  aided  by  a  Bradley  Color  Book. 
We  included  in  our  definition  only  colors  obviously  similar  in 
perception,  and  therefore  quite  certainly  took  a  narrower  defi- 
nition than  the  limits  within  which  colors  would  seem  similar 
in  memory. 


U.... 
U...., 


Temporal  Order 

Number  Associations  . , 
Numb«r  Associations  , , 


DighzoclljyGoOC^Ie 


INFLUEttCE  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DISSIUILAMITT  ON  ItEMOKT.     63 

In  the  form-varying  series  of  the  temporal  order  set  of  U., 
inversion  of  adjacent  terms  was  the  most  common  error,  vrhich 
result  agrees  with  those  of  the  corresponding  spatial  position 
associations.  Of  the  22  errors  made  in  all  the  series  in  which 
3  errors  or  less  occurred,  15  were  exchanges  of  adjacents,  4 
were  due  to  similarity  in  form  and  3  to  no  assignable  cause. 
Of  the  form-varying  series  of  the  number  associations  the  only 
statement  that  can  be  made  is  that  confusion  due  to  similarity 
was  less  frequent  than  in  the  series  of  sizes  and  colors.  Inver- 
sion of  adjacents  is  here  not  a  possible  type  of  error  on  account 
of  changes  of  the  order  in  learning. 

Tl.      INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES   IN   SPEED  OF   MEMORIZING  AND 
IN    RETENTIVENESS 

If  the  differences  in  material  be  disregarded,  the  experiments 
described  in  V  2  give  results  from  six  subjects  with  the  same 
24  series.  Since  all  of  them  were  required  to  learn  the  series 
in  the  same  way  we  may  compare  the  subjects  simply  as  learners. 
The  three  subjects  used  in  die  experiments  with  numbers  can- 
not be  compared  with  the  first  six  only  among  themselves. 
The  following  table  is  compiled  from  the  averages  for  the 
different  persons  given  in  Tables  4  and  7.  Part  A  below 
gives  on  the  left  the  average  number  of  seconds  which  each 
of  the  first  six  subjects  required  to  bring  the  series  up  to  the 
point  where  he  had  held  its  arrangement  perfectly  for  a  day. 
On  the  right  side  are  given  the  average  amounts  recalled, 
marked  on  a  scale  of  14.  In  part  B  similar  averages  are  cal- 
culated for  the  three  subjects  in  the  experiment  with  numbers. 
These  figures  also  are  based  on  24  series  and  the  amount 
recalled  is  based  on  a  scale  of  7.  The  subjects  are  arranged  in 
order  of  speed  of  learning  and  amounts  recalled. 


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HJKFEr  ANDREW  PETEXSON. 


Tablb  8. 
Part  A. 


lUBJICTt. 

,„. 

A»l.                                •DBJlCn. 

.tS^i. 

S.38 

♦■71 

7.88 

308 

4  17 
5. 63 

5.04 

3  7i 

X 

X 

N.  learns  rapidly  and  retains  well;  R.  learns  rapidly  and 
retains  moderately.  H.  is  just  the  converse:  he  learns  moder- 
ately, being  a  tie  for  third  place,  and  retains  well.  G.  learns 
moderately  but  does  not  retain  as  well.  J.  gets  some  recom- 
pense for  his  extra  effort,  while  L.  learns  slowly  and  retains 
with  difficulty. 

W.  and  U.  learn  rapidly  and  retain  well,  there  being  very 
little  difference  between  them.  W.  is  the  more  retentive  for 
longer  intervals.  For  a  week — the  interval  of  their  test — 
there  is  no  difference  between  them,  but  W.  retained  series  for 
weeks  after  U.  had  forgotten  them.  X.  learns  slowly  and  has 
difficulty  in  retaining. 

Temperamental  differences  also  come  out  in  the  willingness 
to  take  a  chance.  This  is  shown  by  the  number  of  arrange- 
ments. N.  and  G.were  speculative.  They  frequently  termi- 
nated the  exposure  of  the  series  before  they  had  learned  them 
sufficiently.  These  were  the  subjects  who  had  on  occasion  to 
take  five  days  to  learn  the  series  instead  of  the  usual  three. 
L.  and  J.  are  cautious.  When  they  end  the  exposure  it  is  safe 
to  say  they  have  the  series  for  that  day,  and  quite  probable 
that  they  will  have  it  the  next  day  without  re-exposure. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXlTr  AND  DISSIUlLARJTr  ON  UEMORT.     65 
VII.     EXPERIMENTS  TO  DETERMINE  THE   VALUE  OF  ARRANGING* 

After  all  of  the  foregoing  experiments  had  been  completed, 
12  series  were  given  to  the  subjects,  G.,  H.,  J.,  L.,  N.  and  R. 
There  were  four  series  each  of  colors,  sizes  and  forms.  Two 
of  each  were  learned  in  three  successive  days  all  six  being  begun 
on  the  same  day.  The  other  six  were  given  the  next  week. 
In  one  of  the  two  color  series  of  the  first  week  arranging  was 
required  as  in  all  the  foregoing  experiments,  in  the  other  it 
was  omitted  till  the  final  test.  The  same  is  true  of  the  two 
series  of  sizes,  and  the  two  forms  learned  the  first  week.  The 
times  of  exposure  were  the  same  for  every  correlative  pair, 
the  one  with  and  the  one  without  arranging.  During  the 
first  week  the  series  with  arranging  preceded  their  mates  to 
allow  the  subject  to  determine  the  length  of  the  learning  periods. 
However,  to  prevent  the  series  without  arranging  from  being 
at  a  disadvantage  from  too  short  exposure,  certain  extra  expo- 
sures were  given  by  the  operator  on  the  third  day.     To  be 

'  This  question  is  very  imponant  wherever  it  is  desired  to  study  the  learning 
process  as  wdl  as  the  recall.  For  in  order  to  ascertain  the  learner's  progress 
towards  complete  temporary  mastery  of  the  material  it  is  necessary  to  test  him 
froni  time  to  time.  This  gives  two  differetit  measures,  learning  time  and  testing 
time  or  number  of  tests.  The  attempt  to  reproduce  a  material  nearly  always 
aids  in  memorizing  it.  Ebbinghaus  assumed  that  a  test  or  attempt  to  repeat 
a  series  is  equivalent  to  a  presentation  of  it,  but  this  is  clearly  unsatisfactory. 
Stephan  Witasek  has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  relative  efficiency  of  read- 
ings and  attempts  at  recital  in  biingingseries  of  nonsense  syllables  up  to  perfect 
metnorization,  and  in  producing  recall  after  an  hour.  (Ueber  Lcsen  und 
Rezitieren  in  ihren  Beziehungen  zum  Gedachtnis.  Ztsch.  f.  Psych.,  44:  161-85 
andZ46-82.)  He  found  that  for  immediate  recall  6  readings  and  5  recita- 
tions enabled  the  persons  to  recite  the  series  in  one  half  the  rime  required  by 
II  reading!  alone, and  required  only  one  thirteenth  as  many  promptings. 
{The  Ebbinghaus  prompting  method  is  the  one  referred  to.)  The  superiority 
of  the  recitation  in  producing  recall  after  an  hour  is  not  as  marked  as  in  immed- 
iate recall.  Thus  various  mixtures  of  readings  and  recitations,  the  readings  of 
course  always  preceding,  compared  with  an  equal  number  of  readings  alone, 
dfected  an  average  saving  of  about  II  per  cent  in  time  and  16  per  cent  in 
promptings  in  the  final  test.  The  forcing  diarr^rds  time  consumed  by  the 
two  methods.  A  recitation  aided  by  promptings  takes  more  time  than  a  reading. 
However,the  author  shows  that  even  on  a  time  basis  a  combination  of  readings 
and  recitations  is  more  economical  than  readings  alone.  From  any  point  of 
view  recitations  are  far  superior  to  readings  in  impressing  value.  The  signifi- 
cance of  this  resultfor  pedagogy.for  determining  the  best  methods  of  study,  is 
worth  noting. 


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66  HAnrsr  andrmw  petekson. 

more  explicit,  on  the  Hrst  day  the  subject  wholly  determined 
the  time.  He  took  as  much  as  he  thought  would  enable  him 
to  arrange  the  first  series  of  each  pair  correctly  the  next  day, 
and  the  operauir  allowed  him  the  same  time  on  the  second 
series  of  each  pair.  On  the  second  day  the  procedure  was  the 
same  //  he  did  not  have  them  correctly  in  the  preliminary  test 
of  that  day.  If  he  tHJ  have  them  correctly,  he  was  given  a 
7-second  exposure  of  both  series  of  the  pair.  The  procedure 
was  repeated  on  the  third  and  last  day,  for  sizes  and  colors, 
but  forms  were  dropped  after  the  second  day,  because  they 
would  have  been  over-leamed  by  continuance.  The  aim  of 
these  condidons  was  to  bring  the  series  approximately  up  to 
our  previous  standard,  perfect  retention  for  a  day.  However, 
since  having  arranged  a  series  was  equivalent  to  seeing  it 
again,  and  since  it  was  desirable  for  exactness  to  spread  the 
learning  time  of  both  types  of  series  over  the  same  number 
of  days,  it  was  necessary  K)  give  a  brief  exposure  of  both  series 
(the  one  with  and  the  one  without  arranging)  whenever  one 
was  seen.  This  was  the  purpose  of  the  7-second  exposures. 
Hence  our  procedure  was  slightly  different  from  the  one  used 
in  the  past.  In  the  second  week  the  operator  wholly  deter- 
mined the  length  of  the  learning  times,  and  made  them  the 
same  as  the  series  of  the  first  week  for  that  subject.  The 
series  without  arranging  now  preceded  its  mate.  Finally, 
there  was  a  reversal  within  the  pairs.  The  series  in  connection 
with  which  three  of  the  subjects  arranged  were  the  ones  with 
which  the  other  three  subjects  did  not  arrange.  The  purpose 
of  this  reversal  was  to  test  the  assumed  equality  in  difficulty 
of  the  correlative  series.  The  results  substantiated  the  assump- 
tion in  the  main. 

All  the  other  conditions  were  the  same  as  in  the  simultaneous 
series  of  V  2.  The  subject  was  required  u>  associate  the  terms 
with  their  spatial  positions.  The  series  were  displayed  on 
cardboard  sheets,  14x22  inches,  the  arrangement  being  in 
three  vertical  columns  of  two  terms  each,  except  the  middle 
column,  which  had  three.  The  usual  expedients  to  minimize 
interference,  in  particular,  individual  senes-shape  and  series- 
color.  Were  used.     The  final  test  of  the  first  six  series  occurred 


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INFIXJENCE  or  COUPLEXtTr  AND  DlSSIUILdKITr  ON  MEUORT.     67 

in  the  midst  of  learning  the  second  six  in  order  to  retain  the 
normal  interference  factor,  constantly  operative  in  our  past 
work. 

The  procedure  with  the  three  successive  subjects  U.,  W.  and 
X.  was  similar.  The  consonants  G,  H,  N,  P,  Q,  W  and  Y 
were  associated  with  12  series,  4  each  of  colors,  sizes  and  forms. 
Three  of  the  letters  were  white,  the  rest  black.  The  learning 
conditions  were  modeled  after  those  described  above,  while 
the  testing  conditions  were  the  same  as  in  the  regular  work  of 
these  subjects. 

.  For  the  six  simultaneous  subjects  the  value  of  an  arrange- 
ment was  determined  by  dividing  the  total  number  of  seconds 
spent  in  learning  the  six  series  in  which  there  was  no  arranging 
by  the  number  of  terms  recalled  in  those  series  after  a  week, 
and  then  dividing  the  difference  between  the  total  recall  in 
the  six  series  with  arranging  and  the  six  without,  by  the  total 
number  of  arrangements  used.  The  first  operation  gave  the 
number  of  seconds  of  learning  time  that  would  produce  one 
term  in  recall  with  this  subject,  while  the  second  operation 
gave  the  number  of  arrangements,  or  the  fraction  of  an  arrange- 
ment, that  would  produce  one  term  in  recall.  These  two 
quantities  were  therefore  equivalent.  Precisely  the  same 
method  was  pursued  in  calculating  the  value  of  an  arrange- 
ment for  the  successive  subjects,  except  that  the  learning  times 
were  given  in  repetitions  instead  of  minutes  and  seconds.  The 
values  thus  obtained  for  the  different  subjects  were  as  follows: 


Vdut  of  an 

Arraifgemenl. 

•OIJICT. 

.»;<o. 

1    .».,>cr. 

5MC.. 

12-35  sees. 
21.8  sees 

L 

N. 

R 

10    sees. 
12.35  sees. 

U 

W 

X 

1.673  reps, 
neehing 
2.617  leps. 

J 

For  the  two  subjects  who  were  dropped  from  the  experiment 
after  the  series  of  grays  and  violets,  McP.  and  F.,  10  sees,  was 
taken  as  the  value. 


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HARFET  JNDREIf  ' 


In  summing  up  the  results  of  t 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  i 
into  the  effects  of  novelty  on  memi 
the  same  typographical  variations 
for  eight  consecutive  weeks,  nor  tl 
areas  for  over  four  months.  The 
the  effects  of  simplicity  with  dis 
few  types  of  each  are  used  a  long 

Language,  spoken  and  written, 
simple  and  similar.  The  sameness 
with  the  variety  afforded  to  the  eye 
is  striking.  The  possibilities,  h 
memory  for  language,  by  introdu 
as  suggested  to  us  by  the  experii 
proved  to  be  decidedly  limited.  I 
meaning,  as  is  the  case  with  non 
the  memory  is  permanently  impro' 
variations,  particularly  position  a 
of  variations  be  increased  conside 
distraction  enters,  there  is  no  furt 
may  be  a  loss.  That  such  variatio 
ing  the  attention,  when  they  have 
popular  conviction  which  experim 
If,  however,  the  variation  takes  thi 
of  one  thing  than  of  another,  the 
tainly  better  than  the  memory  for 
experiments  of  Prof.  Calkins. 

But  language  differs  from  nonser 
ing,  in  itself  a  powerful  variation, : 
give  no  basis  for  the  belief  that  i 
permanently  better,  when  the  won 
Our  ov?Ti  experiments  were  few  i 
When  the  attempt  is  made  to  vary 
technique  arises,  which  is  by  no  i 
the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  simpl 
connected.    Even  single  adjectives 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DISSIMILdRlTr  ON  MEUORT.     69 

gest  acquired  connotations  so  readily  that  the  material  rapidly 
becomes  complex,  and  has  the  advantage  over  the  material 
called  complex  that  it  is  already  made  up  of  units.  This  was 
the  case  with  our  experiments  with  words  and  sentences,  and 
numbers  and  biographical  facts.  However,  the  results  at  least 
show  that  when  the  learning  time  is  fixed  and  sufficient  for 
comprehending  the  meaning  of  both,  short  sentences  can  be  as 
well  remembered  as  single  words.  All  three  of  our  language 
experiments  showed  conclusively  that  a  person  will  seek  differ- 
entials among  the  things  to  be  associated,  but  will  give  the 
preference  to  ones  already  connected  in  his  experience,  if  they 
can  be  found. 

We  pass  next  to  the  experiments  with  plane  areas.  We 
found  that  forms  were  far  more  associable  than  colors  and 
sizes,  that  is  to  say,  the  associations  were  much  more  quickly 
established  between  forms  and  something  else  than  between 
colors  or  sizes  and  something  ebe.  In  this  result  all  nine  sub- 
jects agree.  We  know  of  no  other  experiments  on  this  subject 
except  those  of  Bigham.*  He  found  that  colors  were  slightly 
more  associable  than  forms  in  immediate  recall,  but  after  2 
hours  and  24  hours  the  result  was  the  reverse  by  larger  diflFer- 
ences  than  before.  The  res'onse  times  in  immediate  recall 
of  forms  were  also  longer  than  in  the  case  of  colors.  His 
method  was  similar  to  ours  in  the  use  of  duplicate  series  for 
testing,  but  differed  in  the  very  important  respect  that  the 
same  ten  forms  and  ten  colors  were  used  over  again  in  every 
series.  The  test  was  association  with  position  as  in  our  experi- 
ment. The  re-use  of  the  same  forms  would  under  these 
circumstances  produce  interference,  the  greater  for  forms 
because  of  their  more  ready  associability.  The  better  recall 
of  forms  after  two  and  after  twenty-four  hours,  that  is  the 
fact  of  reversal,  cannot  be  understood  without  knowing  how 
many  series  of  a  kind  were  given. 

The  relative  associability  of  sizes  and  colors  differs  in  our 
results  with  different  subjects,  with  the  balance  in  favor  of 
colors.     Four  persons  remember  colors  better;  two,  sizes;  and 

'  Bighain,  Joha:  Memoiy.     Piych.  Rev.,  1894, 1, 453. 


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HAKTEY  ANDRSr  PETSKSOff. 


two  show  no  marked  difference.  The  ninth  subject  is  dis- 
regarded because  of  low  recall.  However,  if  the  slighter  differ- 
ences shown  by  two  persons  classed  as  equal  be  counted,  six 
remember  colors  better  than  sizes,  while  two  are  the  opposite, 
and  by  very  large  amounts  in  both  cases. 

The  very  great  superiority  of  forms  over  colors  and  sizes  ts 
certainly  due  to  the  far  greater  variety  within  a  limited  space 
which  the  realm  of  forms  off'ers.  Had  all  the  form-varying 
series,  instead  of  one-half,  consisted  solely  of  forms  used  only 
once,  the  superiority  of  forms  would  have  been  still  greater  by 
a  considerable  amount.  Yet  as  many  forms  as  that  could 
easily  have  been  found  without  making  the  similarity  great.  The 
simple  fact  is  that  there  is  a  large  number  of  easily  discrim- 
inable  forms,  while  there  are  only  a  very  few  easily  discriminable 
colors  and  sizes,  so  far  as  the  memory  for  long  intervals  is 
concerned.  On  the  other  hand  the  experiment  does  not  do 
justice  to  the  possibility  of  color.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
know  what  would  be  the  result  of  combining  several  colors  in 
each  term.  Tlie  striking  color  effiects  of  practical  life  are 
oftener  color  contrasts  than  single  colors.  While  only  experi- 
mentation can  decide  the  question,  our  own  results  lead  us  to 
expect  only  slight  improvements  for  color  from  this  source. 

While  our  earlier  experiments  were  relevant  to  the  memoiy 
for  language,  the  later  ones  with  plane  areas  are  like  the  mem- 
ory for  objects,  and  here  our  results  were  much  more  positive 
and  extended.  We  may  disregard  the  diff'erences  between  the 
associations  with  position  and  those  with  numbers,  and  treat 
all  nine  subjects  together.  The  questions  raised  in  the  original 
statement  of  our  problem  may  be  answered  as  follows.  On 
the  low  level  of  variety  represented  by  shades  of  gray  and  shades 
and  tints  of  one  color,  the  advantage  of  additional  variations 
is  great  and  is  manifested  by  all  six  subjects  tried.  By  a  men- 
tal economy  the  additions,  here  more  easily  discriminated  than 
the  grays  and  violets,  become  the  more  prominent,  although  a 
bona  fde  association  is  made  between  them  by  the  time  the 
learning  process  is  complete.  In  most  cases  the  person  could 
tell  which  gray,  or  shade  or  tint  of  violet,  went  with  a  form  or 
size,  if  given  both  variadons  to  put  together.     This  process  of 


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INFUJBNCB  OF  COMPLEXITT  AND  DISSIUILAUTT  ON  IHEMORT.     71 

remembering  a  less  discnminable  thing  by  a  more  discrimtnable 
associate  is  easily  identified  in  life.  Students  distinguish  their 
notebooks  by  the  fasteners,  marks  of  rough  usage  or  even 
bits  of  color.  Books  are  distinguished  by  their  variation  in 
color>  because  the  shape  is  so  much  less  discrimtnable.  In 
education  arithmetical  rules  are  clothed  in  striking  examples. 

With  the  passage  to  the  higher  levels  represented  by  different 
colors  and  different  forms,  when  the  variations  added  are  less 
discnminable  than  the  bases,  five  of  the  nine  subjects  no  longer 
profit  by  the  increase  in  complexity.  The  two  other  persons 
in  the  simultaneous  position  associations  and  two  in  the  num- 
ber associations  with  areas  still  profit.  No  limit  was  found  for 
them.  When,  however,  the  variation  added  is  more  discrimin- 
able  than  the  base,allofthe  subjects  again  profit  by  theaddition. 
This  is  the  case  when  in  our  type  of  series  called  Colored 
Forms  a  form  variation  is  added  to  color.  The  advantage  is 
almost  as  marked  as  on  the  lower  level. 

The  question  why  the  increases  in  complexity  cease  to  be  an 
advantage  is  next  in  order.  The  ability  to  profit  by  these 
increases  is  not  a  function  of  speed  of  learning,  as  would 
naturally  be  expected.  Quickness  in  learning  here  represents 
good  powers  of  discrimination  and  facile  associative  processes. 
The  figures  given  in  Table  8  show  that  of  the  four  persons  who 
profited  longest  by  the  increases  in  complexity,  R.  and  J.,  and 
U.andX.,two  rank  first  and  two  last  in  rapidity  of  learning  the 
series.  The  ranking  is  the  same  if  only  pure  colors,  sizes  and 
forms  are  averaged.  This  restriction  can  be  demanded  with 
some  justice,  because  if  those  who  have  trouble  in  discriminat- 
ing the  terms  are  the  ones  who  profit  longest  by  the  added 
variations,  their  slower  discrimination  would  show  itself  most 
before  the  variations  were  added. 

On  the  other  hand  the  five  to  whom  the  complex  material 
was  not  the  better  are  in  agreement  as  to  the  presence  of  dis- 
traction in  the  complex  series.  While  distraction  is  therefore  the 
most  probable  cause  at  the  present  time,  special  experiments 
on  the  span  of  attention  are  necessary  to  decide  the  matter. 

It  is  now  possible  to  offer  an  explanation  for  some  of  the 
differences  in  the  memory  for  different  materials,  and  the  same 


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72  HARFET  ANDREK'  PETERSON. 

materials  learned  in  different  ways,  which  were  spoken  of  in 
the  beginning.  Objects,  actions  and  pictures  are  better  remem- 
bered than  words,  because  they  are  more  extensive  and  varied 
stimulations.  Both  get  a  certain  amount  of  variation  from  the 
ideational  suggestions  called  forth,  by  the  connotations,  in  other 
words.  It  is  probable  that  the  ideational  supplementation  is 
somewhat  richer  for  words  than  for  objects,  actions  and  pictures. 
But  with  most  persons  imagery  is  feeble  compared  with  sen- 
sory stimulations,  and  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the  advan- 
tage which  words  may  enjoy  in  this  respect  is  relatively  slight. 
On  the  other  hand  in  the  extensiveness  and  dissimilarity  of 
sensory  stimulations  a  series  of  words  cannot  compare  with 
a  series  of  objects  or  pictures.  This  is  ludicrously  brought  out 
when  one  attempts  to  handle  type.  We  rest  our  eyes  from 
print  by  looking  at  our  surroundings.  Contrast  the  extent  and 
variety  of  stimulation  obtained  from  looking  at  a  house,  a 
lawn,  a  lamp,  a  knife,  a  piano-player  and  a  moving  train  of 
cars  with  the  smallness  and  similarity  of  the  stimulations 
obtained  by  looking  at  their  printed  words  just  given,  or  even 
printed  and  read  aloud.  Corresponding  to  the  more  exten- 
sive and  varied  original  brain  excitations  of  things  arc  the  more 
easily  aroused  and  numerous  mental  cues  in  recall,  and  the 
greater  likelihood  of  freedom  from  the  interference  due  to  sim- 
ilarity. If  the  brain  excitations  obtained  from  seeing  and  hear- 
ing the  series  of  things  mentioned  above  be  denoted  by  the 
letters  ABCD,  DEFG,  GHIJ,  etc.,  those  obtained  from  looking 
at  their  printed  names  and  speaking  them  should  be  represented 
by  the  letters  mnop,  nopq,  opqr,  etc.,  even  after  the  differences 
due  to  suggested  imagery  are  included. 

The  explanation  is  the  same  for  the  fact  that  words  presented 
to  several  senses  are  better  remembered  than  those  presented  to 
one  only.  Whitehead  has  shown  that  when  things  are  learned 
visually,  there  is  a  filtration,  so  to  speak,  through  from  our  visual 
to  our  auditory  experience  taking  place  at  the  time  of  the  visual 
learning,  so  that  if  a  week  later  the  same  thing  be  learned  audi- 
torily, it  takes  but  little  more  time  than  to  relearn  it  visually,  and 
of  course  much  less  time  than  to  learn  a  new  series  auditorily.' 

'  Whitehead,  L.  G.;     Psych.  Rev.,  1896,  III,  p.  258. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COUPLEXiTY  AND  DISSIUILARITT  ON  lUEUORr.        73 

The  same  thing  is  true  if  the  first  learning  is  auditory  and  the 
second  visual.  Here  as  in  our  own  experiments  the  connecting 
process  goes  on  during  learning,  but  in  this  case  the  connec- 
tion is  with  images  instead  of  other  perceptions.  The  same 
process  takes  place  in  learning  through  several  sense  organs  at 
once.  If  we  not  only  see  but  pronounce,  we  get  a  more  varied 
stimulation  than  if  we  merely  see  the  words,  and  if  we  read 
them  aloud  the  stimulations  are  still  more  varied  compared 
with  the  visual  alone,  and  the  liability  to  confusion  in  recall 
is  correspondingly  less,  just  on  account  of  this  growing  varia- 
tion. Doubtless  the  well-known  summation  effects  of  a  number 
of  weak  stimuli  are  also  responsible  for  the  difference.  We 
seem  to  get  the  meaning  more  completely  when  we  read  a  page 
aloud  than  when  we  read  it  to  ourselves.  This  indicates  that 
the  visual,  auditory  and  enunciatory  stimulations  combined 
are  more  effective  than  one  or  two  alone  in  arousing  associa- 
tions of  an  ideational  type.  Funhermore,  it  is  not  to  be  for- 
gotten that  we  are  dealing  here,  in  the  case  of  language  at  least, 
with  complexes  that  are  already  apperceptive  units,  owing  to 
early  schooling.  The  case  is  somewhat  different  from  that 
of  our  own  experiment,  where  the  combinations  were  con- 
stantly new. 

One  of  the  original  and  less  common  features  of  this  inves- 
tigation is  the  length  of  the  interval  before  the  memory  is 
tested.  There  are  few  extended  investigations  of  the  memory 
for  materials  after  intervals  as  long  as  one  and  two  weeks. 

Finally,  to  the  technique  of  memor)'  work  we  offer  a  contri- 
bution. T^e  method  of  measuring  the  memory  for  different 
materials  by  the  amount  of  time  or  repetitions  required  to 
bring  them  up  to  the  same  level  of  efficiency  meets  with  the 
difficulty  of  evaluating  the  tests  taken  to  determine  progressive 
efficiency.  We  propose  a  solution  of  this  difficulty,  namely,  a 
separate  determination  for  each  person,  of  the  average  worth 
of  a  test  in  terms  of  learning  time  or  repetitions,  the  two  meas- 
urements to  be  rendered  equivalent  through  what  each  will 
produce  in  recall. 


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74  HARFBT  ANDREW  PBTESSON. 

IX    APPENDIX. 

I.  Pliaet. 

The  following  plates  give  the  shapes  and  rtlativ*  sizes  of  the  fomt-vaiying 
series.  The  anual  dimensions  and  the  colon  employed  arc  |^ven  in  the 
'Description  of  Series'  on  the  pages  immediately  succeeding. 

With  three  subjects  U,  W,  and  X,  certain  (bnns,  here  called 'Substituted 
FontiE,' replaced  some  of  those  in  the  regular  series  in  order  to  eliminate  repe- 
tiuon.  They  are  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  figures  which  they  replaced, 
and  the  distinctive  letter  B  is  added.  The  first  three  forms,  iB,  4B,  and  5  B 
belong  to  Forms  I;  the  fourth,  7B,  belongs  to  Forms  11;  and  the  last  two  in 
the  row,  iB  and  6B,  belong  to  Forms  B.  In  the  nest  row  iB,  3B,  and  7B 
belong  to  C.  F.  d.  S.  Ill,  and  the  remaining  five  belong  to  C.  F.  d.  S.  IV. 

2.  Detrriftion  of  Stria  uied  in  V  2  anJ  5. 
Colors.    Each  term  eontaintd  jo  tj.  cm. 

Series  I.  Ei^-point  stars.  Yellow  orange  t.  2,  green,  cool  gray  no.  1 
blue  sh.  2,  A-yellow  medium,  green  yellow  t.  2,  red  orange  sh.  i. 

Series  II.  Squares.  Orange  red  t.  2,  yellow  orange  sh.  2,  A-blue  green  dark, 
yellow,  red,  green  t.  1,  A-rcd  light. 

Series  III.  Oblongs.  Orange  yellow  t.  t,  red  violet  sh.  2,  orange  red  1. 1, 
blue  green  sh.  i  green  yellow  t.  1,  A-green  yellow  dark,  A-green  light. 

Series  IV.  Round-cornered  squares.  Black,  violet  red  t.  2,  orange  red  ah. 
2,  cool  gray  no.  2,  green  sh.  2,  A-yellow  orange  medium,  green  blue  sh.  i. 

Sites.  Series  I.  Red  oblongs,  hei^  rwice  the  width.  Irregular  ratio  of 
terms  as  follows:  1  :2  -+,2  :3  =306,  3  14  -  1.24,4  =5  -  '5.  5  =6  -1.4, 
6  7   -  i-S- 

Series  II.  Equilateral' triangles.  A-yellow  orange  dark.  Geom.  ratio,z.77, 
beginning  with  an  area  of  .5  sq.  cm.  for  the  smallest. 

Series  III.    Circles.     Blue  violet  sh.  2.    Geom.  ratio,  2.77.     Smallest  term. 

Series  IV.  Truncated  cones,  sides  inclined  one-tenth  the  width  of  the  base 
on  each  side.  Yellow  orange,  and  irregular  rario  of  terms  as  fellows:  1:2  — 
3-9. »;  3  "  4'.  3  ;  +  -  *-98,  4:5-  1-69. 5:6-  a>>  6:7-  t.9. 

The  order  in  which  the  sizes  were  placed  in  any  series  was  determined  by 
chance  as  in  the  gray  and  violet  sets,  excluding  the  cases  there  excluded. 
The  arrangements  employed  in  the  above  series  were  the  following,  reading  the 
series  from  left  to  rig^t.    The  figures  give  the  areas  in  sq.  cm. 

Series  I.  40.5    60.5    2    8    84.5    128    24.5. 

Series  II.  (1  is  the  smallest)  1625347- 

Series  III.  2451376. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITY  AND  DlSSlMlLAKtTr  ON  UEMORT.     75 


□ 


u 


VIOLET    FORMS 
FORMS 


A 


2/^  ^^  r~\' 


u 


m 


crr^Vop'dU'O' 


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BAMFET  ANDROr  PBTEX30N. 


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INrUJEXCE  OF  COMFLEIITT  AND  DISaiKILAKITr  ON  MSKOET.      JJ 


COLORED    FORMS    OF  DIFFERENT  SIZES. 
I 


SUBSTITUTED    FORMS  ^    f 


^ 


JB      \       /SB 


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BARFET  ANDREW  PETERSON. 


Sciict  IV.  1.95    .50    40.6    162.2    24    8.05    84. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  aggregate  area  of  each  series  n 


B  350  iq.  cm. 


Colored  Saes.  These  series  are  the  simplest  advance  in  complexity.  A*  the 
name  indicates  they  vary  in  area  and  color.  To  render  them  comparable  with 
series  varying  in  size  only,  the  term-areas  of  Series  I  repeat  those  of  Sizes  I, 
Series  11,  of  Sizes  IV,  Series  111  and  IV,  of  Sizes  II  and  III.  The  series-chapes 
were  however  new.  The  order  of  occurrence  of  the  terms  may  be  represented 
as  follows,  the  topmost  one  being  on  the  left  end.  The  figures  again  indicate 
the  sizes,  i  representing  the  smallest,  2  the  next  smallest,  etc.  The  combination 
of  color  with  size  was  determined  by  chance  after  the  seven  colors  for  the  series 
had  once  been  selected.     However  very  small  terms  were  not  given  very  li^t 


2  yellow  green 

3  yellow  orange  darlc 

7  orange  yellow  t.  1 

6  red  orange 

4  blue  green  sh.  2 

5  violet  t.  I. 

S/i-r«  ///. 

3  A-^ecn  medium 

4  Uue  t.  I 

7  A-orange  red  dark 

5  green  yellow  t.  2 
-       I  black 

6  A-orange  light 

2  A-red  violet  dark 

Formi.     (See  plates.) 


Stritt  II. 

2  blue 

I  orange  red 

5  orange  sh.  I 

7  yeil« 

4  green  yellow 

3  blue  t.  2 

6  red  violet  t. 


ingei. 


Series  IK 


3  violet 
6 


3  violet 

1  A-green  yellow  dark 

6  blue  green  sh.  i 

2  A-yeltow  orange  light 
5  green  blue  t.  2 

4  red  orange  sh.  2 

7  yellow  t.  2 


Colored  Forms.  These  series  also  varied  in  two  ways,  color  and  fonn.  The 
forms  are  given  tn  the  plates.  Each  term  contained  50  sq.  cm.  The  colore 
in  order  from  left  to  right  in  the  series  were  as  follows: 

Series  I.  Fig.  I  yellow,  Fig.  2  A'^reen  medium.  Fig.  3  red  violet  t.  i,  Fig. 
4  yellow  green.  Fig.  5  black,  Fig.  6  A-orange  red  medium,  Fig.  7  orange  t.  2- 

Series  II.  Fig.  I  green,  Fig.  2  orange.  Fig.  3  orange  yellow  sh.  i,  Fig.  4 
red.  Fig.  5  green  I.  2,  Fig.  6  yellow  orange  sh.  z.  Fig.  7  violet. 

Series  III.  Fig.  I  A-yellow  orange  dark.  Fig.  2  blue  sh.  2,  Fig.  3  red  t.  I, 
Fig.  4yellow  green.  Fig.  s  orange  yellow  t.  I,  Fig.  6  red  violet  sh.  I,  Fig.  7  yel- 
low green  sh.  2. 


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INFLUENCE  OF  CQMPLEXITr  AND  DISSIMILABITT  ON  UEUORT.     ^q 

Seriei  IV,  Fig.  i  warm  gray  no.  i.  Fig.  i  orange  yellow  t.  i.  Fig.  3  green 
yellow  t.  I,  Fig.  4  blue  t.  I,  Fig.  5  A-orange  red.  Fig.  6  violet  red.  Fig,  7  A-yel- 
low  orange  medium. 

ColoreJ  Formt  of  Different  Siiei.  These  series  varied  in  three  ways  and 
reprecented  the  maximum  number  of  variations  which  were  combined  in  a  single 
series.  The  variations  were  in  color,  size  and  form.  The  forms  are  given  in 
the  plates,  the  sizes  and  colors,  here.  The  ratios  existing  between  each  two 
incccsnve  terms  in  series  1  and  II  were  the  same  as  in  Sizes  I,  and  the  actual 
areas  were  also  the  same  as  there.  In  series  III  and  IV  the  ratios  were 
I  :  J -4,2:3-2.25.3  :4  -2,4^5  -2.17.5-6  -  2.6,6:7  -3.25. 
I  :i- 2.5,2:3  -2.5,3:4  =  2,4:5-2.5,5:6-2.17,6:7-1.35. 


Fig.  I  8.  sq,  cm A-yellow  orange  dark 

■  2  84.5  "      violet  red 

'    3  40, 5  "      A-yellow  light 

"    4  128.  "      yellow 

-    5  2.  •      A-bluedark 

■  6  24.5  "      yellow  green  sh.  2 

"     7  60.5  "      blue 

Fig.  I  60.5  sq.  cm gt^en  t,  i 

■  2  24.5  °      orange  yellow  sh.  I 

'    3  '28.  "      warm  gray  no.  2 

■  4  I.  ■      orange  red 

"    5  84.5  ■      green  blue  sh.  I 

"    6  405  '      orange 

■  7  8.  '      A-red  light 

Seriet  III. 

Fig.  I  19.2  sq.  cm black 

"    2  162,  "      violet 

"    3  4-5  "      orange  yellow  sh.  I 

"    4  9.  '      red  violet  1. 1 

'    S  50-  *      yellow  green  sh.  2 


Series  If. 

Fig.  1  43 .  75  sq.  cm blue  violet 

■  2  128.  "      green  blue  sh.  I 

■  3        17.5  "      violet  red 

'    +         3-5         "      wann  g"y  "»■  2 

"    S         8.75       "      green  yellow  sh.  2 

"    6         I.+         *      red  sh.  2 

"    7       95.  "      A-yellow  light 


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8o  SARFET  ANDMBF  PETSHSON. 

Each  of  the  firtt  two  Mries  aggregate!  348  sq.  cm.,  the  third  347  and  the 
founh  298  sq.  cm. 

Extra  Serits.  Colors  A.  Blue  sh.  2,  yellow  orange  sh.  2,  violet,  orange, 
green,  A-violet  blue  light,  red.    Oblongs,  height  twice  the  width. 

Colors  B.  A-yellow  light,  red  violet  t.  z,  red  t.  t,  jvllow,  warm  gray  no.  z, 
blue  green,  yellow  green  t.  I.    Same  series-shape  as  in  the  preceding  one. 

Sizes  A.  Isosceles  triangles,  height  twice  the  base.  Blue  t.  2,  gcom.  ratio 
of  2.5  beginning  with  an  area  of  .5  sq.  cm.  for  the  smallest  term.  Total  area 
of  series,  io+  sq.  cm.    Order:  5416372. 

Sizes  B.  Truncated  Cones,  A-yellow  dark  in  color.  The  ratios  were  I  :  2  ~ 
4.5,  2:3-  2.78,  3:4-  1.6,  4:5-  2.03,  5:6-  1.3,  6:7-  1.92.  The 
actual  areas  in  order  from  left  to  right  were,  in  sq.  cm.:  25  64  2  169  9 
324     130.    The  total  area  was  723  sq.  cm. 

Sizes  C.  Quadrilaterals  fbmied  by  superposing  upon  a  square  a  right 
triangle  of  the  same  dimensions  with  hypotenuse  to  the  left.  Green  sh.  z  in 
color.  The  ratios  were,  4,  4,  3,  3-5,  I.93,  1.5S.  The  actual  areas  in  their 
orderwereinsq  cm.:  2     t6l    24    84    256    .5    8.    The  total  area  was  536.5 


CiJortJ  Sixes  A.  CoiortJ  Shti  B. 

4  blue  green  5  orange  red  sh.  t 

2  red  orange  t.  2  2  green  sh.  2 

7  warm  gray  no.  i  4  orange  yellow  t.  i 

5  green  t.  2  3  red  t.  2 

I  red  orange  7  cool  gray  no.  1 

3  blue  t.  [  I  A-yellow  orange  dark 

6  A-green  yellow  medium  6  blue 

Forms  A  and  B.  These  are  sufficiently  described  in  the  plates.  The  results 
obtained  from  them  were  not  used  in  the  tables,  because  the  forms  in  them 
had  been  used  once  before,  and  there  was  already  a  sufficiency  of  such  series. 

}.  Analytii  of  Errort  in  V  z. 

In  the  pages  immediately  following  the  errors  of  Tables  4  and  5  will  be 
analyzed.  The  results  of  two  subjects  will  be  treated  in  detail  including  every 
series,  eveiy  error  in  the  final  test  and  some  of  the  errors  made  in  learning. 
Some  of  the  explanations  are  conjectural,  and  of  questionable  worth;  many 
otheis  are  beyond  question  the  true  causes  of  the  errors.  The  account  is  to 
a  very  laige  extent  a  story  of  interference  due  to  similarity.  It  will  be  recalled 
that  introspccrions  were  not  allowed  Iwfore  the  final  test,  so  that  when  th^ 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITr  AND  DISSIMILARITT  ON  MEMORT.     8l 

were  given,  moat  of  them  were  not  of  value.  The  conclusioni  given  below  aie 
therefore  mainly  the  result  of  a  study  of  the  arrangements  of  duplicate  series 
handed  in  bythe  subject.  Where  introspectiont  were  used  it  is  made  evideni  in 
the  text.  The  extra  series  denoted  by  the  letters  A,  B,  etc.,  are  included.  It 
is  essential  to  remember  that  in  the  interval  of  13  days  between  the  learning 
and  the  testing  of  a  series  two  more  rotmds  of  similar  series  were  learned. 
When  the  particular  test  is  not  mentioned  it  is  alwajn  the  fnal  one  that  is 
meant.     By  'wing'  is  meant  the  three  terms  on  either  side  of  the  middle  term.' 

Sahjict  R. 

Col.  Sizes  I  and  II,  and  Cols.  A.  In  learning  Col.  Sizes  I  the  only  error 
was  an  exchange  of  3  yellow  orange  and  4  blue  green  belonging  in  2d 
and  6th  places  respectively.  The  error  was  probably  due  to  their  similarity 
in  size.  It  occurred  three  times  on  successive  days.  When  the  next  week  Col. 
Sizes  II  was  learned  the  influence  of  I  was  shown'in  erroneously  moving  green 
yillow  from  5th  to  1st  place  where  a  yellow  grten  had  stood  the  previous  week. 
The  error  occurred  twice,  with  no  others.  When  in  the  third  week  Col.  Sizes 
I  received  its  final  ten,  aside  from  an  exchange  of  two  small  adjacems,  3  yellow 
otangeandi  red,  theonly  error  was  a  removal  of  yellow  ^mk  to  5th  place.  Here 
the  corrections  which  the  subject  got  in  II  worked  to  the  undoing  of  I.  When 
the  following  week  II  is  tested  the  only  error  is  moving  green  yellow  to  the  left 
end,  this  time  to  second  place  instead  of  to  first.  The  original  error  has  recurred. 
Cols.  A,  which  was  learned  with  Col.  Sizes  I,  shows  the  influence  of  this  strug- 
^e.  Its  yellow  orange  is  moved  from  id  to  7th  place,  its  green  from  5th  to 
3d  place.  This  is  very  much  like  the  first-mentioned  error  in  Col.  Sizes  I. 
The  only  other  errors  were  an  exchange  of  adjacent!,  violet  blue  and  red. 

C.  F.  d.  S.    III.     Exchange  of  adjacent  terms  in  final  test,  one  pair  only. 

Forms  I.  In  the  final  test  aside  from  one  exchange  of  ad jacents,  the  errors 
are  caused  by  moving  Fig.  7  to  3d  place.    No  explanation  ascertainable. 

Sizes  B  and  C  The  kind  of  schemes  or  systems  most  frequently  made  use 
of  by  all  the  subjects  when  the  exposure  was  simultaneous  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  one  us^  by  R  in  Sizes  B.  The  correct  order  was  3416275,  I  repre- 
senting the  smallest,  2  the  next  smallest  tetm,  etc.  Her  system  according  to 
her  own  testimony  was  an  ascending  'sky-line'  from  1st  to  6th  places,  3467, 
the  smallest  and  next  smallest  forming  a  second  ascending  series  interpolated 
in  the  first  at  the  3d  and  5th  positions.  The  last  term  stood  apan.  In  the 
final  test  the  general  nature  of  the  scheme  remains,  but  the  details  have  become 

'To  understand  these  analyses  of  errors  the  Description  of  Series  on  pp. 
74~8o  doubtless  will  have  to  be  frequently  consulted.  The  prefixed  figures  2, 
3,  etc.,  m^n  the  second  size,  third  size,  etc,  counting  from  the  smallest. 


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8a  HJRFEr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

confused,  as  shown  by  her  arrangement  3451726,  The  next  week,  when  Size* 
C  came  up  for  final  test  the  system  which  the  subject  had  employed  in  learning 
B  was  introduced  into  C  with  entire  correctnets.  The  subject  is  of  course 
unaware  that  it  had  belonged  to  another  series.  This  is  only  one  of  the  many 
striking  illusttations  in  our  experiment  of  the  law  discovered  by  Miiller  and 
Pilzecker,  that  of  two  similar  and  mutually  interfering  associations  the  eariier 
foimed  one  becomes  relatively  stronger,  the  greater  the  lapse  of  time  since  the 
later  one  was  learned.'  In  our  own  illustration  the  system  used  in  B  was  imper- 
fectly remembered  when  still  in  the  shadow  of  learning  C,  but  after  the  effects 
of  learning  C  had  had  a  week  to  die  down,  the  B  system  recovered,  unfoitii- 
nately  for  the  subject,  in  the  wrong  series. 

Forms  II.  This  series  has  three  tall  figures,  distributed  near  the  middle 
and  on  or  near  the  ends.  In  learning,  the  series  was  balanced  about  them  and 
on  one  occasion  Fig.  5  was  put  in  the  middle  place.  After  two  weeks  the  sub- 
ject has  forgotten  the  exceptions  to  the  balanced  scheme,  as  shown  by  her 
arrangement,  in  which  the  three  tall  figures  of  the  series  are  platxd  at  the  ends 
and  in  the  middle.  Fig.  z  is  on  the  left,  5  in  the  middle  and  J  on  the  right 
end.    The  low  intemiediate  figures  are  not  well  remembered. 

C.  F.  d.  S.  IV.  Figs.  5  and  6  are  exchanged.  Possibly  their  similarity  in 
size  was  a  partial  cause.  The  other  error  was  moving  Fig.  1  to  the  right  of 
Fig.  7,  of  which  no  explanation  other  than  simply  memory-fading  is  offered. 
Both  errors  in  the  final  test  only 

Cols.  II.     Many  errors  in  final  test.     No  explanation. 

Cols.  1.  Final  test.  Again  the  arrangement  is  chaotic.  Bri^t  colots  (red 
and  green)  are  erroneouslyput  in  the  middle  where  they  were  in  the  three  other 
color  series  previously  learned. 

Col.  Sizes  A.  The  final  test  is  badly  mixed.  The  subject  places  only  one 
teim  correctly, — 2  red  orange.  4  blue  green  and  3  blue  are  exchanged.  They 
are  next  to  each  other  in  size  and  similar  in  color. 

C.  F.  d.  S.    I.    A  single  exchange  of  adjacents,  Figs.  1  and  3. 

C.  F.  d.  S.  II.  Two  exchanges  of  adjacents.  Figs.  2  and  3,  and  4  and  5. 
Shows  interferenceof  other  series:  Fig  6  (window)'  is  put  in  ist  place,  occupied 
inC.  F.d.S.  Ill  (which  preceded  the  present  series  with  this  subject)  by  a  figure 
of  the  same  shape,  but  different  color  and  size.  Fig.  i  (slender  vase)  is  put  in 
6th  place  as  in  Forms  B,  seen  i  day  before. 

Col.  Sizes  B.  Three  errors.  Ends,  blue  and  orange  red,  are  exchanged, 
due,  the  subjea  says,  to  Cols.  A,  where  a  similar  blue  and  red  were  on  the  ends. 
Latter  series  not  seen  for  30  days.  Orange  yellow  moved  to  the  right  of  the 
term  belonging  in  6th  place.     Reason  not  known. 

'  Miiller  and  Pilzecker.:  Ztsch.  f.  Psych.,  Erganzungsbd.  i,  pp.  124  and  13S. 
'  These  names  are  inventions  of  the  operator. 


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INFLUENCE  OP  COMPLEXITT  AND  DISSlidlLARITr  ON  MEMORT.    83 

Cols,  B.  Exchange  of  the  two  tenns  considered  colorless  or  'dead'  by  the 
subject,  A-yellow  light  and  nann  gray  no.  t. 

Col.  Forms  I-    All  correct. 

Forms  B.  An  exchange  of  two  figures  adjacent  and  relatively  veiy  similar 
in  shape,  Figs.  4  and  5  (inegular  octagon  and  double  crescent). 

Sizes  A.  Another  typical  illustration  of  the  schemes  used  by  all  the  subjects 
in  the  sizes  of  the  simultaneous  set.  The  correct  order  was  5416372.  Her 
system  consisted,  she  says,  ofthree'slcy-lines:' the  first  a  descending  one  formed 
by  the  terms  541,  the  second  an  ascending  one  fbrmed  by  the  terms  167,  the 
third  an  ascending  and  descending  one  formed  by  the  three  smallest  terms. 
Despite  the  small  total  area  of  the  series  and  consequently  greater  difficulty 
in  disciiminating  the  terms  the  system  served  its  purpose  pretty  well.  After 
13  days  and  many  series  learned  in  the  interval  the  subjea  got  the  whole  series 
correct  except  a  single  exchange,  the  smallest  and  third  smallest.  She  remem- 
bered and  used  the  system  in  reconstruction,  but  forgot  the  third  'sky-line.' 

Col.  Forms  III.  Influence  of  an  introspection  series  given  two  and  ane^alf 
months  before  causes  the  subject  to  put  Fig.  5  (inverted  hat)  in  ist  place,  where 
a  figure  of  the  same  shape  and  size,  but  red  instead  of  yellow  had  stood.  The 
other  errors  are  displacements  caused  by  this  change. 

Col.  Forms.  IV.    All  correct. 

Col.  Forms  II.     Poorly  recalled  and  no  special  reason  evident. 

Sizes  I.     Same  result  as  in  Col.  Forms  II. 

Forms  A.  Its  mediocre  retention  is  explicable  on  the  basis  of  its  extremely 
short  learning  time,  10  sees.  The  equal-arraed  cross,  Fig.  3,  is  put  in  5th 
place,  where  the  larger  long  blue  cross  was  in  C.  F.  d.  S.  II,  20  days  before. 
The  other  errora  are  exchanges  of  adjacents. 

Forms  III.  In  learning,  a  similarity  between  Figs.  6  and  7  and  the  number 
10  was  noticed.  In  final  test  Fig.  4  took  the  place  of  Fig.  6  in  this  idea.  This 
broug^  Figs.  3  and  5  together  forming  an  unnatural  looking  low  'sky-line' 
at  this  point,  which  R  broke  by  putting  Fig.  2  betvreen  Figs.  3  and  5.  The 
two  latter  were  also  transposed.     Note  their  similarity. 

Col.  Sizes  III.  In  leatntng,  the  only  error  was  an  exchange  of  6  and  7, 
which  are  not  only  similar  to  each  other  in  size  (and  in  color  to  this  subject), 
but  are  also  similar  to  the  two  largest  areas  of  Sizes  II  (learned  at  the  same 
time)  in  respect  to  the  positions  occupied.  The  exchange  was  a  copy  of  the 
positions  of  6  and  7  in  the  other  series.  Same  ent>r  repeated  in  the  final  test, 
and  also  made  by  the  subject  next  to  be  discussed. 

Sizes  II.  Confused  with  the  series  just  mentioned.  In  final  test  6  and  7 
were  placed  as  they  should  have  been  in  that  series.  Funher  errors  io  this 
series  were  moving  4  to  left  end  and  1  to  a  place  in  the  middle,  both  in  imita- 
tion of  Col.  Sizes  III.     The  remaining  errors  cannot  be  traced. 


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84  HARFET  ANDXBF  PETBKSON. 

Cols.  III.  Her  learning  scheme  wms: 'group  ofthe  left  three  were  pronounceil 
colors,  yellow  first,  purple  and  red  next,  the  last  two  a  displeasing  conabina- 
tion.  Group  of  the  right  three  consists  of  a  pale  one  ^teen  ttnt)  followed  hf 
two  neutral  colors.  Blue  associated  with  middle,  a  conspicuous  position.* 
In  final  test  the  left  three  were  correctly  recalled,  but  green  gray  was  put  in 
the  middle,  with  which  place  a  gray  had  been  connected  in  the  week  interven- 
ing between  the  learning  and  final  test  of  this  series  (viz:  in  Cols.  IV).  The 
cue  for  the  light  three  was  forgotten. 

Sizes  III.  Too  poorly  recalled  to  analyze.  The  left  three  have  the  regu- 
lariy  increasing  size  arrangement  of  the  original,  but  do  not  begin  with  the 
ezaaly  correct  size. 

Col.  Sizes  IV.  An  ahnost  complete  copy  of  her  last  week's  amngemcnt  of 
Col.  Sizes  111,  which  she  had  recalled  unc<Hnmonly  well.  The  order  there 
was  3^/55172  instead  of  347S'^-  The  order  here  was  346527/.  The  only 
difference  is  an  exchange  of  the  two  smallest.  This  is  very  different  from 
what  the  series  should  be,  viz:  3162547. 

Sizes  IV.  Too  pooriy  recalled  to  analyze.  Her  arrangement  is  similar  in 
a  general  way  to  the  original  in  the  fact  that  each  wing  consists  of  a  large  one 
flanked  by  smaller  ones,  but  the  wings  are  exchanged. 

Forms  IV.  In  final  test  exchange  of  Figs.  5  and  6,  due  to  the  identity  of 
Fig.  7  with  a  part  of  Fig.  5.  The  confusion  of  similars  most  frequently  shows 
itself  by  an  exchange,  partial  or  complete,  but  it  seettu  not  unlikely  that  at 
other  rimes  it  results  in  bringing  together  the  terms  confused.  This  is  very 
plainly  the  case  here  and  in  Cols.  IV  with  the  next  subject,  N.  The  remaining 
error  in  Forms  IV  was  an  exchange  of  Figs.  ■  and  3. 

Cols.  IV.  In  learning,  red  and  green  in  3d  and  5th  places,  with  gray  between 
them,  formed  a  group.  The  complementary  character  of  red  and  green,  noted 
by  the  subject,  is  both  a  help  and  a  risk.  They  were  exchanged  once  in  learn- 
ing, and  in  final  test  green  is  again  put  in  place  of  red,  the  latter  being  dis- 
placed ro  zd  place.  Tlie  other  error  consists  in  putting  blue  tint  in  6th  place, 
where  R  had  wrongly  put  a  similar  color  last  week.     (Green  blue  in  Cols.  III.) 

Suhjtef  N. 

Cols.  A.  Influenced  by  Cols.  II  learned  the  week  before,  three  colon  being 
placed  as  were  similar  cobrs  in  that  series.  Blue  is  moved  from  1st  ro  3d 
place,  red  from  7th  to  5th  and  green  from  5th  to  6th.  The  other  errors  result 
from  these  displacements. 

Forms  I.     Exchange  of  adjacents,  Figs.  4  and  5. 

In  discussing  four  of  the  series  immediately  following  this  chronological 
table  will  be  of  service. 


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INPLVENCB  OF  COMPLBXITr  AND  DISSIUILJKITr  ON  MEMOHr.     %$ 

7th  week.     Learned  Sizes  B  and  Col.  Sizes  I. 
8th  week.    Learned  Sizes  C  and  Co).  Sizes  II. 
9th  week.     Final  test  of  Sizes  B  and  Col.  Sizes  I. 
loth  week.     Final  test  of  Sizes  C  and  Col.  Sizes  II. 

Sizes  B.  The  correct  order  is  3416275.  In  final  test  the  subject  gave 
3451726, — an  exchange  of  sizes  6  and  7,  and  a  removal  of  5  to  3d  place.  The 
tatter  error  gives  a  longer  'sky-line'  in  the  first  three  temis,  a  peculiarity  which 
may  have  been  due  to  Sizes  C  learned  the  preceding  week.  Both  the  peculiar 
shape  of  the  tenns  in  this  latter  series  and  their  order  (26,  ^57, 13)  emphasized 
lines  ascending  to  the  ri^t.  All  of  the  subjects  spoke  of  this  and  considered 
it  rendered  the  series  easier. 

Col.  Sizes  I.  Same  erroneous  idea  of  pronounced  upward  slope  in  the  final 
lest  of  this  series.  Instead  of  the  correct  order,  2317645,  3457126  is  given. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  size  this  cannot  be  anything  else  than  two  upward 

C.  F.  d.  S.  111.     Exchange  of  Figs.  5  and  7.     No  similarity. 

Forms  II.    Two  exchanges  of  similar  forms,  Figs.  2  and  5,  and  3  and  6. 

C.  F.  d.  S.  IV.  Fig.  8,  a  small  inveited  hat,  moved  to  the  left  of  Fip.  4 
and  5.     No  reason  apparent. 

Co).  Sizes  'II.  Final  test  was  the  same  as  in  Sizes  B,  with  a  slight  change. 
Here  it  is  2351746.    There  it  was  3451726, 

Sizes  C.  In  the  final  test  the  subject's  arrangement  was  3451726,  the  correct 
order  being  2645713.  This  is  exactly  the  same  mixture  of  B  and  C  which  the 
subject  employed  in  the  final  test  of  B,  a  week  before. 

Col.  Forms  IV.    One  displacement.  Fig.  6  moved  to  the  left  of  Fig.  4. 

Cots.  II.  All  correct, — very  unusual.  His  scheme  was:  *The  heaviest  (red) 
with  the  two  lightest  (yellow  and  green  tint  1)  on  either  side,  were  next  to  the 
right  end  (4th  to  6th  places).  Of  the  remainder  a  li^t  one  (orange  red  tint  2) 
was  on  the  left  end  followed  by  two  heavy  ones.  The  one  in  7th  place  was 
correctly  placed  by  being  left  over  after  the  others  had  been  arranged.' 

Cols.  1  and  B.  I  preceded  B  a  week  in  learning.  In  final  test  I  shows 
plainly  the  influence  of  subsequenriy  learning  B.  The  only  error  is  a  removal 
of  green  yellow  and  red  orange  shade  from  6th  and  7th  places  to  2d  and  3d, 
and  a  consequent  rightward  displacement  of  2-5.  Hiis  is  approximately  the 
position  of  a  bri^t  red  and  yellow  in  B,  namely,  3d  and  4th  positions.  B, 
however,  is  also  affected  in  its  final  test  the  next  week.  The  interference  is 
mutual.  Aside  from  an  exchange  of  adjacents  (5th  and  6th)  the  only  error 
is  a  removal  of  green  from  7th  to  2d  place  where  a  bright  green  stood  in  I. 

Col.  Sizes  A.  The  errors  are  due  to  a  confusion  of  terms  within  the  series, 
similar  to  each  other  in  size  and  color.  All  of  the  subjects  experienced  thie 
difficulty.     The  similarities  in  color  constituted  a  defect  in  the   series,  and 


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86  HARVBr  ANDREW  PETERSON. 

were  one  of  the  reasons  why  it  was  rejected  from  the  regular  series.  In  the 
case  of  this  subject  the  error?  were  an  exchange  of  3  blue  and  4  blue  green, 
and  of  5  green  tint  and  6  A-green  yellow. 

C.  F.  d.  S.  I.    Two  exchanges  of  adjacent^. 

C.  F.  d.  S.  II.  This  series  shows  interference  of  other  series.  Only  the  1st 
and  4th  are  correctly  placed.  Fig.  7  (spire)  is  moved  to  second  place  occupied 
by  a  figure  of  the  same  shape  but  different  color  and  larger  in  Col.  Forms  II 
seen  $  days  before  .  Fig.  5  (tall  cross)  is  put  in  3d  place  occupied  by  a  maltese 
cross  of  a  very  different  color  and  size  in  C  F.  d.  S.  IV.  Fig.  2  (irademart)  is 
put  in  6th  place.  The  same  figure  but  very  much  larger  and  of  slightly  dif' 
ferent  color  had  been  in  7th  place  in  C.  F.  d.  S.  IV.  Fig.  3  (pin-wheel)  is 
put  in  7th  place  where  a  figure  of  the  same  shape  but  diFerent  color  and  site 
had  been  in  Forms  II.   C.  F.  d.  S.  IV.  and  Forms  II.  were  last  seen  31  days 

Col.  Sizes  B.    Recall  too  poor  to  analyze. 

Forms  B.    Fig.  4  moved  to  ist  and  Fig.  7  to  4th  place.     No  explanation. 

Sizes  A.     Exchange  of  sizes  1  and  3,  and  4  and  5. 

Col.  Forms  I.     Exchange  of  adjacent  Figs.  4  and  5. 

Col.  Forms  11.  All  correct.  The  subjea  said:  "Figs,  3,  4,  and  5  were 
recalled  by  the  appearance  of  the  three  as  a  group.  Figs,  i  and  7  were  asso- 
ciated with  their  positions,  and  Figs.  2  and  6  were  contrasted  with  each  other 
and  associated  with  their  positions. 

Forms  A.  Interference  of  other  series.  Fig.  7  (wide  vase)  put  in  firw  place 
where  a  slender  vase  of  different  color  had  been  in  C,  F.  d.  S.  II  12  days  before. 
Exchange  of  Fip.  5  and  6.  Fig.  3  (equal-armed  cross)  put  in  7th  place  for 
no  apparent  reason. 

Sizes  I.     Exactly  the  same  arrangement  as  was  given  for  Sizes  C  43  days 

Sizes  II.  In  learning  the  only  error  was  arranging  the  series  once  in  the 
exact  arrangement  of  Col.  Sizes  III.  Despite  the  correction  which  it  had 
received,  the  same  mistake  was  made  in  final  test,  the  only  alteration  being 
an  inversion  of  the  last  two  terms. 

Col.  Sizes  III.  An  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  interference  is  always 
mutual.  This  series  and  Sizes  I],  learned  at  the  same  time,  were  confused 
with  each  other.  The  other  series  fared  the  worst,  but  in  the  final  test  of  this 
series,  6  and  7  were  arranged  as  they  were  in  that  series.  There  was  also  an 
inversion  of  the  last  two  terms,  as  in  Sizes  II. 

Col.  Forms  III.  Fig.  5  (inverted  hat)  put  in  ist  place,  occupied  by  a  figure 
of  the  same  shape  and  size,  but  different  color,  thtee  months  before  in  an  intro- 
spection series.  The  only  other  error,  aside  from  the  righrward  displacement 
of  Figs.  I,  2  and  3,  was  an  exchange  of  the  similar  figures,  4  and  6  (tombstone 
and  knobbed  oblong). 


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INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLEXITr  AND  DISSIUILARITY  ON  MEiiOSr.    87 

Forms  III.  One  error  in  final  test,  an  exchange  of  the  obviously  similar 
figures,  3  and  5  (pentagon  and  pentagon  with  curved  upper  sides). 

Colors  III.  The  errors  were  two  exchanges;  one  of  green  yellow  and  orange 
yellow,  similar  colon,  the  other  of  colors  not  similar.  The  association  of  a 
smaller  figure  of  the  same  color  as  one  of  them  with  the  place  where  one  of 
these  two  is  put,  may  have  been  the  cause.    The  interval  was  a  week. 

Sizes  111.  In  final  test  the  arrangement  is  quite  similar  to  the  correa  order 
in  a  general  way,  but  not  in  detail.  Instead  of  2451376  is  given  3561274. 
This  series  and  the  next  two  are  good  illustrations  of  interference  within  a 
series  due  to  poor  perceptual  discrimination,  the  kind  which  Ranschburg  found 
in  his  six-place  numbers.  The  very  fact  that  the  arrangement  is  similar  only 
in  its  general  contour  as  a  whole  shows  incomplete  perceptual  discrimination 
of  similar  things,  of  the  kind  that  he  found. 

Sizes  IV.  Confused  with  Sizes  111,  learned  at  the  same  rime.  Once  in 
learning  it  was  given  as  3461175,  the  correct  order  of  Sizes  111  being  2451376. 
The  only  other  error  made  in  learning  was  a  removal  of  3  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
In  the  final  test  there  was  a  general  resemblance  to  the  correct  order.  3741165 
is  given  in  place  of  4761253.  It  is  true  that  the  correct  orders  of  III  and  IV 
somewhat  resemble  each  other.but  in  thefbrmerthetwolargestareonthe  right, 
while  in  the  latter  they  are  on  the  left  end.  In  the  final  arrangement  of  IV, 
the  largest  is  back  in  place. 

Col.  Sizes  IV.  1  and  4  exchanged  in  final  test,due  to  an  exchange  of  3  and 
4  in  learning.     Cf.  their  posirions  in  the  correct  order,  3162547. 

Fortns  IV.     Adjacent  Figs.  2  and  3  exchanged  in  final  test. 

Col.  Forms  IV.     Figs.  5  and  7  exchanged.    No  similarity. 

Cols.  IV.  Too  poorly  recalled  to  analyze.  Black,  ist  place,  and  gray,  4ih 
place,  moved  to  3d  and  2d  places  respeaively, — an  instance  of  similars  brought 
together. 

There  were  also  6  exchanges  of  numbers  belonging  to  sizes  nearest  each 
other  in  area,  which  occurred  during  the  learning  of  some  of  the  above  series, 
and  which  have  not  been  heretofore  mentioned. 


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Monograph  Supplements 

VaL  XU  Juairr,  Kll 

Na.    I  Wkalt  N*.  H 


THE 


Psychological  Review 


EDITED  ay 

JOHN  B.  WATSON 
cr  JoHHi  HoniMi  UMinMnrT 

JAMES  R.  ANOELL 
UHi*»urt  or  Chkaoo 
(EJtUf  ■/  ih,  FijcMipiJ  IHt-*pmfk,) 


Studies  in  Melody 


W.  Van  Dyke  Bingham 

Instructor  in  Educational  Piycholoty,  Teachers  CoUege, 
Columbia  Univenitr 


THE  REVIEW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

41  NORTH  QUEEN  ST.,  LANCASTER,  PA. 

AND  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


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PREFACE. 

In  the  first  portion  of  this  monogra[^  are  presented  the 
fcsults  of  investigations  made  in  the  psychological  labora- 
twy  of  the  University  of  Chicago  during  the  years  1905-07. 
The  experiments  which  form  the  basis  of  the  remainder  of  the 
work  were  carried  on  during  the  year  1907-08  in  the  Harvard 
psychological  laboratory. 

To  the  directors  of  these  two  laboratories,  Professor  James 
Rowland  Angell  and  Professor  Hugo  Munsterberg,  the  writer 
desires  to  express  his  gratitude  for  patient  counsel  and  stimu- 
lating criticism.  He  wishes  also  to  acknowlei^  his  obliga- 
tion to  the  fellow-students  of  experimental  psychol<^y,  who, 
in  the  capacity  of  observers,  made  possible  the  prosecution  of 
these  studies. 

To  the  investigations  of  Professor  R.  H.  Stetson  in  the 
field  of  rhythm  the  writer  owes  the  method  of  attack  employed 
in  studying  the  relationships  of  muscular  movement  to  the 
melody  experience ;  and  the  outline  of  a  motor  theory  of  melody 
with  which  the  present  study  is  brought  to  a  close  is  obviously 
the  outgrowth  of  su^estions  from  Professor  Stetson's  impor- 
tant publications.  Indebtedness  to  Professor  Max  Meyer  is 
likewise  evident,  and  nowhere  more  plainly  than  in  those  pas- 
sages which  express  disagreement  with  his  views. 

My  (XJntroversy  with  Professor  Meyer  is  ih  part  made 
necessary  because  of  what  seems  to  me  to  be  an  equivocal  use  of 
the  term 'tonal  relationship' on  his  part:  and  lesta  similar  ambig- 
uity creep  in  to  vitiate  the  discussions  of  the  following  pages, 
1  have  taken  pains  in  each  instance  to  specify  in  which  of  its 
two  common  meanings  the  term  "relationship"  is  used.  Musi- 
dans  speak  of  two  tones  as  directly  "  related  "  when  the  ratios 
of  their  vibration-rates  are  so  simple  that  one  tone  is  found 
among  the  first  five  partials  of  the  other,  or,  what  amounts  to 
the  same  thing,  when  the  two  tones  belong  to  a  major  triad, 
the  'chord  of  nature.'     The  "feeling  of  relationship"  is  the 


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experience  of  coherence,  of  'belonging-togetherness,'  which 
characterizes  the  hearing  of  two  successive  tones  of  the  sort 
described.  The  question  as  to  what  pairs  of  tones  arouse  this 
feeling  of  "relationship"  must  of  course  be  answered  not  by  an 
arbitrary  definition  but  by  reference  to  the  facts  of  experience. 

Now  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  this  particular  kind  of  tonal 
"relationship,"  arisii^  out  of  certain  acoustical  properties 
of  the  sounds,  is  not  the  sole  kind  of  relationship  which  may 
bind  tones  together  in  our  experience.  Two  tones  may  come 
to  be  felt  as  related,  in  a  way,  merely  because  they  have  often 
been  heard  together.  Moreoverany  two  tones  whatsoever, be 
their  ratios  simple  or  complex,  are  felt  tx>  be  related  to  each 
other  as  higher  and  lower.  Here  the  term  relationship  is  used 
in  its  ordinary  broad,  untechnical  sense. 

Whenever,  in  the  following  pages,  the  terms  "relationship" 
and  "related"  are  employed  in  the  technical  sense,  they  are 
enclosed  in  quotation  marks;  and  where  these  marks  are  not 
used,  the  reader  is  to  understand  that  the  broader,  untech- 
nical connotation  is  indicated. 

What  the  musician  designates  as  tone-color  or  timbre,  I 
have  called  by  the  usual  psychological  terms,  clang-color,  or 
briefly,  color. 


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CONTENTS 
Past  I.    TBe  Muody  Pkobum  pagb 

fi.  Thx  n&tuK  of  mdody,  Tlutt  usages  of  the  term,  cnneipooduig  to  three 
distiiict  mdodic  phenontena.  A  ntelody  is  a  succession  of  tones  which 
are  not  only  related,  but  which  also  canstitute  an  esthetic  unity,  a  whole , .         t 

(i.    AnillustratioD 3 

13.  The  melody  problem:  How  can  a  series  of  discrete  tonal  stimuli  generate 

the  experience  of  melodic  unity? 4 

14.  Elements  of  melodic  structure :  actual  duration  of  the  sounds,  pitch,  color  and 

intensity S 

Is.    Relative  duration, intensityand  color 6 

|6.  Pitch  relations,  thejiMfiuKim:  Melodic  "relationship"  direct  and  indirect; 
pitch  distancei  definite  and  indefinite  pitdi  relationa;  the  phenomenon  of 

the  falling  inflection S 

(7.  The  phenomenon  of  melodic  trend :  certain  paiis  of  tones  heard  in  succession 
tad  better  on  the  upper  tone,  others  on  the  lower.    Lipps  fonnulates  these 

factsinthe'lawof  thepowersof  3.'     His  theoretical  asaunqitions la 

|8.    Restatement  of  the  melody  problem  and  limitation  of  the  present  study  to 

eSectsof  pitch 13 

Past  II:    Thz  Phxnohema  07  Melodic  "Rzlattonship,"  and  or  Melodic 
Trbkd. 

{9.  Previous  experimental  studies.  Meyer  finds  melodies  played  with  an  Intona- 
tion wfairJi  admits  the  7  ratio  are  preferred  to  the  same  melodies  played  in 
the  diatonic  scale 15 

1 10.    Meyer's  theory  of  melody.     Melodic  "  relationahip  "  observable  in  intervals 

involving  the  7  ratio.    Tlie 'complete  scale' 17 

|ii.  Dangers  arising  from  the  vse  of  arithmetical  ratios  taeTpress"relationship." 
Any  given  feeling  of  "relationship"  is  the  property  not  of  a  single  interval 
abne,  but  of  a  whole  zone  of  intervals 11 

{11.    First  series  of  eiperiments  on  the  phenomenon  of  melodic  trend,  or  fiitality 

in  two-tone  sequences.    Method.    Observers »3 

I13.     Discussion  of  results,     (a)  The  trend  of  the  different  intervals  cnmpaied 17 

in.    (£}  The  lecondtoneofa  two-tone  group  isjudged  to  beafinal  tone  lessoften 

than  it  is  judged  to  be  lacking  in  finality s8 

(15.  (e)  A  small  preponderance  exists  in  favoi  of  descending  intervals  as  more 
definitely  final.  Meyer's  experiments  on  this  point.  Need  of  separating 
effects  of  the  falling  inflection  phenomenon  from  effects  due  to  more 
definite  pitch  relations 18 

it6.  (d)  When  i  is  the  end-tone,  effects  of  rising  and  falling  inflection  come 
dearly  to  view.  When  a  is  the  first  tone,  the  number  of  affirmative  judg- 
ments of  finality  is  nearly  the  same  for  ascending  and  for  descending 
intervals,  bcinE  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  in  each  case 30 


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vi  CONTENTS 

{17.    Final  mmmary  lends  some  support  to  Uie  Lipps-Mcyer  law,  but  numerous  pagi 


J18.  FuitbcT  experiments  pi^t  toward  the  'law  of  the  return,'  and  toirard  the 
fact  that  tonality,  resting  on  a  harmonic  basis,  determines  melodic 
trends  even  in  two'tone  sequences 33 

$19.  Third  series  of  evperinents:  When  a  definite  tonality  is  in  mind,  the 
trend  of  a  two-tone  sequenra  is  unifonuly  toward  one  of  the  tones  of 
the  tonic  chord 3S 

tao.    The  nature  of  'tonality.'    A  tonality  is  an  'attitude,'  probably  motor  at 

■11.    The  effects  of  habituation 39 

■12.    Summary, and  new  formulaUonof  problem 41 

Past  III.     Eptbcts  ov  Melodic  Stimuli  xjtov  Mitscdlak  MovEttEHT. 

{13.    Apparatus  for  recording  rate,  amplitude  and  form  of  tapfung  movement  of 

finger 43 

(34.     Method  of  procedure 46 

(35.    Observers:  tests  of  tlieir  musical  ability;  individual  differences  in  natural 

rate  and  form  of  tapping 46 

)i6.     Results.      Records  of  tapping  without  stimulus  or  distraction 53 

{37.    Effect  of  auditory  stimuli  upon  rate  of  tapping $4 

JaS.  Experiments  with  melodic  stimuli:  the  perfect  fourth.  Characteristic  vari- 
ations of  rate  of  tapping  appear,  which  are  different  for  the  ascending  and 

the  descending  fourth 57 

|]Q.    Hypothecs  regarding  the  significance  of  acceleratitHu  and  retardations  of 

rateof  tapping S9 

{30.    Tbe  hypothecs  applied  in  detail  to  theresultsof  experiments  with  ascending 

and  descending  fourth 61 

{31:    And  tested  in  the  light  of  experiments  with  the  perfect  fifth,  diminished  fifth, 

major  third  and  minor  Mxth 63 

I33.     A  group  of  experiments  with  three-tone  sequences.    The  'retumi'  the 

octave 69 

(33.    Effects  of  a  longer  series  of  tones  upon  the  rate  of  tapping 77 


Past  IV.    Sdggestions  Towakd  a  Motor  Thzosy  or  Melodv. 

{35.    Sketch  (A  a  motor  theory  of  melodic  unity.     Motor  phenomena  of  mel- 
ody and  of  rhythm  compared.     Final  summary 


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THE  MELODY  PROBLEM. 

Si.  Neither  musicians  nor  psycholcpgists  are  agreed  as  to 
the  meaning  of  the  term  melody.  Divergent  usj^,  leading  to 
misunderstanding  and  dispute,  has  arisen  because  within  the 
range  of  melody  experience  there  exist  several  distinguishable 
mental  phenomena,  each  of  which  has  in  turn  been  oinstrued 
astheessential  mark  of  a  melody.  Weinmann,'follQwii^Lipps>* 
says  that  a  melody  is  a  unity,  a  whole,  no  mere  succession  of 
tones.  It  is,  further,  an  esthetic  unity  in  which  the  con- 
stituent tonal  elements  are  subordinated  to  a  single  dominating 
element,  the  tonic.  This  definition  operates  to  limit  the  scope 
of  his  study  to  such  melody  phenomena  as  those  exhibited  in 
modem  European  diatonic  music,  since  it  a  priori  excludes  the 
possibility  of  melodies  which  lack  tonality. 

The  doctrine  of  Lipps  and  his  followers  that  esthetic  unity 
always  involves  the  subordination  of  the  separate  elements  of  a 
manifold  to  a  single  chief  element  is  opposed  by  MeyeH.  In 
his  view,  the  statement  that  a  melody  is  a  unity  means 
merely  that  we  experience  relationship  between  the  tones. 
Indeed  Meyer  defines  melody  in  terms  of  relationship.*  To  say 
that  two  tones  are  related  and  to  say  that  they  form  a  melody  is 
the  same  thing.  Such  a  definition  avoids  a  narrow  conception 
of  melody.  The  scope  of  the  term  becomes  much  contracted, 
however,  by  the  technical  meaning  which  Meyer  attaches  to  the 
term  relationship.  The  essence  of  melody  consists,  for  Meyer, 
not  in  the  experience  of  any  kind  of  relationship  whatever 
between  the  successive  tones,  but  in  the  experience  of  a  very 

'  Friu  Wejnmann :  "Zur  Stniktui  der  Melodie"  Zeiii.f.  PtychtA.  1904,  35,  340. 

'Th.  Lippa:  " Zur  Theorie  der  Melodie, "  Zeili. /.  PijvAirf.  1901,27,  337.  Seeftlto 
his  Paychologische  Studien,  ite  Aufl.  1903,  193  B. 

'M.  Meyec,  " Unsdeotific  Methods  id  Musical  Esthetics."  Jour,  of  Pkil. 
Pfy.,andS.M.  1904,  i,  711. 

<  Elements  ol  a  PaychologicsJ  Theoiy  of  Melody.     Piych.  Sev,  1900,  7,  146. 


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1  IP.  VAS  DrZB  BINGBAM. 

Special  and  limited  kind  of  relationship,  namely  that  to  which 
the  technical  musical  term  "relationship"  has  oome  to  be 
applied.  This  narrowing  of  the  meaning  of  the  term  operates 
to  exclude  from  the  realm  of  melody  those  songs  of  primitive 
peoples  in  which  V£^e  and  indefinite  pitch  intervals  appear, 
as  well  as  the  so-called  melodies  of  speech. 

Can  we  assent  to  Meyer's  contention  a^inst  Weinmann 
that  melodic  unity  means  nothing  more  than  relationship 
between  the  parts?  The  esthetic  unity  which  characterizes 
a  melody  does  indeed  involve  experience  of  relationship  among 
the  several  tones;  but  this  is  not  all.  For  example,  it  involves 
also  the  experience  of  completeness.  If  the  feeling  of  complete- 
ness is  destroyed,  the  'unity'  is  shattered.  Not  merely  tonal 
relationship,  but  'form'  is  necessary  to  constitute  the  esthetic 
unity  of  a  melody.  Meyer's  deed  here  is  better  than  his  word: 
for  throughout  his  investigations  he  searches  for  somethii^ 
more  than  mere  "relationship"  in  his  melodies,  namely,  for  an 
organization  of  relationships,  a  combination  of  related  tones 
ordered  in  one  way  rather  than  another, — arranged,  indeed,  so 
that  they  generate  not  a  mere  consciousness  that  the  elements 
are  related,  but  a  perception  that  they  are  so  related  as  to  form 
a  complete  structure,  a  whole. 

There  are  then,  three  clearly  distinguishable  phenomena, 
eadi  one  of  which  has  been  put  forward  as  the  peculiar  differ- 
entia of  melody:  (a)  "relationship"  between  the  constituent 
tones;  (6)  esthetic  unity  or  wholeness,  such  as  distinguishes  a 
definite  melodic  phrase  when  contrasted  with  a  mere  fr^:ment 
of  melody,  or  which  characterizes  even  more  clearly  a  com- 
plete melody  that  is  brought  into  comparison  with  any  portion 
of  itself;  (c)  tonality,  or  the  dominance  of  the  entire  sequence 
by  a  single  tone,  the  tonic.  Weinmann's  definition  stresses 
the  third  of  these  phenomena:  if  there  exists  a  song  of  some 
alien  people  in  which  the  preponderance  of  one  tone  over  the 
others  fails  to  appear,  such  a  song  must  be  called  by  some 
other  name  than  melody.  Meyer  at  the  opposite  extreme. 
emphasizes  only  the  phenomenon  of  "relationship."  Wher- 
ever "relationship"  between  successive  tones  is  felt,  a  melody 
exists,  even  though  the  succession  be  fr^;mentary  and  the 
hearer  be  left  in  suspense,  unsatisfied. 


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STUDIES  IN  MELODY. 


For  the  purpose  of  the  present  exposition,  it  has  seemed  best 
in  defining  what  shall  be  meant  by  a  melody,  to  place  emphasis 
upon  the  second  of  these  three  phenomena, — upon  the  esthetic 
unity,  the  wholeness,  which  characterizes  the  completed  expe- 
rience. This  usage  of  the  term  is  adopted  with  full  realization 
that  it  is  not  wholly  unobjectionable.  After  such  a  definition, 
how  shall  one  speak  of  W^^ner  's  '  endless  melodies  ? '  By  what 
name  shall  one  describe  the  effect  when  in  a  Brahms  chorus, 
one  of  the  middle  voices  for  a  few  brief  measures  stands 
prominently  forth  only  to  be  lost  to  the  ear  again  in  a  maze 
of  counterpoint?  Is  not  this  tonal  group  without  distinguish- 
able beginning  or  end  a  most  delightful  melody?  It  would 
certainly  be  called  a  melody  if,  with  Meyer,  we  had  chosen  to 
make  "relationship"  the  sole  essential;  but  in  the  terminology 
we  have  chosen,  it  must  be  called  a  melodic  fr^ment,  and  not, 
stricdy,  a  melody. 

The  matter  of  prime  importance  is,  of  course,  to  realize 
that  by  whatever  names  they  may  be  called,  we  are  aanfronted 
with  three  different  phenomena — "relationship,"  phrase-  or 
period-unity,  tonality — which,  no  matter  how  intimately  they 
may  prove  to  be  bound  up  t<^ether,  are  nevertheless  in  intro- 
spection clearly  distinguishable,  and  must  not  be  confused. 

§2.  At  the  risk  of  incurring  the  charge  of  prolixity  from 
readers  who  are  most  at  home  in  this  field,  I  shall  venture  to 
develop  somewhat  more  fully  what  I  mean  by  a  melody,  before 
attempting  to  formulate  explicitiy  the  melody  problem. 

Let  the  reader  ask  himself  in  what  way  his  experience  of  a 
melody  differs  from  his  experience  of  a  mere  succession  of 
musical  sounds  of  varying  pitch.  Possibly  he  will  reply  that 
the  group  of  sounds  that  he  calls  a  melody  is  more  pleasii^. 
But  this  agreeableness  he  will  admit  is  not  the  essential  char- 
acter. One  may,  for  example,  upon  hearing  a  flc^eolet  of  ob- 
noxious tone  quality  find  the  whole  experience  disagreeable 
and  yet  recognize  that  what  he  is  hearing  is  a  melody;  or  on 
the  other  hand  one  may  take  delight  in  a  perfectly  random 
series  of  sounds  drawn  from  a  beautifully  voiced  instrument. 
Something  other  than  the  pleasurable  affective  aspect  of  the 


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4  W.  VAN  DVKS  BJSGBAU. 

total  experience  must  be  present  to  differentiate  the  melody 
from  the  non-metodic  succession  of  pitches. 

Upon  further  comparison  of  the  two  kinds  of  experience  the 
observer  will  notice  that  the  sounds  of  the  melody  seem  to  be- 
long together,  to  cohere,  and  to  stand  in  such  a  relationship 
each  to  the  others  that  the  entire  series  is  felt  to  be  a  unity. 
The  tones  of  the  non-melody,  by  contrast,  are  felt  to  be  unre- 
lated :  they  do  not '  hang  together'  as  it  were.  Or,  even  if  one 
discovers  that  some  of  the  tones  of  the  non-melodtc  group 
exhibit  a  close  connection  with  some  of  the  others,  the  group 
as  a  whole  is  not  a  unity :  it  is  felt  to  lack  con^stency  or  internal 
coherence,  or  continuity,  or  completeness. 

An  example  will  make  more  obvious  this  contrast  between  the 
melody  and  the  non-melody.  I  played  to  a  group  of  moderately 
musical  observers  the  following  simple  succession  of  musical 
sounds:  cf^^^fd'<f.  The  tempo  was  slow,  the  duration  of 
the  tones  uniform.  I  then  played  a  second  series  beginning  on  the 
same  tone  and  ending  on  the  same  tone,  and  employing  the  same 
five  degrees  of  pitch  as  the  first  but  in  a  different  order:  (ff  d*  g' 
^fif.  The  hearers  repcH'ted  that  in  the  first  group  the  sounds 
seemed  to  follow  each  other  naturally,  cdierently,  and  in  a  way, 
inevitably,  and  with  the  last  sound  the  series  seemed  to  come  to  a 
definite  close.  Each  element  articulated  with  the  otha^  and  the 
group  as  a  whole  was  felt  to  be  a  unity.  In  other  words,  it  was 
judged  to  be  a  melody.  But  with  the  second  series  of  tones  the 
hearers  failed  to  discover  this  naturalness  or  inevitableness 
about  the  order  of  the  sounds.  The  pitch,  they  said,  wands^ 
rather  incoherendy  and  disconnectedly  here  and  there.  More- 
over when  the  last  sound  was  heard  it  failed  to  bring  the  feeling 
of  completeness,  of  finality,  which  characterized  the  close  of  the 
former  series.  This  sea>nd  succession  of  times  was  jutted  by 
these  observers  to  be  no  melody. 

S5.  Our  definition  of  a  melody  places  stress  upon  the  experi- 
ence of  unity;  but  tt  does  not  prejudge  the  question  as  to 
whether  this  necessitates  the  subordination  of  all  the  elements 
to  one  dominating  'monarch  dement.'  Neither  does  it  imply 
that  the  experience  of  definite  "melodic  relationships"  (in  the 
technical  sense  of  the  term)  is  the  sine  qua  non.    A  melody  we 


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STUDIgS  IK  MBU)Dr.  S 

shall  define  as  a  succession  of  musical  sounds  which  is  felt  to  con- 
stitute an  esthetic  unity,  a  unity  toward  the  establishment  of 
which  the  pitch  relations  of  the  successive  tones  contribute.' 

The  melody  problem,  then,  is  the  proMem  of  explaining  how  a 
series  of  discrete  tonal  stimuli  can  arouse  this  feeling  of  unity. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  any  actual  melody  such  as  a  gamin  whistles 
on  the  street  or  a  Pawnee  Indian  sings  to  the  dawn,  gains  its 
unity,  its  coherence,  its  wholeness,  through  the  combined  oper- 
ation of  many  factors.  The  factors  of  intensity  and  duration, 
for  example,  are  co6rdinate  with  pitch  in  the  determination  of 
the  total  psychoas:  tempo,  liiythm,  dynamic  structure  share 
in  determinii^  what  the  melody  shall  be.  A  brief  analysis  of 
these  factors  will  bring  into  prominence  the  particular  phases 
of  the  melody  problem  with  which  these  studies  are  concerned. 

§4  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  musical  sounds  can  vary 
one  from  another  in  only  four  ways:  in  duration,  intensity, 
dang-color  (i.  e.,  tone-quality  or  timbre)  and  pitch.  But  each  of 
these  four  aspects  or  attributes  of  the  constituent  tones  affects 
in  a  two-fold  manner  the  nature  of  the  melody.  The  total  effect 
is  what  it  is,  partly  because  of  the  relative  duration,  intensity, 
pitch  and  color  of  the  separate  sounds  employed,  and  partly 
because  of  the  actual  pitch,  intensity,  duration  and  color.  The 
'actual  duration'  factor,  for  instance,  is  the  tempo.  The  rela- 
tive duration  of  all  the  sounds  remaining  constant,  the  nature 
of  the  melody  may  be  entirely  altered  merely  by  changing  the 
speed,  i.  e.,  the  actual  duration  of  the  sounds.  A  familiar  melody 
played  in  an  unusual  tempo  may  be  hardly  recognizable,  and 
if  the  change  of  time  is  carried  beyond  certain  limits  In  either 
direction  the  melody  is  utterly  destroyed, — it  becomes  a  con- 
fusion of  noises  or  a  broken  succesaon  of  sounds  without  signifi- 
cance or  interest. 

Similarly,  the  actual  or  'absolute'  pitch  of  a  melody  enters  in 
to  make  it  what  it  is.  The  low  rumbling  melody  with  which 
Gri^  begins  the  "Dance  of  the  Trolls"  in  the  first  Peer  Gynt 
suite  is  almost  a  totally  different  thing  when  played  in  the  twice- 
accented  octave,  instead  of  three  octaves  lower. 

'  Hoc  and  thioughout  Uw  paper,  whenever  the  lecbnical  oonnoUtioD  of  the  term 
"rdttionihip"  is  indicated,  the  word  is  enclosed  in  double  quotatioD  iD»Aa. 


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5  W.  VAN  DYKE 

The  difference  which  the  actual  clang-color  makes  is  of  course 
at  the  basis  of  artistic  orchestration  of  melodies  and  of  oi^ati- 
re^tration.  When  a  theme  given  out  by  the  oboe  is  repeated 
by  the  violins  we  say  it  is  the  same  melody,  and  yet  it  is  not 
wholly  the  same. 

Fourthly,  the  dynamic  factor,  the  actual  loudness  or  softness 
of  the  melody  as  a  whole,  remains  to  be  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
(xmtributors  to  the  nature  of  the  melody. 

§5.  These  four  factors  taken  in  their  actual  or  'absolute' 
aspects  are,  however,  of  very  secondary  significance  as  com- 
pared with  these  same  factors  operating  within  the  melody 
itself  to  contrast  and  to  bind  together  the  separate  tonal  ele- 
ments. With  reference  to  the  relative  duration,  pitch,  etc.,  of 
the  individual  tones,  it  will  be  convenient  to  treat  of  (*)  the  re- 
lation of  each  tone  to  its  immediate  associates,  and  (ft)  the 
relation  of  the  tone  to  the  whole  melody.  (Cf.  ac(x>mpanying 
outiine). 


a)Act<ul 

b)  Relative 

i.  Measure  pattern 

Rhythmical  figuiatloD 
u.  Accel., Rit.,etc. 

II.     INTKNSITY 

a)  Actual 

b)  Rehtive 

i.  Accent,  itreu,  etc. 
ii.  CKSc,decresc,etc. 

[II.     COLOK 

a)  Actual 

b)  Relative 
i. 
ii. 

IV.    Pitch 

a)  Actual 
(AbiidtiU  pitch) 

b)  ReUtive 

Relations  of  duration  of  the  first  sort  are  at  the  baas  of  the 
measure-form  and  rhythmical  figures,  while  accelerando  and 


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STVDISS  IN  MELODY. 


ritardando  illustrate  the  relations  to  a  more  inclusive  group. 
Rhythm  is  usually  a  result  of  the  combination  of  intensity  and 
duration  relations,  although  this  is  not  always  the  case.  Thus  a 
melody  played  on  the  organ  or  on  a  mechanical  piano  player 
lacks  variations  of  intensity  of  the  separate  tones. 

In  the  case  of  the  loudness  factor,  the  former  type  of  relation 
determines  the  effects  of  accent,  of  stress;  while  the  latter  gives 
dynamic  form  to  the  whole  group,  the  crescendo-decrescendo 
effects,  etc. 

The  relative  color  of  the  separate  tones  has,  in  the  enumer- 
ation of  the  factors  of  melodic  structure,  usually  been  neglected. 
But  a  priori,  one  would  expect  this  attribute  of  tone-sensation, 
as  well  as  the  others,  to  be  of  ^^ficance;  and  a  posteriori,  color 
is  found  to  be  of  vasdy  greater  importance  to  melody  than  one 
might  suppose  who  had  never  given  the  matter  careful  thought. 
Tlie  reason  why  this  factor  has  been  overlooked  is  that  it  usually 
remains  constant  throughout  the  melody.  Its  presence  as  a 
unifying  factor  first  comes  into  evidence  when  an  unwonted 
change  of  color  enters  and  makes  itself  felt  as  a  disturbing  ele- 
ment: as  when  a  singer  is  not  skillful  in  passing  from  one 
register  of  the  voice  to  another,  or  a  clarinetist  meets  a  similar 
difficulty  in  making  the  transition  from  the  lower  to  the  middle 
register  of  his  instrument.  The  changes  in  color  which  are  thus 
unwittingly  or  unavoidably  introduced  have  their  disintegrating 
effect,  be  it  never  so  slight,  upon  the  melody.  Among  violinists 
this  is  a  well  known  fact,  a  commonplace.  Even  so  slight  a 
change  of  color  as  is  involved  in  the  passage  from  one  string  to  an- 
other is  reo^nized  as  of  importance  in  artistic  phrasing,  and  the 
resources  of  technical  proficiency  are  sometimes  taxed  in  the  ef- 
fort to  meet  the  requirements  which  this  principle  imposes.  Such 
a  principle  raises  a  prohibition  against  careless  shifts  of  color, 
and  at  the  same  time  offers  a  positive  aid  to  artistic  phrasing, — 
it  enables  the  violinist  to  give  to  a  group  of  tones  a  peculiar  unity 
of  its  own  not  otherwise  obtainable.  Surely  such  a  factor  in  the 
determination  of  melodic  form  as  clang-color, — a  factor  which  has 
a  recc^nized  place  in  musical  practice, — does  not  deserve  to  be 
entirely  neglected.  A  careful  experimental  study  of  the  effects 
and  of  the  possible  extent  of  alterations  of  color  within  the  mel- 
ody is  a  psycholc^cal  desideratum. 


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$  w.  nm  owa  MnnadM. 

§6.  AU  of  the  factors  which  have  been  discussed,  the  rela- 
tive dang-oilor,  loudness  and  duration  of  the  sounds,  have  been 
shown  to  contribute  to  the  structural  unity  of  a  melody.  But 
not  all  of  these  taken  together  are  sufficient  to  make  a  melody. 
The  essential  factor  is  still  lacking,  namely  the  pitch  relations. 
A  sequence  of  tones  of  the  proper  relative  loudness  and  duration 
to  constitute  a  vigorous  rhythm  would  not  be  called  a  melody  if 
the  pitoh  of  the  tones  were  either  unifcvm  or  random. 

The  pitch,  too,  of  each  tone  bears  certain  relations  to  the 
group  of  tones  as  a  whole.  This  makes  pos^ble  sudi  phenmn- 
ena  as  tonality,  of  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  treat  in  due 
time.  At  present  let  us  focus  attention  upon  the  relations  which 
may  exist  between  individual  tones. 

These  relations  between  tone  and  tone  are  of  several  distinct 
tj'pes.  That  type  which  has  received  fullest  treatment  at  the 
hands  of  the  mudcal  theorist  is  the  one  which  has  appropriated 
to  itself  as  a  technical  term  the  word  "relationship."  Twoccm- 
secutive  tones  were  said  by  Helmholtz'  to  be  "directiy  related" 
if  they  form  a  perfectiy  consonant  interval,  in  which  case  one 
of  the  clearly  perceptible  upper  partials  of  the  first  is  identical 
with  one  of  the  second;  while  to  be  "indirectiy  related"  the  two 
tones  must  each  stand  in  some  such  direct  "relationship"  to  a 
common  third  tone.  This  theory  of  "relationship"  was  used 
by  him  tg  account  for  the  melodic  intervals  of  the  diatonic 
scale.  To  account  for  the  appearance  of  chromatic  intervals, 
'accidentals',  in  melodies,  Helmholtz  further  reo^nized  a  "rela- 
tionship by  propinquity";  the  'accidental,'  he  said,  is  'related' 
to  its  neighbor  by  the  mere  fact  of  nearness.  The  fundamentally 
important  type  of  "relationship"  was,  however,  of  the  other 
sort;  and  since  it  had  a  basis  in  the  physical  laws  of  vitn^ting 
bodies,  it  naturally  was  described  in  terms  of  ratios  of  vibration 
rates.  Like  the  phenomenon  of  consonance  with  which  it  is 
closely  allied,  direct  "relationship"  seemed  to  be  dependent 
upon  the  partial  identity  of  overtones  which  exists  among 
"  related  "tones. 

What  now  is  the  psychological  phenomenon  of  which  these 
physical  facts  seem  to  be  the  origin?    In  what  way  does  one's 

'  tl.iMaihfHU,StnsalHms  of  Tone, tt.  by  ElIU,  1S95,  156  and  350. 


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STUDIES  IN  MBLODr. 


experience  of  a  pjiir  of  "related"  tones  differ  from  that  of  a 
pair  of  "unrelated"  tones?  The  difference  is  easily  felt,  but 
difficult  to  put  into  words.  I  shall  here  merely  quote  some 
more  or  less  descriptive  phrases  from  the  records  of  my  observ- 
ers. When  two  "  related  "  tones  are  heard  in  succesaon  they  are 
felt  to  'oAere',  to  'belong  together',  to  'articulate',  to  'form 
parts  of  a  larger  whole.'  "Unrelated"  tones  do  not  so  behave. 
Rather  they  are  felt  to  'fall  apart',  to  'be  unrelated';  'they  do 
not  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  melody.'  Tones  at  an  interval 
of  a  major  third  exhibit  a  strong  melodic  "relationship."  If 
the  interval  isincreased  bya  quarter  of  a  tone  the  "relationship" 
disappears.  This  phenomenon  of  "relationship"  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  that  of  consonance.  The  dissonant  major  second,  for 
instance,  is  an  interval  whose  tones  exhibit  melodic  "  relation- 
ship." What  the  significant  connection  is  which  exists  between 
melodic  "relationship"  and  consonance  will  be  pointed  out 
later. 

Another  type  of  relation  which  exists  between  the  successive 
tones  of  a  melodic  interval  may  be  called  the  relation  of  pitch 
distance.  As  regards  their  pitch  all  tones  range  themselves  in 
a  one-dimen^onal  series,  as  higher  or  lower;  and  the  relative 
position  of  two  tones  in  this  series  finds  its  conscious  represen* 
tative  in  this  feeling  of  pitch  distance.  Thus,  the  tone  ^  is 
felt  to  be  at  a  certain  pitch  distance  from  c';  while  its  distance 
from  d'  is  felt  to  be  not  so  great.  It  is  at  oncx  perceived  that 
one's  consciousness  of  the  distance-relation  between  two  tones 
is  clearly  distinguishable  from  one's  consciousness  of  their  con- 
sonance or  of  their  "relationship." 

It  will  be  found  useful  to  distinguish  'definite'  from  what 
may  be  called  '  indefinite'  pitch  relations.  The  former  are  char- 
acteristic of  all  melodies  which  employ  the  definite  intervals  of 
a  fixed  scale.  Some  kind  of  'indefinite'  pitch  relation  must  be 
experienced  by  that  peculiar  type  of  unmusical  person  who  has 
no  exact  sense  for  intervals,  but  who  enjoys  hearing  himself 
sing,  and  who  can  sing  simple  melodies  in  perfect  time,  and  with 
so  much  sense  for  pitch  relations  as  is  shown  in  ascending  when 
the  melody  should  ascend,  and  then  descending  when  the 
course  of  the  melody  takes  a  downward  turn.    The  pitch-out- 


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lo  W.  VAN  D7KR  BISGBAM. 

line  or  melodic  curve  of  his  soi^  corresponds  in  a  vague,  gen- 
eral way  with  the  pitch-outline  of  the  melody  imitated,  and  in-so- 
far  it  betrays  some  kind  of  a  sense  for  pitch  relationship.  These 
'indefinite'  pitch  relations  are  characteristic  of  certain  primi- 
tive melodies.!  Jhey  also  are  of  vast  importance  in  the  so-called 
melodies  of  speech.  Indeed,  the  infinite  variety  of  delicately 
expressive  inflections  which  enrich  our  spoken  intercourse  must 
be  recognized  as  based  upon  pitch  relations  of  this  'indeiinite' 
kind.  The  gross  difference  between  the  rmag  interrogative 
inflection  and  the  falling  assertatory  is  the  most  obvious  example 
of  this  type  of  melodic  relationship.  The  mental  effects  pro- 
duced by  mere  rise  in  pitch  have  been  described  by  Meyer  in 
terms  of  effects  upon  the  attention. 

A  rise  ID  pitch  causes  the  hearer's  attention  to  become  strained,  and 
the  more  so,  the  steeper  the  ascent,  if  I  may  use  this  expression.  A  (all 
in  pitch,  on  the  other  tiand,  causes  a  relaxation  of  attention,  a  cessation  of 
mental  activity The  same  strain  and  relaxation  of  atten- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  music.  The  normal  end  of  a  mental  process  is, 
of  course,  characterized  not  by  strained,  but  by  relaxed  attention;  for 
strained  attention  means  continued  mental  activity.  It  is  natural 
therefore  that  a  melody  ends  with  a  falling  inflection.     ...     * 

We  shall  have  occasion  frequentiy  to  ref^  to  the  significance 
for  the  melody  problem  of  this  "phenomenon  of  the  falling 
inflection." 

§7.  If  one  carefully  examines  different  mdodic  intervals  to 
discov^*  whether  there  may  not  be  still  other  types  of  relation, 
he  will  probably  disclose  to  himself  a  phenomenon  which  has 
received  much  attention  at  the  hands  of  certain  writers.  He  will 
notice  that  many  melodic  intervals  ediibit  a  peculiar  character 
which  shows  itself  as  a  tendency  for  us  to  prefer  one  of  the  two  tones 
as  an  end  tone.  The  interval  of  the  minor  third,  whose  tones 
have  the  vibration  ratio  of  5:6,  possesses  no  such  attribute: 
one  acquiesces  indifferenUy  in  either  the  upper  or  the  lower  as  a 
final  tone.  Neither  tone  has  any  very  poative  characteristics 
of  finality  about  it.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  perfect  fifth 
(2:3).    If  one  hears  it  as  an  ascendir^  interval,  he  is  dissatis- 

'  Cf.,  B.  I.  Gilmao,  "Hcqri  Songs,"  Joui.  of  Am.  Ethnol.  and  ArcheoL  iqoS,  5, 
14  uid  134. 

*  Am.  Jovr.  Psych.,  1903 ,  14, 456. 


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fied,  uneasy,  and  under  more  or  less  tension  until  he  hears  the 
first  tone  over  £^:ain.  But  if  it  is  a  descending  tif  th  which  he  hears 
there  is  acquiescence,  satisfaction,  repose,  and  no  desire  to  hear 
the  first  tone  a  second  time.  One  may  say  that  one  of  these 
tones  stands  to' the  other  in  the  relationship  of  'tonic',  or  end- 
tone.  This  aspect  of  musical  intervals  will  be  called  by  the 
present  writer  their  melodic  trend. 

Observation  of  this  phenomenon  as  it  shows  itself  in  inter- 
vals of  relatively  simple  vibration  ratio  has  led  some  theorists, 
notably  LIpps  and  his  followers,  to  attach  great  importance  to 
the  2  ratio.  They  find,  for  example,  that  the  trend  of  the  fourth 
(34)  is  very  decidedly  toward  its  upper  tone  as  a  final  tone;  of 
the  major  third  (4:5),  toward  the  lower;  while  the  minor  third 
(5  .-6)  exhibits  no  noticeable  trend  whatever.  The  trend  of  the 
major  second  (8:9)  is  toward  the  lower,  and  of  the  minor  second 
(15:16)  toward  the  higher  tone.  Among  the  wider  intervals, 
where  the  reader  may  perhaps  feel  that  the  phenomenon  is  not 
always  so  distinctly  and  unambiguously  manifest,  it  is  nev^- 
theless  held  that  the  minor  sixth  (5:8)  and  the  minor  seventh 
(9:16)  trend  upward  and  the  major  seventh  (8:15)  downward, 
while  the  major  ^th  (3:5)  shows  no  trend  toward  either  upper 
or  lower  tone.' 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  case  of  every  one  of  these  'pure' 
intervals  the  trend  is  toward  that  tone  whose  rate  is  a  pure 
power  of  2 ;  2  always  becomes  the  tonic.  Where  neither  rate  is 
a  pure  power  of  2,  no  trend  is  discovered.  These  phenomena 
have  been  grouped  by  Lipps  under  what  he  calls  the  'law  of  the 
number  2.' 

KQrzer  gesa^t: — Treffen  Tone  zusammen,  die  sich  zueinander  ver- 
haiten  wie  3°:  3,  5,  7  usw.,  so  besteht  cine  natiirliche  Tendenz  der  letz- 
teien  zu  den  ersteren  Mn;  es  besteht  eine  Tendenz  der  innereo  Bewegung, 
in  den  ersteren  zur  Ruhe  zu  kommen.  Jene  "suchen"  diese  als  ihre 
natiirliche  Basis,  als  ihien  natOrlicIien  Schwerpunkt,  als  ibr  natUrliches 
Gravitationszentrum . 

Dies  ist   naturgemEss  um  so  mehr  der  Fall,  je  kleiner  das  (o)  ist. 


'  These  statements  of  typical  trends  are  not  completely  in  harmony  with  the  results 
of  the  experiments  described  below.  Differences  are  most  in  evidence  in  the  case  of 
the  major  and  minor  sevenths.     See  p.  a^J. 


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tt  W.  VAN  OrKB  BIKGBAM. 

(o)  istaberamkleiiisten,  wenn  es  gldch  o  ist.  Und  3°istgldch  i.  D.h. 
die  vollkommenste  Ruhelage  und  das  letzte  Gravitationszeatrutn 
solcher  Tone  bleibt  immer  der  absolute  Gnmdrhythmus.' 

Upon  this  law  of  the  compelling,  dominatii^  character  of 
the  3  ratio,  ti^ther  with  the  principle  that  melodic  "relation- 
ship" is  closer  the  simpler  the  ratios,  Lipps  grounds  his  theory 
that  a  melody  is  a  structure  which  gains  its  esthetic  unity 
through  the  subordination  of  all  its  elem^ts  to  one  over-master- 
ing ground-ratio,  the  tonic.  This  theory  has  been  elaborated, 
in  its  application  to  modem  European  music,  in  admirable 
detail  by  Weinmann,*  and  defended  vigorously  by  the  author 
himself.* 

In  undertaking  to  explain  v/hy  ttus  phenomenon  of  melodic 
trend  toward  the  power  of  2  should  manifest  itself,  Lipps  makes 
one  fundamental  assumption,  the  assumption 

that  to  the  rhythm  of  the  physical  vibrations  which  generate  a  tone 
there  corresponds  an  analogous  rhythm  in  the  accompanying  ptXKXSses 
of  tone-sensation,  or  in  the  accompanying  change  of  psychic  or  central 
conditions;  that  thus  the  psychic  or  central  process  of  tone  sensation  is 
separated  into  a  succession  of  einnents  or  elementary  partial  processes 
analogous  to  the  succession  of  physical  partial  processes,  i.  e.,  to  the  single 
sound  waves.' 

Such  a  correspondence  between  the  nature  of  central  proces- 
ses and  the  physical  processes  which  arouse  them,  Lipps  has 
found  it  necessary  to  postulate  not  merely  in  therealm  of  audition, 
but  throughout  the  range  of  sensory  experience.  Esthetic 
pleasure  results  from  inner  harmony  of  our  mental  (or  cen- 
tral) energies.  A  color-contrast  is  beautiful  if  there  is  a  sub- 
conscious apprehension  of  the  simplicity  of  the  combination  of 
the  ether  vibrations. 

In  the  present  state  of  total  ignorance  with  reference  to  the 
intimate  nature  of  central  processes  no  attempt  can  be  made 

'  Lipps.  Psyckolopsche  Studitn,  i  Aufl.,  1905,  195.  An  identical  foimulation  ii 
given  in  liis  GrundUtung  der  Atslhetik,  190J,  465. 

'F,  Weionuum,  "Ziw  Slnictiir  der  Melodie.  Ztits.  f.  Psyehel.,  1904,  J5.  34*-379 
and  401-453-   - 

'Cf.,eipedtl&y,Piyehohgisehe Studitn,  igjjT- 

'  Zeits.  f.  Ptyckol.,  1901,  27,  Ji8. 


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STUDIES  IK  MBU3DT.  Ij 

either  to  establish  or  to  disprove  such  an  assumption.  By 
those  who  cannot  follow  Lipps  in  his  bold  hypothesis,  his  theory 
of  the  number  2  must  be  viewed  merely  as  a  description,  not 
an  explanation,  of  the  facts. 

Weinmann  undertakes  to  buttress  this  theory  of  the  basic 
nature  of  'duality'  in  vibration-ratios  by  reminding  the  reader 
that  'double  rhythm'  is  the  original  rhythm,  the  simplest,  the 
most  natural,  etc.'  But  this  is  an  argument  from  sheer  analogy; 
for  the  experience  of  rhythm  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word 
has  nothing  whatever  in  common  with  the  unpermved  micro- 
rbythm  of  Lipps'  assumption.  One  is  a  phenomenon  open  to 
introspection,  observation  and  experimental  study:  the  other  is 
hidden,  unknown,  hypothetical. 

Even  though  one  may  not  relish  such  a  theory  as  that  of 
Lipps  and  Weinmann,  and  though  one  may  be  inclined  to  doubt 
the  adequacy  of  their  formulation  of  the  facts  by  means  of  the 
law  of  the  number  2,  neverthdess  the  phenomena  of  melodic 
trend  remain  and  must  be  reckoned  with.  Why  is  it  that  some 
melodic  intervals  seem  to  end  better  on  the  upper  tone  and  others 
on  the  lower,  while  with  still  others  it  is  a  matter  of  iodiiference 
which  of  the  two  tones  comes  last?  Why  is  a  risii^  fourth  more 
'complete'  than  a  riang  fifth?  Why  does  an  ascending  major 
second  create  a  demand  to  hear  the  first  tone  over  a^n,  while 
an  ascending  minor  second  does  not? 

$8.  No  further  attempt  will  here  be  made  to  enumerate  with 
greater  completeness  the  various  mental  phenomena  which 
flow  from  the  facts  of  pitch  relationship.  Only  those  have  been 
mentioned  which  are  of  especial  significance  for  these  studies: 
pitch  distance,  definite  melodic  "relationship,"  indefinite 
pitch  relations,  consonance,  melodic  trend,  the  phenomenon 
of  the  falling  inflection.  We  shall  later  have  occasion  to  ask 
which  of  these  phenomena  are  primary  and  which  secondary  or 
derived. 

Our  survey  of  the  factors — of  pitch,  duration,  clang-color 
and  intenaty  relations — which  contribute  to  the  structure  of 
a  melody,  makes  possible  a  more  definite  formulation  of  the 
limited  purpose  of  these  studies. 


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14  W.  VAlt  or  KB  BtHGBAU. 

How  the  pitch  relations  of  a  s^es  of  discrete  musical  sounds 
may  operate  to  weld  these  sounds  into  the  organic  whole  which 
we  perceive  as  a  melody, — this  is  the  core  of  the  melody  problem, 
and  to  this  primary  phase  of  the  subject  our  present  investiga- 
tion will  be  stricdy  limited.  To  this  end  we  shall  consider 
pitch  alone,  and  abstract'as  far  as  possiUe  from  all  conadera- 
tions  of  rhythmic  figuration,  accent,  force,  tempo,  tone  quality, 
etc.,  although  these  various  factors  would  all  demand  attention 
in  any  account  of  the  melody  problem  which  aimed  at  comi^te- 


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THE  PHENOMENA  OF  MELODIC  "RELATIONSHIP"  AND  OF  MELODIC 
TREND. 

$9.  The  reports  of  previous  experimeDtation  spediicaliy 
directed  toward  the  mdody  problem  are  few  in  number. 

One  of  the  most  or^:inal  and  si^gestive  workers  has  been 
Professor  Meyer,  and  a  survey  of  his  contributions  will  serve  to 
bring  our  own  problem  more  clearly  to  view. 

The  first  of  Meyer's  experimental  investigations'  led  him  to 
reject  the  theory  of  the  diatonic  scale,  and  to  develop  a  new 
theory  of  melody.  He  used  a  reed  organ  specially  constructed 
so  that  in  playing  a  melody  the  performer  was  enabled,  for  each 
note  of  the  printed  score,  to  sdect  any  one  of  two  or  three  tones 
of  nearly  the  same  pitch.  Thus  after  repeated  trials  he  could 
determine  precisely  what  intonation  of  any  particular  melody 
was  most  satisfactory.* 

Meyer  publt^ed  his  analysis  of  some  thirteen  melodies,  giv- 
ii^  the  intonation  of  each  which  seemed  to  him  to  be  the  best 
These  include  melodies  of  folk  songs  and  chorals  as  well  as  melo- 
dies from  well  known  classical  compo^tions.  The  reader  is  not 
surprised  to  find  that  the  preferred  intonation  does  not  coindde 
with  that  of  "equal  temperament;"  but  neither  does  Meyer  find 
that  the  melodies  are  most  satisfactory  when  played  in  the  justly 
intoned  diatonic  scale  familiar  to  musical  theorists.  To  be  sure, 
in  the  Ampler  melodies,  most  of  the  [Htches  in  the  pr^erred 
intonation  correspond  exactly  with  the  pitches  when  the  melody 
IS  played  in  accordance  with  the  diatonic  scale.  Some  marked 
exceptions  appear,  however.     Meyer  finds,  for  instance,  that 

*M.  Meyer:  "Etements  of  &  Psychological  Theory  o(  Melody."  Ptych.  Ra., 
1900,  7,  341-173.  Reprinted  mih  Tevisloos  and  additioos  ia  "Coutribudons  to  ft 
Psychologicftl  Theoiy  of  Music,"  Unit,  of  UUsottri  SttidUt,  igot,  1, 1-80. 

'  Adescriptioa  of  the  instrumeDt,  irith  diAgiamofarnuigemeDtof  kejrsoa  the  duoubI 
is  found  in  the  Zeits.f.  Psychol-  190J,  33,  igi. 


.yGoogle 


l6  W.  ViN  DYKE  BINGEAU. 

the  'fourth'  is  preferred  flatter  and  the  'sixth'  sharper  than 
diatonic  intonation  demands.  To  render  the  nature  of  these 
differences  more  clear,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  accom- 
panying table. 


[lA       J7         30  3»  36  40  45  4* 

Some       corresponding  f  i       9/8       j/fl      *l/W       3/*      tl/i^        »s/8  » 

pitches  from  Meyer's  {    9/8     to/9     »i/»o        V?        9/8      10/9    16/15 

Complete  S4:ale.  I16      18        30  ii  14  17  30  3* 

Dutonic  scale  48546064  71  80  90  96 

Meyer's  48      54        60         68  71  81  90  96 

The  first  line  of  fractions  shows  the  ratio  between  the  vibration 
rateofeachnoteof  the  diatonic  scale  and  the  vibration  rate  of  the 
key  note.  Reducing  these  fractions  to  a  common  denominator, 
we  obtain  as  the  resulting  numerators  the  numbers  in  the  third 
row  of  the  table.  These  are  the  numbers  usually  employed  to 
express  the  relative  pitch  of  the  notes  in  the  diatonic  scale.  (The 
ratio  between  the  vibration  rate  of  each  note  and  that  of  the 
next  note  in  the  scale  is  given  in  the  second  line  of  fractions). 

For  com[>aTison  with  these,  I  have  selected  from  Meyer's 
'Complete  Scale'  those  notes  which  are  used  in  the  simpler 
melodies  (see  lines 4, 5  and  6  of  the  table). 

It  is  to  be  noted,  first,  that  the  ratios  in  the  diatonic  scale 
involve  no  prime  number  but  2,  3,  and  5,  whereas  the  other 
scale  employs  the  number  7  in  its  fourth.  Thus,  to  tune/  in  the 
key  of  c  one  would  not  tune  it  a  perfect  fourth  above  c,  but 
would  tune  it  at  an  interval  of  an  harmonic  or  sub-minor  seventh 
(74)  above  the  g  below.  Moreover  the  denominators  of  all 
eight  ratios  from  the  newer  scale  are  pure  powers  of  2  whereas 
this  is  not  the  case  with  the  fourth  and  sixth  of  the  diatonic 
scale.  The  amount  of  difference  in  pitch  which  is  involved  Is 
shown  in  the  last  two  lines  of  the  table  where  the  ratios  of  the 
two  scales  are  reduced  to  a  common  denominator  for  compari- 
son. 


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STUDIBS  IN  MSLOOr.  17 

To  understand  the  ^gnificance  which  attaches  to  these  differ- 
ences, and  other  more  marked  differences  in  intonation  which 
come  to  light  in  the  more  complex  melodies,  it  is  necessary  to 
examine  two  "laws  of  melody"  which,  if  one  follows  Meyer,  lie 
at  the  ba^  of  musical  theory. 

810.  The  first  of  Meyer's  laws  of  melody  may  be  called  the 
]a.vot  melodic  "relationship:"  Only  tones  which  are"related," 
directly  or  indirectly,  can  belong  to  the  same  melody.  The 
second,  a  law  of  melodic  trend,  is  dmilar  to  Lipps'  law  of  the 
number  3. 

We  will  give  Meyer's  own  formulation  of  what  he  means  by 
the  term  "relationship." 

When  we  hear  successively  two  tones,  the  vibration  rates  of  which  are 
to  each  other  as  2:3,  or  briefly  speaking,  the  tones  3  and  3,  we  notice 
something  not  describable,  which  I  shall  call  the  rdalionship  of  these 
tones.  To  understand  what  is  meant  hereby,  the  reader  may  listen  to 
the  successive  tones  7  and  ti  or  ti  and  10,  in  which  cases  be  will  notice 
that  the  two  tones  have  no  rdatioo  at  all  to  each  other.' 

It  is  a  fundamental  contention  with  Meyer, — a  contention 
that  will  demand  our  critical  scrutiny, — that  this  psychological 
quality  called  "relationship"  attaches  only  to  pairs  of  tones 
whose  ratios  are  expressible  in  simple  fractions  involving  no 
prime  number  above  7. 

That  no  relationship  at  all  is  to  be  observed  with  tones  ie[^esented 
by  the  prime  numbers  11,  13,  17,  19,  etc.,  leads  to  the  oinclusion  that 
only  tones  represented  by  the  prime  numbers  i,  3, 3,  5,  7,  and  their  com- 
posites possess  that  psychological  property.* 

lliis  leads  to  the  theory  of  what  Meyer  names  '  the  complete 
scale.'  Since  none  but  related  tones  can  belong  to  the  same 
melody,  and  since  "relationship"  seemstoexistonly  between  tones 
represented  by  products  of  3,  3,  5,  and  7,  the  complete  musical 
scale,  or  the  series  of  all  the  tones  which  may  occur  in  a  dngle 
melody,  is  represented  by  the  infinite  series  of  all  products  of 
the  powers  of  2,  3,  5,  and  7  (p.  249).  The  beginnings  of  such  a 
scale,  containing  so  many  of  these  related  products  as  were  found 

>  Meyer:  Ptyck.  Rei.,  1900,  346. 
»0f.<.,  J47. 


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1 8  W.  VAN  DVXB  ttmGBAU. 

to  be  needed  in  the  analysis  of  the  melodies  he  studied,  are 
given  by  Meyer  in  tabular  form. 

In  maintaining  that  the  7  ratio  exhibits  the  fundamental 
mdodic  qualities  and  must  not  be  excluded  from  musical  theory, 
Meyer  takes  sharp  issue  with  traditional  treatments  of  the  sub- 
ject. Lipps  and  his  followers  who  have  done  more  than  anyone 
else  tx)  place  the  theory  of  melody  on  a  baas  of  exact  descriptive 
formulation  find  no  need  of  ratios  involving  prime  factors 
larger  than  5.  Other  writers,  as  Helmholtz,  Gumey  and  Stumpf 
have  also  been  content  with  the  theory  of  the  diatonic  scale, 
a  scale  whose  ratios  employ  the  numbers  2,  3,  and  5,  but  not  the 
numba*  7.  Against  these,  Meyer  brings  the  charge  that  they 
have  been  influenred  primarily  by  considerations  involving  the 
phenomena  of  harmony,  and  have  failed  to  point  out  what  facts 
observable  in  melody  justified  them  in  excluding  the  number  7. 
The  facts  as  he  finds  them  are  that  such  melodic  intervals  as 
the  sub-minor  sevtoth  (4:7)  the  sub-minor  fifth  (5:7)  the  sep- 
timal  second  (7:8),  etc.,  do  possess  the  pyscholt^cal  quality  of 
"relationship;"  and  what  isof  more  weight,  he  finds  that  melodies 
played  in  his  so-called  complete  scale,  which  admits  the  7  ratio, 
are  preferred  to  the  same  melodies  played  according  to  the 
diatonic  scale. 

Meyer  has  been  subjected  to  criticism  for  publishing  his 
experiments  and  basing  an  elaborate  theory  upon  them,  when 
the  judgments  of  preference  recorded  are  apparently  those  of  a 
single  observer,  namely,  the  author  himself.  Meyer  admits  the 
force  of  these  critidsms,  but  insists  that  even  so  much  of  induc- 
tion and  carefully  systematized  observation  as  this  report  of  his 
studiesembodied.has  moreclaim  upon  the  attention  of  a  scientific 
reader  than  all  the  great  mass  tA  writing  upon  musical  theory 
which  has  no  scientific,  inductive  ba^s  whatever. 

How  does  Meyer  account  for  the  phenomena  of  melodic 
"relationship?"  How  does  he  explain  the  fact  that  we  feel  the 
tones  2  and  3  to  be  "related"  and  the  tones  11  and  10  "unre- 
lated?" In  contrast  to  Lipps  he  does  not  attempt  to  account 
for  the  facts.  On  the  other  hand  he  frankly  Eidmits  that  he  is  not 
offering  an  ecplanation  of  the  melody  phenomena:  for  this,  as 
well  as  for  an  explanation  of  the  facts  of  consonance  we  must 


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STVDISS  III  UELODT.  19 

await  further  light  upon  the  nature  of  neural  activity  and  the 
action  of  the  sense  oi:gans.  All  that  Meyer  is  attempting,  then, 
is  to  comprehen^vely  describe  the  facts. 

Hb  first  step  toward  this  descriptive  formulation  has  already 
been  mentioned.  As  a  result  of  his  examination  of  the  phe- 
nomenon of  melodic  "relationship"  he  dedded  that  all  cases  of 
"relationship"  are  capable  of  bring  expressed  io  relatively 
ample  fractions  involving  no  prime  factors  except  2,  3,  5,  and  7; 
and  consequently  the  'complete  scale'  is  limited  to  tones  ex* 
pressed  in  these  numbers  and  their  compounds.  The  second 
step  is  the  formulation  of  a  law  of  melodic  trend  dmilar  to,  but 
not  identical  with,  that  of  Lipps: 

Wben  one  of  two  related  tones  is  a  pure  power  of  2,  we  wish  to  have 
this  tone  at  the  end  of  our  succession  of  related  tones,  our  melody.' 

Expanded  to  cover  melodies  of  more  than  two  tones,  the  law 
assumes  the  following  form: 

No  hearer  is  satisfied  if  after  having  heard  once  or  more  often  the 
tonic  a  he  does  not  find  3  finally  at  the  end  of  the  melody.' 

In  the  elaboration  of  his  theory  Meyer  utilizes  two  additional 
principles.  One  of  these  is  that  among  "related"  tones  there 
exist  different  degrees  of  "relationship."  The  other  principle 
is  that  of  all  those  intervals  which  possess  a  certain  "relation- 
ship" we  have  a  decided  preference  for  the  smallest.  The 
detailed  development  of  the  theory  based  upon  these  principles 
we  shall  not  here  undertake  to  summarize,  but  its  foundations 
we  must  pause  to  examine  more  closely.  It  is  obvious  that 
there  is  need  of  conclusive  evidence  supporting  the  basic  propo- 
sition upon  which  the  theory  is  erected,  the  proposition  that 
tones  representable  by  the  prime  numbers  up  to  and  including 
7  alone  exhibit  "relationship." 

As  evidence  Meyer  presents,  as  we  have  seen,  two  groups  of 
facts,  one  derived  from  an  examination  of  separate  intervals 
and  one  from  observation  of  the  use  in  actual  melodies  of  the  7 
ratio.     In  both  cases,  as  Wead'has  pointed  out  in  his  penetrat- 

'  Unitersily  of  Uissouri  Sludiei,  t,g. 

'  L.  c,  n. 

*  C.  K-  Wead,  Piyckolopcal  Raita,  1900,  7,  400. 


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30  W.  VAN  DYKE  BISGBAU. 

ing  review  of  Meyer's  work,  the  judgments  recorded  are  appar- 
ently those  of  a  single  observer,  and  he  a  man  of  harmonic 
training.  What  indication  is  there  that  one  who  had  never 
become  familiarwith  anything  comparable  with  our  European 
harmonic  musical  system  would  experience  these  elementary 
"relationships?"  "Nothing,"  says  Wead,  "can  be  more  cer- 
tain historically  than  that  these  relationships  have  been  unrec- 
ognized by  most  of  the  men  throughout  the  ages  who  have 
concerned  themselves  about  music."  One  cannot  avoid  ask- 
ing the  question  whether  Meyer's  deductions  necessarily  hold 
for  hearers  of  melody  other  than  those  who,  like  himself,  have 
long  experienced  the  associations  of  modem  European  music. 

A  somewhat  similar  question  arises  regarding  the  effects  of 
practice  in  detecting  these  melodic  "relationships." 

Meyer  leads  us  to  understand  that  only  after  long  and 
careful  observation  did  he  decide  that  5:7  and  7:8  exhibit 
"relationship."  In  another  connection  he  proves'  that  "rela- 
tionships" not  detected  at  first  come  later  to  be  felt,  upon 
greater  familiarity.  This  seems  to  place  him  in  a  dilemma. 
May  it  not  be  that  the  familiarity  breeds  the  "  relationship?  " 

It  would  not  be  rash  to  hazard  that  if  Meyer  had  chanced  to 
spend  his  early  years  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  it  would  never 
have  occurred  to  him  to  exclude  11  while  admitting7  among  the 
prime  factors  of  his  'complete  scale ;'  for  in  listening  to  the  bag- 
pipe he  would  have  become  accustomed  to  the  interval  li  :i2,' 
would  have  learned  to  reo^nize  it  accurately,  and  to  feel 
"relationship"  between  11  and  12  as  truly  as  between  15  and 
16,  or  7  and  8. 

As  long  as  the  question  remains  unsettled  regarding  the 
inclusion  or  exclusion  of  7,  11,  or  any  other  ratio  in  making  up 
the  list  of  elementary  "relationships,"  a  certain  doubt  will 
remain  regarding  the  validity  of  Meyer's  experiments  on  the 
intonation  of  actual  melodies;  for,  in  selecting  the  preferred 
pitches  the  observer's  choice  of  alternatives  for  each  note,  it 
will  be  remembered,  was  limited  to  the  two  or  three  tones 

'  See  below,  p.  40. 

■C/., A.  J.  Ellis:  "OiitheMusia1ScalesofVuiou»Nattons,"/oiirMio/fi<5M;>e(7 
of  Artt,  London,  iSAs,  33,  499. 


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STUDIES  IN  USLOOy.  31 

available  from  the  scale  constructed  out  of  products  of  2,  3,  5, 
and  7. 

Instead  of  attempting  here  to  settle  this  issue,  let  us  ask 
some  further  questions  with  reference  to  Meyer's  two  main 
contentions.  Is  it  true  that  only  intervals  the  ratios  of  whose 
vibration  rates  are  expressible  in  small  prime  numbers  mani- 
fest the  psychological  quality  of  "relationship?"  Is  it  a  fact 
that  of  two  "related"  tones  whose  ratio  can  be  thus  expressed, 
the  hearer  always  prefers  as  an  end-tone  that  one  which  is  a  pure 
power  of  2? 

5ll.     First  let  us  c»nsider  the  fact  of  melodic  "relationship." 

The  major  third  is  an  interval  which  exhibits  the  character 
of  "  relationship  "  very  unambiguously.  This  is  an  interval  whose 
tones  have  the  vibration  ratio  of  4:5.  Now,  what  is  the  effect 
when  we  listen  to  an  interval  just  barely  wider  than  this,  say 
the  interval  400:501?  It  so  happens  that  this  interval  exhibits 
the  "relationship"  more  clearly,  if  anything,  than  4:5  did,' 
although  it  is  so  nearly  the  same  interval  that  those  without 
special  training  cannot  tell  the  two  apart.  Suppose  thb  inter- 
val to  be  made  a  trifle  larger  yet,  so  that  it  has  the  ratio  400:504. 
Do  the  tones  suddenly  lose  their  character  of  "relationship?" 
One  would  hardly  expect  them  to  do  so.  Pr^sely  what  does 
otxur  is,  that  as  the  width  of  the  interval  is  gradually  increased 
it  b^ns  to  change  somewhat  in  character;  but  it  remains  a 
major  thiid, — not  a  satisfactory  third  to  be  sure,  but  neverthe- 
less a  third  with  the  characteristic  "reUUional"  attributes  of  that 
interval, — until  it  reaches  nearly  to  the  middle  of  the  zone 
which  divides  the  major  third  from  a  perfect  fourth. 

The  experimental  evidence,  if  any  is  required,  in  support  of 
these  statements,  is  easily  obtained.  The  procedure  adc^ted 
by  the  writer  was  to  determine  the  effect  produced  upon  the 
feeling  of  "relationship"  by  gradual  but  supra-Iiminal  varia- 
tions in  the  size  of  a  melodic  interval.  Between  the  b  and  c' 
of  a  harmonium  six  reeds  were  interpolated,  giving  seven  inter- 
vals, each  of  a  magnitude  of  about  16  cents  (t.  e.,  hundredths  of 

<  Stumpf  and  Meyer  found  that  all  of  the  consonant  intervals  kiger  thftn  a  minor 
thiid  are  preferred  too  large.  C.  Stumpf  and  M.  Meyer,  "Maassbcstimungeu  Qber 
die RcinbeJt coDsotuuterlntervalle."    Zeits.f. Piyckol.,  1898, iS.sti. 


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31  W.  VAN  BYKB  BISGBAM. 

an  equally  tempered  semi-tone).  Such  an  interval  in  this  F^;ion 
of  the  scale  means  a  difference  in  ptteh  of  scarcely  more  than  two 
vibrations.  It  was  thus  possible  to  play  any  desired  diatonic 
interval  and  also  any  one  of  half  a  dozen  intervals  intermediate 
in  magnitude  between  it  and  the  next  larger  interval.  Only  the 
major  third  and  the  fourth  were  tested.  The  method  was  with- 
out knowledge.  The  twelve  observere  were  already  familiar 
with  the  phenomena  of  "relationship"  and  finality  in  two-tone 
combinations.  They  were  ignorant  of  the  nature  and  purpose 
of  the  experiment  The  observer  was  asked  whether  or  not  the 
two  tones  played  were  "related,  "and  if  the  response  was  in  the 
affirmative  the  further  question  was  put,  r^:arding  the  com- 
pleteness or  incompleteness  of  the  two-tone  group. 

It  was  found,  with  each  of  the  twelve  observers,  that  the 
characteristic  feeling  of  "relationship"  was  nearly  always  still 
present  when  the  interval  had  been  increased  (cm*  diminished) 
32  cents,  (a  third  of  an  equally  tempered  semi-tone).  The 
characteristic  feeling  for  the  upper  or  the  lower  as  an  end-tone 
also  remained.  An  alteration,  however,  of  48  cents  (roughly  a 
quarter  of  a  tone)  destroyed  the  feeling  of  "relationship"  in 
74  per  cent  of  the  96  judgments. 

In  general,  when  a  pure  interval  is  gradually  modified  its 
characteristic  melodic  qualities  remain  long  after  the  interval 
has  lost  the  characteristic  qualities,  e.  g.  of  consonance,  which  it 
manifests  when  its  two  tones  are  heard  simultaneously  instead 
of  in  succession.  This  fact  ought  to  be  of  weight  for  any  theory 
of  melody  which  lays  emphasis  upon  the  psychological  quality 
of  felt  "relationship."  Since  the  ratio  34  has  no  monopoly 
upon  the  characteristic  "relational"  qualities  of  the  fourth,  but 
is  rather  only  a  modal  ratio  about  which  cluster  an  immense 
numbo-  of  lai^er  and  smaller  ratios  manifesting  in  some  meas- 
ure identically  the  same  psychological  qualities,  the  use,  with- 
out qualification,  of  the  symbol  34  to  represent  that  particu- 
lar kind  of  "  relationship' '  is  misleading. 

What  is  true  in  this  respect  regarding  the  facts  of  "relation- 
ship" is  of  course  equally  true  regarding  the  facts  of  finality  or 
melodic  trend. 

It  may  be  ui^ed  that  we  are  here  confronted  simply  with  the 


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STUDIES  IN  MBLOOr.  23 

common  characteristic  of  perception,  the  modification  of  sen- 
sory data  by  central  processes  so  that  these  data  may  be  apper- 
ceived  to  the  nearest  available  norm.  Such  tests  as  the  above 
then  would  merely  measure  the  tendency  of  the  listener  to  hear 
different  nearly  equal  intervals  as  the  same  pure  interval,  and 
do  not  prove  that  the  "relationship"  of  the  fourth  inheres  in 
any  other  ratio  than  3:  4. 

But  such  a  view  neglects  the  fact  that  when  we  are  listening 
to  an  interval  slightly  larger  than  3-4,  we  may  recognize  it  as 
larger  and  still  at  the  same  time  experience  the  feeling  of  "rela- 
tionship" characteristic  of  the  fourth.  The  "relationship," 
in  other  words,  inheres  not  merely  in  the  interval  3  4,  but  also 
in  intervals  rect^nizably  lai^er  or  smaller  than  the  justly 
intoned  perfect  fourth. 

§12.  We  shall  not,  however,  press  this  consideration.  In- 
stead we  shall  leave  in  abeyance  the  question  regarding  the  range 
of  applicatHlity  of  the  pure  powers  of  2  formula,  and  shall  seek, 
in  the  results  of  the  experiments  now  to  be  described,  the  answers 
to  certain  questions  with  reference  to  the  melodic  trend  in  inter- 
vals with  the  simplest  arithmetical  ratios, — the  intervab  in 
which  we  are  led  to  expect  that  the  phenomena  will  be  most  in 
evidence.  Does  experiment  establish  the  proposition  that  when 
one  of  two  related  tones  is  a  pure  power  of  2,  we  wish  to  have  this 
tone  at  the  end,  and  that  when  neither  of  the  related  tones  is  a 
pure  power  of  2,  no  preference  is  felt  for  either  as  an  end-tone? 
What  is  the  relative  strength  of  the  trend  in  different  two-tone 
combinations?  Do  the  simplest  ratios  exhibit  it  most  definitely? 
Do  all  observers  feel  it  alike? 

The  method  of  the  experiment  was  to  present  two  tones  in 
succession,  and  ask,  "Can  you  make  this  second  tone  a  final 
tone?    Does  this  melody  end?"' 

The  following  series  of  ratios  was  used:  2:3,  5:6,  3:5,  15:16, 
45^4,  4:5, 9:16,  3245.  8:9.  8:15,  5:8,  34.  This  series  was  given 
in  the  'double  fatigue  order,'  both  ascending  and  descendii^. 
Ten  of  the  twelve  ratios  are  relatively  simple.    Two,  the  ai^- 

'  At  tbe  time  when  these  experiments  were  planned,  the  experimenter  was  using 
tlK  tenn  'melody'  in  tbe  sense  in  which  Meyer  uses  it.  When  the  word  implies  nothing 
except  "relatimship,"  it  is  entirely  appropriate  to  speak  of  melodies  of  only  two  tone^ 


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1<  IT.  VAN  DTKB  BINGBAU. 

mented  fourth  and  diminished  fifth  (3245  and  45:64),  in* 
volve  pure  powers  of  2  but  are  not  simple,  and  were  included 
for  purposes  of  comparison.  Heavy  Koenig  forks  mounted 
on  resonant*  boxes  and  actuated  by  a  rubber  mallet  were  used 
as  the  source  of  sound.  Each  tone  was  sounded  for  five  seconds. 
The  range  of  pitch  was  limited  to  the  once  and  twice  accented 
octaves,  the  lowest  fork  being  the  middle  (f  of  256  d.  v.  and  the 
highest  the  g*  of  768  d.  v.  In  arranging  the  series  care  was 
taken  that  neither  of  the  tones  of  any  pair  belonged  to  a  tonality 
which  might  have  been  su^ested  by  the  interval  preceding. 

Eight  persons  served  as  observers  in  this  series.  None  of 
them  would  be  classed  as  totally  unmusical,  and  none  of  them 
are  "mu^dans,"  yet  they  represent,  between  these  extremes, 
a  wide  rangeof  musical  ability.  All  are  familar  with  musical  nota- 
tion  and  sing  or  play  some  from  note.  W^th  at  least  two  of  the 
observers,  there  is  a  lack  of  interest  in  music,  their  skill  at  the 
piano  being  a  mechanical  acquiation.  Three  of  the  observers 
confessed  to  an  acquaintance  with  the  elements  of  harmony 
and  musical  theory,  but  it  was  evident  upon  trial  that  their 
theoretical  knowledge  was  not  concrete  enough  to  exert  any 
influence  upon  their  immediate  judgments  of  musical  intervals. 
It  may  be  remarked  here  that  throughout  these  and  also  the  later 
&cperiments  the  observers  gave  unreasoned  judgments,  the 
introspective  records  on  this  point  confirming  the  opinion  of 
the  writer  based  upon  the  manner  of  their  replies.  All  the  ob- 
servers had  had  training  in  experimental  |>sychology. 

The  accompanying  table  gives  the  affirmative,  doubtful  and 
negative  judgments  of  each  of  the  eight  observers  with  respect 
to  each  of  the  melodic  intervals  used. 


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STUDIES  IK  MBUODT. 


TABLE  NO.  1 

inal 

tow? 

■ 

n™vAL 

An. 

Td. 

BL 

WL 

Eo. 

Dt. 

He. 

Yo. 

TOIAl 

UinoT  Second,  Ascending 
DocendiKg 

Uajor  Second,  Ascending 
Descending 

MinM  TUid,  Ascending 

DcKending 

Major  Third,  Ascending 
(4:5) 

Descending 

Perfect  Fourth  Ascending 

Descending 

cending 
(3= --45) 

Descending 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negstive 

AffirnuUve 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Affirmative 
Doubtful 

Doubtful 
Negative 

Affinitive 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Doubtful 
Negative 

Doubtful 
NegaUve 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Affinnative 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Doubtful 

Affirmative 

3 

4 
4 

4 

4 

3 

^ 

4 

3 

4 
4 

3 

4 
3 

4 
4 

3 
3 

4 
3 

4 

3 

4 
4 

4 

^ 
3 

4 

' 

J4 
iS 

DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


Diminished    Fiftb,   A>- 
ccndiiig 

(45*4) 


Perfect  Fifth,  Ascending 
(3-3) 


Minor  Sixth,  AKmding 
(S:8) 


Major  Siitb,  Ascending 


Minor  Seventh,  Ascend- 
(9:16) 


Major  Seventh,  Ascend- 


ir.  VAK  DFKB  BISCBAM. 
Coat,  ol  TABLE  So.  1 

An.    Td.    Bl.     Wl 


Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

N^ative 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Ni^ative 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 


I  Rd.    D|.  I  Un.    Yo.    win. 


Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 


Affirmative 

Doubtful 

Negative 

Affirmative 
Doubtful 

Negative 

ASnnative 

Doubtful 

Negative 


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STUDIES  IN  MELOOr.  tj 

§13.  These  results  indicate  that  the  descendii^  major  third 
(4:5)  and  the  descending  perfect  fifth  (2:3)  exhibit  more  of  the 
quality  of  finality  than  any  of  the  other  two-tone  combinations. 
The  one  was  judged  definitely  to  end  28  times,  and  the  other 
26  times,  out  of  a  possible  32. 

The  other  intervals  showing  more  affirmative  than  negative 
judgments  are  the  ascending  perfect  fourth  (34)  with  21  affirm- 
ative judgments;  the  descending  major  second  (8:9)  with  20; 
the  ascending  minor  second  (15:16)  with  17;  and  the  asf^nding 
minor  sixth  (5:8)  with  14. 

The  diminished  fifth  (45  Aj.) — both  ascending  and  descending 
— and  thedescendingminorsecond  (15:16)  each  have  the  highest 
number  of  negative  judgments — 24.  These  are  the  intovals 
that  most  clearly  lack  finality.  The  ascending  major  second  is 
next  with  21  negative  judgments,  followed  closely  by  the  ascend- 
ii^  and  descending  augmented  fourth,  minor  third,  minor  seventh 
and  major  seventh,  and  the  ascending  major  third.  The  per- 
centage of  negative  judgments  of  the  as(%nding  perfect  fifth 
and  the  descending  perfect  fourth  is  the  smallest  of  any  of  the 
intervals  judged  not  to  end. 

The  ascending  minor  seventh  (9:16)  and  the  descending  major 
seventh  (8:15)  are  both  judged  to  lack  finality,  contrary  to  the 
law  of  the  number  2,  although  their  inversions,  the  major  and 
minor  second,  conform  to  the  law.  The  ascending  minor  seventh 
has  only  7  affirmative  judgments  as  compared  with  19  n^;ative; 
and  the  descending  major  seventh  has  8  affirmative  and  20 
negative  judgments. 

What  is  the  reason  for  the  laige  number  of  negative  judgm^its 
on  these  lai:ger  intervals?  One  answer  is,  that  die  tones  of  these 
wider  intervals  sometimes  failed  to  arouse  any  feeling  of  "rela- 
tionship." "Those  two  tones  do  not  belong  in  the  same  melody." 
"That  second  tone  caimot  be  a  final  tone  because  it  has  no  con- 
nection whatever  with  the  first"  "No!  The  tones  aren't 
related."  Such  introspections  were  frequently  given  when  the 
wider  intervals  were  used.  These  not  highly  muacal  observers 
experienced  a  sufficiently  strong  and  definite  feeling  of  "relation- 
ship" in  the  case  of  such  a  small  interval  as  8:9,  but  found  all 
"relationship"  lacking  in  the  invasion  of  that  samelnterval,  9:16. 


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)8  W.  VAN  DTKB  BIltCBAM. 

This  means  that  in  formulating  the  facts  c^  their  mu»cal  expe- 
rience it  would  not  be  pennissible  to  do  as  Meyer  has  done,  and 
"omit  the  number  2  as  a  factor,"  or  in  otherwords  to  treat  the 
trend  and  the  "relationship"  in  any  interval  as  identical 
with  that  of  its  inveraon. 

S14.  Three-fourths  of  the  34  combinations  are  judged  not  to 
end  more  often  than  to  end.  The  total  number  of  judgments  is 
distributed  as  follows: 

Affimutive as6  33 

Doubtful 13s  '8 

Ncg&tive 377  « 

If  we  leave  out  of  con»deration  the  more  complex  intervals, 
the  augmented  fourth  and  the  dimini^ed  fifth,  the  totals  stand 
as  follows: 

Affinutive 336  37 

Doubtful lis  18 

Negative 189  4S 

From  these  facts  it  would  seem  that  in  general  it  is  somewhat 
harder  to  accept  the  second  tone  of  a  two-tone  sequence  as 
fin£il  than  it  is  to  judge  it  to  be  lacking  in  finaUty. 

§15.  Do  the  results  of  these  experiments  indicate  that  de- 
scending intervals  as  such  tend  to  cause  the  feding  of  finality? 
To  answer  this  question  the  data  of  Table  2  may  be  redistrib- 
uted so  that  the  totals  for  as<£nding  and  descending  intervals 
may  be  compared.  Following  are  the  totals  for  all  the  intervals 
represented  by  simple  ratios  involving  a  power  of  2,  then  for 
the  more  complex  intervals  (augmented  fourth  and  diminished 
fifth)  and  the  intervals  whose  ratios  though  simple  involve  no 
power  of  2,  and  finally  for  all  twelve  intervals  combined. 

Simple  Ratios  Involving  a  Power  of  1: 


Affirmative.. 
Dot^tful.... 
Negative.... 


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STUDIES  IN  MSLODT. 
Gimplei  Ratios,  and  Simple  Ratios  without  a  Power  of  i 


Affirmative 19  93 

Doubtful 18  14 

Negative 81  6; 

Totab  for  all  Twelve  Intervals: 


Affiimative 118  31  138  36 

Doubtful 67  17  68  18 

Negative 199  %3  178  46 

In  each  group,  tones  which  are  powers  of  2  had  the  position 
of  first  tone  exactly  as  many  times  as  they  had  the  position 
of  final  tone;  consequendy  it  will  not  be  far  wrong  to  assume 
that  any  effects  due  to  the  operation  of  the  law  of  the  powers  of 
2  are  cancelled. 

There  is  found,  especially  in  the  first  of  these  three  sum- 
maries, some  preponderance  in  favor  of  the  descending  intervals 
as  more  definitely  final  and  of  the  ascending  intervals  as  lacking 
in  finality. 

This  effect  of  the  fallii^  inflection  has  been  made  the  object 
of  esqierimental  determination  by  Meyer.' 

Three  tones  of  a  reed  organ  were  played  a  few  times  in  irregular  suc- 
cession, ending  on  one  of  them.  Then  they  were  played  in  a  similar  way, 
ending  on  another  one;  and  lastly,  ending  on  the  third  tone.  This  was 
repeated  until  each  subject  had  made  up  his  mind  and  written  down 
which  of  these  three  endings  was  the  most  satisfactory  to  lum 

Two  classes  of  experiments  must  tie  distinguished:  one  in  wliich  there 
was  no  tonic  effect  among  the  three  tones;  and  one  in  which  there  were 
tonic  effects.  In  the  former  case  the  three  tones  were  represented  by 
thesymbolS3,  5,and  7;inthelatter,by  3,3,  andg.  [The  tonese.^.and 
7b''  standintheratioof  3:5:7;  c,g  and  d  would  be  represented  in  Meyer's 
symbolism  by  3,  3,  and  g.]  .  .  .  .  The  three  tones  of  one  experi- 
ment were  always  within  a  single  octave.  Each  of  the  three  tones,  how- 
ever, liad  an  equal  chance  of  exerting  its  influence,  *.  «.,  of  being  the 
lowest  of  the  three.    (P.  4S8-) 

Where  there  was  no  tonic  effect,  the  lower  tone,  whichever 

'  Amer.  Jour,  Ptyck.,  1903, 14,  456. 


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W.  VAN  D7KB  BINCHAU. 


it  happened  to  be,  was  preferred  as  an  end  tone,  the  totals 
being  5  choices  for  the  higher,  8  for  the  middle,  and  17,  or  57 
per  cent  of  the  total,  for  the  lower  tone.  In  the  other  series, 
one  of  the  tones  was  a  '  tonic'  When  this  tone  was  also  the 
lowest  tone  it  was  preferred  as  the  end-tone  in  86  per  cent  of 
the  judgments.  When  it  was  the  middle  tone  it  received 
70  per  cent  of  the  choices;  and  when  it  was  the  upper  tone 
only  7  per  cent. 

These  are  striking  results  and  one  wishes  that  these  experi- 
ments had  been  carried  farther.  Brief  as  they  are,  however, 
they  serve  to  emphasize  that  the  effect  of  finality  at  the  close 
of  a  melody  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  operation  of  other 
causes  than  the  powers  of  z  phenomenon. 

It  thus  is  obviously  desirable,  in  discussing  the  meaning  of 
our  own  results,  to  separate  as  far  as  this  is  possible  the  finality 
effect  produced  by  the  falling  inflection  from  that  which  is 
due  to  the  more  definite  pitch  relations  of  the  tones. 

§16.  We  shall  first  bring  together  the  totals  for  those 
simple  intervals  (Group  S)  whose  ratios  do  not  include  a 
pure  power  of  2,  t.  e.,  the  minor  third  (5:6)  and  the  major  sixth 
(3:5).  The  second  summary  will  include  the  complex  inter- 
vals (Group  C)  involving  powers  of  2,  t.  e.  the  augmented 
fourth  (3245)  and  the  diminished  fifth  (45:64).  Then  will 
come  the  eight  remaining  intervals,  all  expressible  in  simple 
ratios  one  of  whose  members  is  a  pure  power  of  2.  These  lat- 
ter it  will  be  convenient  to  separate  into  those  intervals  in 
which  the  2  tone  is  the  higher  (Group  H),  and  those  in  which 
it  is  the  lower  (Group  L). 


Group  S.     Simple  Ratios  without  a  Power  of  i 


Asceaditig 

Affirmative. . 

Doubtful.... 

N^atire — 
Descending 

Affirmative. , 

Doubtful. . . . 


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STVDIBS  IN  URLODV. 


Group  C.     Complex  Ratios  Involviog  a  Power  of  i 

>  ■  4S  « ■  64  101*1                »K 

AsceEtding 

Affirmative 8  3  11 

Doubtful 3  5  8 

N^ative 31  14  45 

Desceading 

Affirto&tive 6  3  9 

Doubtful 7  5  i> 

Negative ig  14  43 

Sim[de  Ratios  Involving  a  Power  of  1: 
Group  H.      (Higher  lone  a  Power  of  i.) 


Ascending 

Affirmative 17  31  14  7  59  46 

Doubtful 46  6  6  II  t? 

Negative 11  j  "  '0  47  37 

Descending 

Affirmative 4  8  8  9  19  13 

Doubtful 4  ti  S  5  iS  33 

Negative 14  13  16  t8  71  S5 

Group  L.     (Lower  tone  a  Power  of  3.) 

imaaTAL                S :  it  1:3  4 ;  f  S :  $  ioial  ru  cm 

Ascending 

Affirmative 9  10  j              6  30  33 

Doubtful  7  8  7             S  '7  " 

Negative 16  14  10  31  71  SS 

Descending 

Affirmative S  36  3S  10  83  64 

Doubtful 4  3  3              5  IS  " 

Negative 10  3  i              7  .11  34 

According  to  the  Lipps-Meyer  formula,  intervals  of  Group 
H  should  end  better  on  the  higher  tone,  and  intervals  of 
Group  L  on  the  lower.  Consequently  in  Group  H  the  finality 
effect  due  to  the  2  ratio  is  opposed  by  the  rising-inflection 
phenomenon,  but  in  Group  L  the  two  forces  work  together. 

Comparing  the  totals  for  all  the  intervals  which  according 
to  the  law  of  2  should  end,  i.  e.,  the  ascending  intervals  of 
Group  H  and  the  descending  intervals  of  Group  L,  we  find  59 
affirmative  and  47  negative  judgments  in  the  first  case,  as 
contrasted  with  82  affirmative  and  31  negative  judgments 
when  the  effects  of  the  two  forces  are  cumulative.      The 


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33  W.  TAN  DVKB  BlUCBAM. 

influence  of  the  falling  inflection  increases  the  proportion  of 
affirmative  judgments  very  noticeably.  Preference  for  the 
descending  intervals  as  more  definitely  final  does  not,  how- 
ever, come  to  light  in  comparing  the  descending  intervals  of 
Group  H  with  the  ascending  intervals  of  Group  L — intervals 
which  according  to  the  Lipps-Meyer  law  lack  finality.  In  both 
cases  the  negative  judgments  are  more  than  double  the  affirm- 
ative in  number,  and  the  totals  are  almost  exactly  the  same 
in  the  two  groups. 

It  is  instructive  to  combine  the  totals  for  the  ascending 
intervals  of  Group  H  and  the  descending  intervals  of  Group 
L,  obtaining  in  this  manner  the  totals  for  all  judgments  upon 
intervals  which  according  to  the  formula  of  Lipps  and  Meyer 
ought  to  be  judged  to  end.  These  may  be  compared  with  the 
judgments  upon  the  same  intervals  played  in  the  opposite 
direction,  which  according  to  this  law  are  characterized  by 
lack  of  finality: 

End  Tone  k  Power  of  2: 

Affirmative 141  55 

Doubtful 37  14 

N«g«tive 78  31 

First  Tone  a  Power  of  2: 

Affinuktive 59  33 

Doubtful SS  " 

Negative 14J  ss 

517.  This  last  summary  presents  strong  evidence  of  the 
operation  of  some  such  tendency  as  that  to  which  the  Lipps- 
Meyer  law  refers.  When  2  is  the  end  tone,  the  two-tone  group 
is  said  by  these  observers  to  end  in  55  per  cent  of  the  instances, 
and  not  to  end  in  31  per  cent,  the  remaining  14  per  cent  being 
'doubtful.'  When  2  is  the  first  tone  of  the  p^r,  the  propor- 
tions are  reversed.  Only  23  per  cent  are  judged  to  end,  while 
55  per  cent  are  judged  to  be  lacking  in  finality. 

In  attempting  to  account  for  the  judgments  which  do  not 
conform  to  the  law,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  exactly 
one  half  of  the  instances  in  each  group  the  effect  of  the  rising 


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STVOrsS  111  liSLODV.  S3 

or  falling  inflection  was  acting  in  opposition  to  the  phenomenon 
under  discussion.  Hence  a  certain  ambiguity  and  uncertainty 
is  sometimes  inevitable.  But  the  inadequacy  of  this  expla- 
nation to  account  for  all  of  the  facts  becomes  manifest,  when 
we  examine  afresh  the  separate  data  from  which  these  totals 
are  compiled  (p.  25).  Why  does  the  same  observer  declare  at 
one  time  that  the  ascending  minor  third,  for  instance,  ends, 
while  at  another  time  he  declares  with  no  less  positiveness 
that  it  does  not  end?  The  fact  that  some  of  the  observers 
were  but  slightly  musical  accounts  for  part  of  these  anomalies,' 
but  some  contradictory  judgments  occur  in  all  the  records 
including  those  of  the  most  musical  observers.  How  can  the 
latter  be  explained? 

The  suggestion  was  made  that  the  fork  tones  were  so  nearly 
pure  that  the  feelings  of  "relationship"  were  weak  and  conse- 
quently the  reactions  produced  were  not  normal.  But  the 
real  difficulty  did  not  consist  in  any  lack  of  feelings  of  "rela- 
tionship" and  of  finality,  but  rather  in  the  fact  that  these 
feelings  were  apparently  often  misplaced.  Moreover,  control 
tests  with  harmonium  and  piano  tones  rich  in  upper  partials 
failed  to  decrease  the  proportion  of  contradictory  judgments. 

§18.  To  gather  further  data  another  series  was  arranged 
containing,  besides  the  twelve  of  the  original  series,  five 
additional  intervals:  24:25,  9:10,  27:32,  20:27  ^iid  2740. 
Five  quite  musical  observers  served,  including  the  two  most 
musical  of  those  who  had  assisted  in  the  previous  experiment. 
The  procedure  was  varied  by  putting  the  question  differently: 
"Do  you  feel  any  desire  to  return  to  the  first  tone?" 

With  the  attention  thus  directed,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
some  of  the  observers  reported  with  certain  intervals  that 
they  desired  to  hear  the  first  tone  ^ain,  whichever  way  the 
melodies  were  played,  ascending  or  descending.  Thus  was 
forced  into  notice  what  has  been  called  the  law  of  the  Return, 
the  law  that,  otitcr  things  being  equal,  it  is  better  to  return  to  any 

■  For  ei&mple,  when  observer  Bl.  reported  that  an  augmented  fourth  ended  utii- 
(actorily  on  the  upper  tone,  be  was  asked  to  hum  the  interval  upon  which  he  had  passed 
judgment,  and  sang  a  perfect  fourth.  The  same  thing  occurred  in  the  case  of  Td, 
who,  however,  discovered  after  he  had  sung  the  interval  that  it  was  not  the  same  as  the 
one  he  had  originally  heard,  and  wanted  to  change  his  judgment  upon  it. 


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34  W.  VAN  DYKB  BINGBAU. 

starting  point  whatsoever  than  not  to  return — a  simple,  funda- 
mental principle  of  musical  form,  of  art  form  of  any  kind, 
indeed. 

Another  law  to  which  the  introspections  pointed  ts  not  so 
simply  formulated.  It  was  brought  to  attention  by  three 
observers  who  persistendy  found  an  additional  alternative  in 
the  case  of  certain  intervals:  the  melody  lacked  finality,  there 
was  no  desire  to  return,  neither  tone  would  serve  as  an  end- 
tone  but  some  third  tone  was  demanded.  Here  was  a  melodic 
trend,  definite,  positive,  insistent;  a  property  of  a  single  pair 
of  successive  tones,  but  leading  beyond  them  to  something 
further,' 

It  was  plain  that  the  facts  of  elementary  melodic  "rela- 
tionship" and  the  law  of  finality  of  two-tone  melodies  did 
not  tell  the  whole  story.  The  phenomenon  of  melodic  trend 
seemed  to  be  of  a  more  complex  sort,  even  in  two-tone 
groups,  than  is  implied  by  any  statement  of  a  tendency  to 
return  or  not  to  return.  Even  with  these  simple  two-tone 
sequences  it  was  necessary  to  recognize  theoperation  of  some 
such  law  as  the  following:  Two  melodicaUy  "related"  tones 
tend  to  establish  a  tonality,  and  the  melody  is  judged  to  end 
only  when  the  final  tone  is  one  of  the  members  of  the  tonic 
triad — preferably  the  tonic  itself. 

This  law  is  not  asserted  to  be  a  universal  law.  Indeed  it 
is  doubtless  limited  in  its  application  to  the  experience  of 
those  reared  in  a  harmonic  musical  atmosphere.  In  so  far 
as  it  is  found  to  be  valid,  it  indicates  the  probability  that 
the  phenomena  of  melodic  trend  are  not  primary,  but  are 
derived  from  our  experience  of  consonance. 

These  experiments  were  supplemented  by  briefer  and  less 
systematic  tests  upon  a  number  of  observers,  unpracticed  in 
psychological  observation.  The  results  were  in  general  con- 
firmatory, although  not  as  strikingly  uniform  as  those  we 
have  already  given.  Mention  will  be  made  only  of  four  of 
the  observers  whose  records  are  exceptional.  Two  of  these 
exhibited  a  persistent  preference  for  endings   that  suggested 

>  These  intro^jcctiotu  complioitcd  tbe  recards  so  much  Uuit  it  b  not  deemed  advis- 
able to  reproduce  them  here  in  full. 


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STVDtSS  l»  MELODY.  35 

the  minor  mode.  Tested  upon  the  interval  of  the  minor 
third  (5:6) — no  tonality  having  been  previously  supplied — 
these  observers  uniformly  judged  the  ending  on  the  lower 
tone,  (5),  to  be  satisfactory,  while  the  ascending  interval 
was  judged  to  be  lacking  in  finality.  One  of  these  observers 
is  a  very  musical  Welshman,  and  it  Is  to  be  recalled  that 
much  of  the  characteristic  Welsh  music  is  in  the  minor  or 
as  they  call  it,  the  "la"  mode.  Tests  were  made  upon  two 
Japanese  young  men  who  had  recently  arrived  inthiscountry 
and  who  professed  to  have  had  but  little  opportunity  to 
hear  European  music.  Both  were  singers  and  one  was  a 
Ijerformer  upon  the  Japanese  flute.  The  tests,  repeated, 
gave  very  conflicting  results,  and  it  became  evident  that 
either  the  interpreter  had  failed  to  make  clear  to  them  pre- 
cisely what  the  phenomenon  was  upon  which  they  were  to 
pass  judgment,  or  else  their  experience  of  melodic  trends 
differs  essentially  from  ours.  Unfortunately  it  was  not 
possible  to  carry  out  an  extensive  series  of  tests  with  these 
observers. 

§19.  For  purposes  of  comparison,  a  third  set  of  experi- 
ments was  undertaken  in  which  the  tonality  feeling  was  not 
left  to  be  contributed  by  the  hearer,  but  was  definitely  sug- 
gested to  him.  In  the  previous  experiments,  the  utmost 
pains  had  been  taken  to  exclude  the  operation  of  tonality 
by  arranging  that  neither  of  the  tones  of  a  given  group  should 
belong  to  any  tonality  which  might  have  been  suggested  by 
the  immediately  preceding  experiment.  If  any  tonality  was 
present,  it  had  a  subjective  origin.  We  have  seen  that  many 
apparently  contradictory  judgments  were  given,  as  for  instance 
when  a  minor  second  was  judged  to  end,  now  on  the  higher  and 
at  another  time  on  the  lower  tone,  both  judgments  being 
positive  and  emphatic. 

In  the  experiments  now  under  discussion,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  device  was  used  of  controlling  the  tonality,  impos- 
ing it  from  without  and  testing  after  the  judgment  had  been 
made  to  see  whether  or  not  the  objectively  given  tonality  had 
been  retained.  To  facilitate  this  procedure,  a  piano  tuned 
in  equal  temperament  was  used  instead  of  the  forks. 


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W.  VAN  DFKE  BISGBAM. 


These  experiments  were  carried  out  upon  five  musical 
observers,  practiced  in  psychological  observation.  Three 
of  these  were  quite  naive  as  to  the  nature  or  course  of  the 
experiment. 

All  the  intervals  of  the  tempered  scale  exclusive  of  the 
octave  were  employed.  Each  interval  was  used,  beginning 
at  every  possible  position  in  the  scale:  thus  the  ascending 
fourth  was  heard,  beginning  on  i,  2,  3,  5,  6  and  7  of  the  scale. 
The  series  was  given  in  double  fatigue  order.  The  experi- 
menter noted  down  the  observer's  introspections  regarding 
the  trend  of  the  interval,  or  trends,  for  several  optional 
directionsof  melodic  movement  wereoften  detected.  In  these 
instances  where  more  than  one  leading  presented  itself  to 
the  observer,  an  effort  was  made  to  determine  the  relative 
strength  of  each. 

The  result  suggested  by  the  previous  experiments  came 
clearly  to  view:  so  long  as  the  given  tonality  was  maintained, 
the  trend  of  any  interval,  ascending  or  descending,  was  toward 
some  member  of  the  tonic  chord,  preferably  the  tonic  itself. 
Individual  diflFerences  showed  themselves  as  stronger  or 
weaker  demands  for  the  tonic  as  the  end-tone,  as  over  gainst 
the  third  or  fifth  when  the  latter  were  nearer  than  the  tonic. 
For  example,  in  the  key  of  c,  observer  Rn  felt  that  the  sequence 
g'  f  demanded  c'  as  its  third  tone,  whereas  the  other  four 
observers  found  the  trend  to  e'  stronger.  The  uniform  ten- 
dency for  all  five  observers,  however,  with  all  the  intervals, 
was  to  rest  in  one  of  the  tones  of  the  tonic  chord. 

Our  contention  is  that  in  the  previous  experiments  with 
no  objectively  supplied  tonality,  the  anomalous  results  and 
contradictions  above  mentioned  are  explicable  on  the  hypothe- 
sis that  tonalities,  now  one  and  now  another,  arose  in  the 
mind  of  the  observer.  The  minor  second  e"-/  would  at  onetime 
chance  to  suggest  the  tonality  of/  and  end  satisfactorily  on 
the  upper  of  the  two  tones;  while  at  another  time  the  tonality 
of  c  would  arise,  entailing  quite  different  demands. 

520.  We  have  too  long  neglected  to  specify  what  is  implied, 
psychologically,  in  the  term  tonality.  By  a  tonality  is 
meant  a  group  of  mutually  related  tones,  organized  about  a 


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STVBISS  IN  ItRLODr.  37 

single  tone,  the  tonic,  as  the  center  of  relations.  Sub- 
jectively a  tonality  is  a  set  of  expectations,  a  group  of 
melodic  possibilities  within  which  the  course  of  the  successive 
tones  must  find  its  way,  or  suffer  the  penalty  of  not  meeting 
these  expectations  or  demands  of  the  hearer  and  so  of  being 
rejected  as  no  melody.  Of  these  different  demands,  that  for 
an  end  on  a  certain  tone  is  the  strongest  and  most  charac- 
teristic. 

It  is  not  meant  to  imply  that  this  tonality,  this  system  of  relat- 
ed pitches  with  a  common  center  of  reference,  is  present  in 
consciousness  as  a  group  of  auditory  im^^es.  Often  there  is 
only  a  single  simple  auditory  or  vocal-motor  image  or  percept 
to  be  detected.  The  tonality  consists  in  the  aUi^wfe  of  which 
the  imf^eismerelythesuperficial  manifestation  or  sensory  core. 
One  can  image  the  tone  of  320  d.v.  as  a  tonic  in  the  key  of 
e  or  as  a  median  in  the  key  of  c,  and  the  auditory  image  will 
be  identical  in  the  two  cases,  but  not  the  total  psychosis. 
There  will  be  an  entirely  different  organization  of  expectations, 
an  entirely  different  attitude,  an  entirely  different  set  of 
anticipations  and  demands,  a  preparedness  for  one  set  of 
experiences,  but  not  for  another. 

So  much  an  impartial  introspection  cannot  fail  to  disclose. 
The  position  here  advanced  is  thatthesesame "attitudes" are 
constituted  in  large  part  of  kinaesthetic  elements — reports  of 
processes  of  motor  adjustment. 

Suggestions  toward  such  an  interpretation  of  the  tonality 
phenomenon  were  abundant  enough  from  some  of  the  ob- 
servers. When  Ha.  felt  a  melodic  trend  unrealized,  he  often 
described  it  as  a  vocal  tension,  due  to  a  tendency  to  sing  the 
desired  pitch.  An.  reported  kinaesthetic  sensations  from  the 
throat  as  accompanying  the  feeling  of  expectation.  He 
also  mentioned  sensations  of  strain  and  tension  in  other 
regions,  notably  the  diaphragm,  these  general  tensions  being 
especially  prominent  at  the  Instant  when  he  was  attempting 
to  retain  an  elusive  tonality  £^:ainst  an  auditory  distraction 
(as  when,  for  instance,  given  the  tonality  of  c,  he  was  asked 
to  listen  to  the  interval  c-f.)  Do.  found  that  "the  effort  to 
hold  a  tonality  involves  general  organic  tensions.    Any  lapse 


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38  W.  VAS  DYKB  BtNGBAU. 

of  attention  or  shifting  of  muscular  tensions  precipitates  a 
shift  of  tonality.  Changes  of  breathing  will  do  this,"  etc., 
etc. 

Considerations  such  as  these  pointed  toward  the  value  of 
an  approach  to  the  problems  of  the  melody  experience  from 
the  side  of  its  motor  accompaniments,  and  resulted  in  the 
experiments  reported  in  Part  III  upon  the  motor  effects  of 
simple  melodic  stimuli. 

Whatever  the  nature  of  a  tonality  'attitude,'  whatever  its 
relations  to  sensations  of  strain  and  muscular  movement — 
it  is  at  least  a  phenomenon  which  widely  pervades  the  musi- 
cal experience  of  hearers  who  are  familiar  with  European 
music.  The  question  now  arises  whether  either  the  tonality 
experience  or  the  experience  of  finality  in  two-tone  sequences 
is  primary,  original,  fundamental:  Does  the  law  of  2  describe 
a  primitive,  natural  tendency  or  preference,  which  has  oper- 
ated in  the  course  of  historical  development  to  mould  our 
musical  system,  or  does  it  describe  certain  secondary, 
derived  phenomena  which  would  not  be  discoverable  in  an 
experience  wholly  uninfluenced  by  association?  Proofs  of 
the  former  alternative  the  writer  has  been  unable  to  discover. 
Moreover,  the  history  of  our  musical  system  points  toward  a 
gradual  evolutionary  process  in  which  the  primary  phenomena 
of  consonance  have  been  efficacious  factors.  Hearers  whose 
minds  have  been  influenced  by  association  with  such  a  musical 
system,  when  listening  to  certain  two-tone  sequences  cannot 
avoid  feeling  a  preference  for  one  of  the  tones  as  an  end-tone. 
Some  of  these  preferences  lend  themselves  to  formulation  in 
terms  of  the  Lipps-Meyer  law  of  the  number  2;  but  this  law 
is  only  a  special  case  of  the  more  general  law  that  every 
melodic  interval  trends  toward  one  of  the  tones  of  the  tonic 
chord  of  the  tonality  which  it  arouses.  The  law  is  based 
upon  the  tendency  of  every  interval,  yes,  of  even  a  single 
musical  sound,  to  establish  a  tonality  attitude.  The  manner 
in  which  the  law  operates  will  be  evident  from  one  or  two 
simple  illustrations. 

What  shall  be  said,  for  instance,  of  those  curious,  some- 
times baffling  experiences,  in  which  a  second  tone  is  at  first 


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STVDIBS  IN  MSIODT.  39 

unwelcome,  and  then  quicldy  makes  itself  at  home  and  usurps 
the  place  of  what  had  before  been  anticipated  as  the  final 
tone?  In  certain  instances  nothing  is  more  natural  or 
inevitable.  The  first  tone  arouses  a  slight  tonality  feeling, 
making  itself  the  tonic,  so  that  if  we  call  this  tone  c,  we  shall 
have  an  'attitude'  in  which  any  of  the  tones  c,  e,  and  g  of  the 
tonic  chord  (but  especially  c  itself),  would  be  welcomed  as 
possessing  something  of  the  quality  of  finality.  Suppose  now 
we  hear  the  rising  fourth  c-J.  When  /  first  enters,  as  a  final 
tone  it  is  not  welcomed;  it  does  not  meet  the  requirements  of 
those  expectations  aroused  by  the  first  tone.  But  c-f  is  a 
harmonious  interval:  it  immediately  tends  to  shift  the  oi^ani- 
zation  of  the  tonality  feeling  to  something  which  will  include 
both  c  and  /  in  one  common  tonic  chord.  This  is,  of  course, 
thechordZ-a-c-/,  of  which/is  the  fundamental.  If  this  tran»- 
tion  is  successfully  made, —  and  the  chances  are  that  such  a 
transition  can  be  avoided  only  with  conscious  effort, — then 
/  becomes  a  final  tone,  and  the  interval  which  at  first  felt 
incomplete  and  unsatisfactory  comes  to  a  definite  close. 

Why  does  the  descending  fifth  end  while  the  rising  fifth 
does  not?  When  one  hears  a  tone  c  and  then  its  fifth,  both 
fit  without  readjustment  into  the  c-e-g  tonality  suggested 
by  the  first  tone,  and  for  complete  finality  one  wishes  to 
hear  again  the  tonic  c.  But  if,  instead  of  ascending  from  the 
tone  c,  we  hear  a  descending  fifth  from  the  samestarting  point 
the  situation  is  altered.  The  chord  which  includes  the 
original  c  and  this  new  tone  F  is  the  chord  F-A-c.  Our 
demand  is,  accordingly,  to  hear  as  a  final  tone  the  tonic  of 
this  chord,  which  is  F.  A  similar  treatment  applies  to 
every  instance  of  "direct  relationship"  in  which  the  law  of 
2  was  found  to  hold  good.  This  law  of  the  powers  of  2  is 
no  primitive  universal  law:  the  phenomenon  it  describes 
is  peculiar  to  those  minds  habituated  to  a  musical  system 
whose  scale  has  a  basis  in  the  laws  of  consonance  and  dis- 
sonance. 

§21 .  The  overshadowing  r6le  played  by  habit  or  association 
in  the  drama  of  our  esthetic  experience  is  not  always  rect^- 
nized.     The  effect  of  habituation  in  rendering  disagreeable 


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40  W.  VAN  D7KB  EINCBAU. 

sequences  tolerable  or  pleasant  and  in  changing  unrelated 
into  related  tones,  has  been  shown  by  Emerson'  and  also  by 
Meyer',  although  the  latter  finds  in  his  results  sut>stantiation 
for  a  very  different  contention,  namely,  the  universal  applic- 
ability of  the  "complete  scale." 

Emerson  worked  with  extremely  small  melodic  intervals 
and  found  that  after  much  experience  with  these  small  inter- 
vals his  observers  developed  preferences  for  certain  sequences, 
showing  that  a  melody  can  be  constructed  of  tones  all  of 
which  are  within  the  compass  of  a  semi-tone. 

Meyer  constructed  some  'quarter-tone  melodies'  from  the 
intervals  of  his  complete  scale.  At  the  initial  performance, 
the  effect  was  judged  by  most  of  his  observers  to  be  disagree- 
able, but  on  repetition  this  judgment  was  modified,  and  two 
weeks  later,  at  still  another  hearing,  some  of  them  came  to 
appreciate  and  enjoy  the  music  which  had  before  been  strange 
and  incomprehensible.  What  an  excellent  illustration  of 
the  law  that  we  do  not  accept  as  melodically  good  that  which 
we  cannot  in  some  measure  anticipate! 

Subjected  to  careful  introspective  analysis,  the  feeling  of 
finality  attaching  to  the  second  tone  in  the  interval  3 : 4  differs 
in  no  essential  from  the  feeling  of  finality  attaching  to  the  last 
tone  of  a  purely  arbitrary  tone  combination  with  which  one 
has  grown  familiar.  In  each  instance  the  sense  of  finality  con- 
sists of  the  same  kinaesthetic  sensations  in  throat  and  dia- 
phragm, the  same  feelings  of  relaxation,  the  same  repose,  the 
same  slight  retardation  in  the  rate  of  mental  flow. 

This  effect  of  habituation  is  a  familiar  fact  in  the  musical 
experience  of  everyone.  Tonal  sequences  at  first  bizarre, 
strange,  unmusical,  later  come  to  be  appreciated,  understood 
and  enjoyed.  Some  degree  of  habituation  to  £my  succession 
of  intervals  whatsoever  makes  possible  the  act  of  recognition, 
of  acknowledgment,  of  'welcoming'  the  successive  tones,  to 
use  Professor  Royce's  apt  phrase.     Habituation,   then,  is 

'  L.  E.  EmeiBOQ,  "The  Feeling  Value  of  Unmuiical  Tone  Intervals,"  Banord 
Psyehotogieal  Studies.     iqo6,  2,  itg. 

*M.  Meyer,  "Experimental  Studies  in  the  Psychology  of  Music,"  Am.  J.  Pty., 
1903. 14,  4S6. 


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STUDIBS  IN  UBU)DY.  4' 

sometimes  a  powerful  factor  in  making  possible  that  active 
participation  which  seems  to  be  demanded  of  the  hearer 
before  the  succession  of  musical  sounds  can  for  him  be  unified 
into  the  oi^ianic  whole  we  call  a  melody. 

S22,  Summary.  These  studies  began  with  a  definition  of 
melody  which  laid  stress  upon  the  feeling  of  unity.  When  the 
separate  tones  of  a  series  are  felt  to  be  related  to  each  other  in 
such  a  manner  that  each  tone  forms  part  of  a  coherent  whole, 
the  succession  of  tones,  we  said,  is  felt  to  be  a  melody,  and  the 
melody  problem  was  stated  to  be  the  problem  of  explaining  how 
this  feeling  of  melodic  unity  arises.  An  analysis  of  the  psycho- 
l(^cal  elements  of  melodic  structure  revealed  many  and  varied 
sources  contributing  to  the  generation  of  this  unity.  One 
group  of  factors,  however,  stood  out  as  of  unique  importance, 
namely  those  due  to  the  relative  pitch  of  the  constituent  tones; 
and  to  the  consideration  of  problems  in  pitch  relationships  the 
scope  of  the  present  investigation  was  limited. 

A  survey  of  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  reduce  the 
facts  of  melodic  "relationship"  and  of  melodic  trend  to  simple 
mathematical  formulation  was  followed  by  an  account  of  three 
sets  of  experiments  upon  the  phenomena  of  melodic  trend  in 
two-tone  groups.  These  trends,  with  which  the  feelings  of 
finality  or  of  lack  of  finality  are  closely  bound  up,  were  found  to 
be  due  to  (o)  preference  for  the  lower  tone  as  such  as  an  end 
tone  (phenomenon  of  the  falling  inflection),  (4)  preference  for  a 
return  to  the  first  tone  as  an  end  tone,  (c)  preference  for  the 
expected  ending  (if  one  knows  that  a  given  tone  is  to  be  the 
last,  its  arrival  may  be  sufficient  to  arouse  the  feeling  of  final- 
ity quite  apart  from  the  operation  of  any  other  factors),  and, 
finally,  {d)  preference  for  an  end  on  one  of  the  tones  of  the 
tonic  chord — and  especially  the  tonic  itself — of  the  suggested 
tonality. 

This  formulation,  contrasted  with  the  formulation  in  terms 
of  'the  law  of  the  number  2,'  has  the  advantage  of  covering 
more  of  the  observed  facts'  and  the  disadvantage,  as  some  will 
consider  it,  of  conceding  that  the  phenomenon  described  is 


e  numerous  instances  in  which  S  ;  q  and  15  :  16  &re  judged  to  end 
rhich  is  not  a  poner  of  1. 


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41  W.  VAN  DYKB  BINGBAM. 

probably  not  elemental,  primitive,  but  rather  a  resultant, 
traceable  to  the  laws  of  habit  and  the  harmonic  structure  of 
the  music  with  which  the  observers  were  acquainted.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view,  the  laws  of  consonance  are  primary,  not  the 
laws  of  melodic  "relationship." 

This  latter  view  finds  confirmation  in  the  instances  cited 
where  the  feeUngs  of  "relationship"  and  of  trend  were  clearly 
the  oul^owth  of  habituation,  of  repetition,  of  custom,  of  asso- 
ciation, of  mere  expectation. 

Mention  was  made  of  the  high  importance  which  seemed  to 
attach,  in  the  introspections  of  certain  of  the  observers,  to 
kinaesthetic  factors  present  in  their  experiences  of  tonality, 
"relationship"  and  trend.  These  facts,  togetherwith  the  fact 
that  the  phenomena  of  "relationship"  are  exhibited  by  pairs 
of  tones  which  vary  so  widely  from  the  simple  ratios,  suggest 
that  it  is  not  the  sensory  but  the  motor  phase  of  the  circuit 
which  contributes  the  unity, — that  it  is  not  the  relatively  eco- 
nomtcalactivityof  the  sensory  nerves,  but  the  relatively  unified 
response  of  the  motor  mechanism  which  gives  rise  to  the  feeling 
of  "relationship." 

Our  problem,  then,  shapes  itself  as  the  task  of  studying  the 
motor  responses  which  melodic  stimuli  elicit,  to  discover 
whether  here  is  to  be  found  any  further  clue  to  the  explanation 
of  melodic  unity. 


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EFFECTS    OP    MELODIC    STIMULI  UPON    MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT 

§23  To  gather  definite  data  regarding  the  relation  of 
movement  to  the  melody  experience,  the  following  experi- 
ments were  undertaken,  designed  to  test  the  effects  of  simple 
melodic  stimuli  upon  on-going  motor  processes,  voluntary  and 
involuntary. 

The  voluntary  process  studied  was  the  tapping  movement 
of  the  index  finger  of  the  right  hand.  This  movement  was 
chosen  because  of  its  simplicity  and  naturalness,  and  because 
after  a  little  practice  it  tends  toward  automatism,  leaving  the 
attention  free  to  be  focussed  upon  thestimulus.  Such  devices 
as  the  Jastrow  automatograph  and  the  Delabarre  muscle- 
recorder  were  rejected  in  favor  of  the  means  here  described, 
because  it  seemed  highly  probable  that  changes  in  innerva- 
tion  would  become  most  readily  manifest  as  alterations  of  a 
motor  process  already  going  forward.  Other  factors  remain- 
ing constant,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  a  neural  current  will 
tend,  at  least  in  part,  to  find  its  way  out  of  the  central  system 
along  that  motor  channel  which  is  already  in  use.  Moreover 
the  investigations  of  Stetson'  and  others  upon  complex  or 
"combined"  rhythms  have  made  it  certain  that  a  concurrent 
movement  coming  into  coordination  will  affect  an  accom- 
panying uniform  movement. 

The  form  of  apparatus  used  is  an  adaptation  of  the  simple 
device  employed  by  Stetson  for  recording  rhythmical  move- 
ments. The  hand  and  forearm  rested  naturally  upon  the 
arm-rest  leaving  the  index  finger  free  to  move  throughout 
its  entire  range  of  flexion  and  extension  without  contact. 
(See  accompanying  figure).  This  free,  unrestricted  move- 
ment was  chosen  because  it  was  found  that  when  the  finger 
taps  against  a  hard  suriace  the  contact  sensations  serve  as  a 

>R.H.Stet«>a:"A  Motor Tbony of  Rbythmud  Discrete  Succodon."  Ptyek. 
JtM.  1905, 13, 150. 


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44  V.  VAN  or  KB  BINGBAM. 

sensory  control  which  regulates  and  steadies  the  movement. 
As  our  purpose  was  to  detect  any  slight  variations  which 
the  melodic  stimuli  might  produce  in  this  motor  process,  it 
was  obviously  better  to  avoid  as  many  of  these  controls  as 
possible. 

The  periodic  movement  of  the  finger  was  recorded  in  all 
its  details  as  far  as  changes  in  rate,  form,  and  amplitude 
of  movement  in  a  vertical  direction  are  concerned,  by  means 
of  the  recording  device  above  mentioned.  From  the  leather 
finger-cot  a  silk  thread  ran  over  a  tiny  pulley  and  through 


FlODXK  No.  I 

glass  guides  which  prevented  any  loose  motion.  This  thread 
led  to  a  rubber  thread,  in  the  middle  of  which  was  an  alumi- 
num writing  point,  which  traced  a  record  of  the  finger  move- 
ment upon  the  belt  of  smoked  paper.  A  slight  torsion  of 
the  rubber  served  to  keep  the  writing  point  against  the  sur- 
face of  the  kymographic  belt.  By  varying  the  length  of  the 
rubber  on  either  side  of  the  writing  point  the  relative  ampli- 
tude of  the  curve  could  be  made  as  small  as  desired.  Most 
of  the  records,  however,  were  taken  with  a!l  of  the  rubber 
upon  one  side  of  the  writing  point  so  that  the  curve  was 
equal  not  only  tn  form  but  also  in  amplitude  to  the  vertical 


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STVDISS  IS  UELQDt.  45 

component  of  the  finger  movement.  The  tension  of  this 
delicate  rubber  was  so  slight  that  it  was  barely  perceptible 
to  the  observer,  and  did  not  interfere  with  the  freedom  and 
naturalness  of  the  movement.  Indeed,  the  superiority  of 
this  recording  device  over  that  of  a  tambour  lever  lies  in  the 
perfect  freedom  of  lateral  motion  allowed;  because  there  is 
no  restraint  upon  the  finger  movement,  there  are  no  sensory 
controls  other  than  those  cutaneous  and  kinesthetic  sensa- 
tions due  to  the  movement  itself. 

The  belt  of  smoked  paper  ran  between  two  cylinders  placed 
about  two  meters  apart.  It  was  driven  by  an  alternating 
current,  constant-speed  motor  whose  only  variations  were  due 
to  fluctuations  in  the  rate  of  the  generator  of  the  Cambridge 
lighting  plant.  Tests  with  vibrating  forks  of  50  d.  v.  and 
500  d.  v.  showed  that  the  maximum  variations  in  the  rate 
of  the  belt  of  smoked  paper  were  less  than  one  and  one-half  per 
cent.  As  a  precautionary  measure,  however,  a  time  line 
was  made  a  feature  of  all  the  records,  interruptions  at  periods 
of  one  second  being  furnished  by  means  of  a  Lough  self- 
actuating  fwndulum,  placed  in  a  distant  room.'  Precaution 
was  taken  to  banish  all  sound  which  might  arise  from  the 
recording  apparatus,  such  as  the  ticking  of  the  electric 
markers.  The  driving  mechanism  was  placed  outside  of  the 
experimenting  room,  as  otherwise  a  low  hum  from  the  motor 
could  be  heard  even  when  it  was  encased  in  a  "sound-proof" 
box. 

Oneelectric  marker,  as  has  been  said,  furnished  the  time  line. 
This  line  also  served  as  base  line  for  measuring  amplitudes. 
Another  marker  was  in  circuit  with  the  keyboard  of  the  har- 
monium which  was  used  for  giving  the  melodic  stimuli,  and 
furnished  the  record  of  the  course  of  the  experiment.*  A 
silent  pendulum  was  used  to  aid  the  experimenter  in  con- 
trolling the  length  of  the  sounds.     The  smoked  record  was 

'  Only  altenuU  Ups  o(  the  tiine-muker,  i.  e,,  one  every  two  seconds,  are  visible 
in  the  sample  records  reproduced  on  p.  51. 

*  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  experimenter  that  a  simple  pneumatic  attachment  to  the 
keyboard  of  an  organ  or  piano  with  tambour  recorder  would  on  the  whole  prove  more 
Mtisfactory  than  an  electrical  attoduwnL 


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46  IT.  YAK  DYKE  BIKGHAM. 

made  F>ermanent  by  being  sprayed  with  a  ten  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  gum  sandarac  in  alcoho].' 

Pneumographs  of  the  Sumner  pattern  were  employed  to 
record  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  breathing.  The  degree 
of  sensitivity  of  pneumographs  and  tambours  is  shown  by  the 
clearness  with  which  the  pulse-beat  appears  on  the  pneumo- 
graphic  tracings,  quite  plainly  enough  indeed,  especially  on  the 
curve  of  the  abdominal  breathing,  to  permit  the  computation 
of  the  pulse  rate  if  desired. 

Nothing  of  significance  for  the  present  investigation  ap- 
peared, however,  in  these  pneumographic  curves.  The  reason 
doubtless  is  found  not  in  the  fact  that  melodic  stimuli  do 
not  produce  important  modifications  in  the  breathing,  but 
rather  in  the  fact  that  the  duration  of  the  stimulus  used  was 
too  brief  to  permit  the  characteristic  alterations  to  appear. 
In  this  respect  the  conditions  were  quite  the  reverse  of  those  in 
the  experiments  of  Foster  and  Gamble.'  These  experimenters 
using  musical  selections  of  various  kinds  as  stimuli  found  that 
listening  always  tends  to  shorten  the  expiratory  pause  and  to 
make  the  breathing  faster  and  shallower,  but  not  steadier;  but 
no  remarkable  differences  were  found  in  the  effects  of  loud  and 
soft  or  major  and  minor  music.  One  is  not  surprised  to  learn 
that  characteristic  breathing  phenomena  could  not  be  isolated 
when  use  was  made  of  such  highly  complex  stimuli  as  actual 
musical  selections. 

524  When  the  subject  had  taken  his  place  and  the  pneu- 
mt^raphs  and  finger  apparatus  had  been  adjusted,  the  nature 
of  the  particular  experiment  to  be  performed  was  explained. 
The  number  of  tones  which  were  to  be  used  was  told,  but 
nothing  further  was  said  regarding  the  nature  of  the  melodic 
intervals.  The  subject  then  closed  his  eyes  and  the  experi- 
menter started  the  kymograph,  so  that  a  brief  record  of  the 
breathing  was  obtained  before  the  finger  movement  began. 

'  The  double-glazed  p^xr  uaed  was  too  thick  to  be  fixed  by  the  usual  device  of 
painting  on  the  wrong  dde.  The  use  of  a  spray  proved  to  be  convenient  and  eiq>edi- 
tjous.  A"fixativespray/' to  beiiadfor  ten  centsatanyart  store,  when  fitted  to  afoot- 
power  bellows,  proves  veiy  satisfactory. 

'Eugenia  Foster  and  E.  A.  McC.  Gamble:  "The  Effect  of  Music  on  Tboradc 
Breathing. "    Amtr.  Jour.  Psyck.,  1906.  17,  406. 


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STVDIBS  IS  UELODY.  47 

At  a  word  from  the  experimenter  the  subject  began  the  tap- 
ping  movement  taking  whatever  rate  was  most  natural  to 
him.  After  the  tapping  had  continued  for  twelve  seconds  or 
longer  the  melodic  stimulus  was  given.  The  tones  were 
played  upon  a  reed  organ  the  mechanism  of  which  was  in 
electrical  connection  with  a  marker  which  recorded  the  instant 
of  depressing  and  raising  the  keys.  The  general  plan  was  for 
the  experimenter  to  sound  each  tone  for  a  period  of  three 
seconds.  It  may  be  thought  that  this  period  was  unneces- 
sarily long,  but  the  observers  did  not  find  it  objectionable 
and  it  has  two  very  obvious  advantages.  In  the  first  place 
a  period  as  long  as  three  seconds  is  sufficient  to  permit  any 
motor  changes  which  the  stimulus  may  produce  to  become 
evident  in  the  record  of  the  finger  movement.  And  in  the 
second  place  the  use  of  the  three-second  period  minimized, 
if  it  did  not  indeed  entirely  rule  out,  the  factor  of  rhythm. 
Stimuli  whose  rate  is  as  slow  as  one  in  three  seconds  do  not 
tend  to  become  rhythmlzed. 

After  the  melodic  stimulus  the  tapping  was  continued  for 
ten  seconds  or  longer.  The  observer  was  then  called  upon  to 
give  his  introspection.  Aside  from  a  general  introspective 
record  of  the  course  of  the  experiment,  the  naturalness  of 
the  tapping,  effect  of  external  disturbances,  and  the  like,  the 
points  toward  which  inquiry  was  especially  directed  were 
two:  first,  does  this  melody  end?  Has  it  the  characteristic 
of  finality,  or  is  it  unfinished?  Does  it  leave  you  in  suspense? 
Does  it  demand  something  further?  Secondly,  the  question 
was  raised  as  to  whether  or  not  the  melody  was  pleasing.  In 
many  cases  but  not  in  all,  these  two  aspects,  the  affective  and 
the  aspect  of  completeness,  seemed  to  be  felt  as  identical ;  that 
is  to'  say,  a  melody  was  judged  to  be  agreeable  because  it 
came  to  a  good  ending,  or  tx>  be  unsatisfactory  because 
incomplete.  Not  infrequently,  however,  one  met  with  intro- 
spective rep>orts  like  the  following:  "That  is  good;  I  like  that 
but  it  is  not  finished,"  or,  "  That  isn't  particularly  pleasant, 
but  it  ends  very  emphatically." 

A  word  ought  to  be  said  about  the  way  in  which  the  observers 
were  first  brought  to  an  understanding  of  the  phenomenon 


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48  W.  VAU  DTKB  BlUGBAM. 

which  was  under  investigation.  They  were  not  told  what 
the  phenomenon  was,  and  then  asked  if  they  could  observe  it. 
On  the  contrary,  the  plan  employed  was  to  play  an  inter- 
val of  an  ascending  fifth  and  then  to  play  the  same  interval 
descending  and  then  ask  for  a  full  introspective  account. 
Some  observers  would  quickly  detect  the  feeling  of 
relaxation,  of  repose,  of  completeness  which  accompanied  the 
perceptiom  of  the  descending  fifth  and  which  was  lacking 
when  the  ascending  fifth  was  heard.  Lest  they  should 
immediately  form  the  opinion  that  this  characteristic  of 
finality  always  accompanied  a  descending  interval,  the  per- 
fect fourth  was  next  played.  This  interval  they  soon  dis- 
covered makes  a  better  ending  upon  the  upper  tone  than  upon 
the  lower.  Only  after  the  observers  had  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  phenomenon  were  they  asked  to  serve  as 
reagents  in  the  main  experiments.  With  two  of  the  obser- 
vers not  a  little  persistence  tc^ther  with  many  repetitions 
of  the  intervals  was  required  before  they  discovered  the 
phenomenon,  but  in  every  case  it  was  a  genuine  discovery 
of  their  own,  and  was  not  suggested  to  them. 

§25  The  observers  were  research  students  or  instructors 
in  the  Harvard  Psycholc^cal  Laboratory,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Po.,  who  had,  however,  had  training  as  an  observer 
elsewhere.     All  with  the  exception  of  Da.  and  Pu.  were  men. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  divide  the  observers  into  three 
groups  according  to  musical  ability.  This  classification  is 
based  upon  tests  in  recognition  and  vocal  reproduction  of 
melodic  intervals,  immediate  memory  for  intervals  and  for 
short  melodies,  and  recognition  of  the  fundamental  note  of  a 
chord.'  The  method  employed  in  this  last  test  was  as  fol- 
lows: a  three-clang  chord  was  played,  and  after  it  a  single 
low  clang,  with  the  question,  "Is  this  the  fundamental  basic 
tone  of  this  chord?  Does  it,  in  a  way,  represent  the  whole 
chord?  If  you  had  to  supply  a  bass  to  this  chord,  is  this 
the  tone  you  would  use?"  Twenty  four  chords  were  given, 
eight  in  the  first  position,  and  eight  each  in  the  first  and 

*Tlie  writer  scknonledges  indebtedness  to  Profeaor  Meyer  for  the  niggntioo  of 
this  tat  of  music&l  abibty. 


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STUDIES  III  MELODY.  49 

second  inversions.  The  low  tone  which  followed  was  always 
a  lower  octave  of  one  of  the  tones  of  the  chord,  and  in  one 
half  of  the  instances  it  was  the  fundamental.  The  number 
of  right  judgments  for  each  observer  is  given  in  the  second 
column  of  the  accompanying  Table  3.    The  percentages  in 


TABLE  NO.  s 

T»h  of  muwa  Mlily. 

«o«mo.o,.™«™x^o,c™» 

™e„..,.»^„™,»™»»„ 

1 

1 

1 

\ 

J 

1 

1 

1 

i 

Po 

Rk 

R« 

D* 

Ho 

Ft 

Ta 

Me 

Pu 

34 

10 
so 

16 

a 

4 

0 

100 

t& 

88 
7S 
5» 
S» 

a4 

17 
18 

;: 

4 

- 

97 
9a 
97 
7S 
77 
SO 
S* 

the  last  column  represent  the  success  of  the  subjects  in  hum- 
ming the  fundamental  tone  after  hearing  the  chord,  the 
series  of  chords  used  being  similar  to  the  one  employed  in 
the  previous  test.  Errors  were  most  frequently  made  when 
the  low  note  was  not  the  fundamental,  but  was  a  lower 
octave  of  the  highest  note  in  the  chord.  It  was  found  after 
the  series  was  ended  that  fewer  errors  of  this  kind  are  made 
if  the  observer  is  instructed  not  to  give  his  judgment  immedi- 
ately, but  first  to  im^;e  the  three  tonesof  thechord separately, 
choose  the  fundamental,  and  then  make  the  comparison  with 
the  low  tone.  On  repetition  of  the  test,  this  precaution 
served  to  eliminate  all  errors  from  the  judgments  of  Rk., 
Ho.,  and  Da.,  but  did  not  operate  so  successfully  with  those 
observers  whose  auditory  im^^nation  is  less  facile. 

The  results  of  these  tests  when  combined  with  the  other 


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S«  W.  VAN  DTKB  BIKGBAM. 

observations  on  musical  ability  and  with  the  results  of  an 
inquiry  into  the  observers'  musical  interests,  their  eariy 
training  and  later  musical  experience,  made  it  evident  that 
the  first  three  observers  on  the  list  had  a  fair  orderof  musical 
capacity,  although  Po.  was  the  only  one  whose  abilities  had 
been  much  developed  by  training.  The  last  three  observers 
form  a  distinct  group,  since  they  all  fall  much  below  the 
others  in  the  tests  reported  in  Table  3,  and  also  in  accuracy 
of  recognition  and  reproduction  of  melodic  intervals.  Pu. 
could  not  even  be  induced  to  attempt  vocal  reproduction. 
The  remaining  three  observers  form  an  intermediate  group. 
None  of  the  nine  were  entirely  lacking  in  musical  interest, 
although  the  range  represented  was  a  very  wide  one. 
An  accurate  test  of  ability  in  pitch  discrimination  was 
not  carried  through  to  completion  because  it  became  evident 
that  accuracy  in  the  discrimination  of  small  differences  of 
pitch  is  no  indication  of  musical  ability.  Po.  and  Rg.  did 
not  serve  during  the  preliminary  exiieriments.  Da.  and  Mc. 
did  not  serve  during  the  second  half  year,  and  their  records 
are  included  only  in  the  first  of  the  tables  presented  here. 
Each  observer  served  for  a  period  of  three  quarters  of  an  hour 
once  a  week. 

The  observers  it  will  be  recalled  were  directed  to  take 
whatever  rate  of  finger  movement  seemed  most  natural  to 
them.  The  individual  differences,  and  also  the  individual 
variations  from  time  to  time,  proved  to  be  extremely  wide. 
Early  in  the  practice  experiments,  the  tapping  of  Rk.,  Da., 
Ta.,  and  Mc.  was  much  slower  than  it  became  later  on,  and 
nearly  all  of  the  observers  showed  some  tendency  to  increase 
the  natural  rate  with  practice.  Within  a  series  of  experi- 
ments at  a  single  ^tting,  R^.,  Rk.,  and  Mc.  were  apt  to 
choose  a  much  more  rapid  rate  for  the  later  experiments, 
unless  they  happened  to  select  an  unusually  rapid  rate  to 
begin  with.  This  they  were  apt  to  do  if  they  had  been  walk- 
ing rapidly  or  otherwise  exercising  shortly  before,  or  if  they 
had  been  under  any  slight  excitement. 

Not  only  do  the  records  show  great  individual  differences 
in  the  rate  of  finger  movement,  but  also  in  the  amplitude  and 


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DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


$3  W.  VAN  DrKB  BISGBAM, 

the  general  form.  Ta.'s  record  is  characteristically  slow, 
wide,  and  extremely  regular.  The  back  stroke  is  similar  to 
the  beat  stroke  In  every  respect,  and  the  transitions  from  the 
ballistic  part  of  the  movement  to  the  controlled  portion  are 
smooth  and  even.  The  tapping  of  Da.  and  Mc.  is  also  slow 
and  wide,  but  very  different  from  that  of  Ta.  because  the 
ballistic  strokes  are  made  with  a  jerky  movement,  and  the 
portions  of  the  curve  between  the  ballistic  strokes  are  very 
irregular.  The  muscular  coordination  is  much  less  accurate. 
Ho.  and  Pu.  also  use  a  characteristically  slow  rate,  but  the 
amplitude  of  movement  is  small.  One  finds  very  consider- 
able variations  in  amplitude  in  the  records  of  both  these 
observers.  There  is  also  an  irregularity  of  line  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  ballistic  portion  of  the  movement  seems  to  be 
almost  wholly  lacking,  even  from  the  beat  strokes,  (*.  e.,  the 
finger  seems  to  be  almost  continuously  under  control  of 
extensor  and  flexor  muscle  sets  combined.)  The  maximum 
velocity  of  the  beat  stroke  is  much  less  with  these  observers 
than  with  any  of  the  others.  Rk.  and  Rg.  are  the  two  who 
show  the  widest  variations  of  natural  rate  from  time  to  time 
and  also  the  greatest  changes  in  the  form  of  the  finger  move- 
ment. Both  of  them  use  a  medium  amplitude,  but  this  ampli- 
tude varies  widely.  On  the  whole,  their  records  show  that  a 
much  greater  prominence  is  given  to  the  ballistic  phase  in 
both  beat  stroke  and  back  stroke.  In  Po.'a  records,  which 
exhibit  the  most  rapid  rates  of  any  of  the  observers,  there 
is  very  littie  in  the  curve  other  than  the  ballistic  phase:  there 
is  almost  no  pause  between  strokes.  In  the  records  of  Fr., 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  always  between  the  vigorous 
ballistic  strokes  a  relatively  long  relaxation  phase  during 
which  the  movement  is  extremely  irregular:  during  these 
periods  the  finger  seems  to  be  not  under  the  control  of  either 
the  extensors  or  the  flexors. 

With  reference  to  the  amplitude  of  finger  movement,  it 
may  be  noted  that  with  the  exception  of  Ta.,  those  who  used 
a  wide  amplitude  were  those  who  had  had  some  practice  at 
the  piano. 


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STUDIES  IN  MELODY. 


TABLE  NO.  4 


Normal  record  of  rate  of^ger  mmcmeiU,  and  fatigue  record.  Rale  of  lapping  during  sue- 
eetsiae  periods  of  Mru  tecondt  each.  Read  from  left  to  right.  The  sioieest  rates  are 
printed  in  boldfaced  type.    Faslext  rata  in  iiaiia. 


\ 

..^^ 

,.„o„»o„ 

Po 

3^2 

»S6 

a.^fi 

m 

aS4 

Stt 

aSi 

160 

«5J 

i1 
} 

ass 

"39 

»3S 

R« 

107 

104 

106 

« 

w 

9S 

100 

99 

lOb 

IQ4 

toS 

Rk    ,., 

130 

'33 

133 

130 

"33 

•3* 

131 

lae 

130 

124 

114 

Ul 

U. 

m 

1 01 

WS 

WS 

100 

»,1 

»s 

104 

99 

97 

98 

Ho    ... 

96 

9.1 

90 

fl> 

00 

1)1 

91 

M 

8» 

88 

88 

88 

Fr 

aog 

aoS 

»» 

m8 

J07 

310 

>«> 

»i7 

314 

331 

314 

Ta  .... 

7* 

78 

TO 

77 

78 

80 

7<J 

79 

St 

77 

77 

78 

Mc. . . . 

84 

as 

83 

86 

87 

tt 

JS 

8S 

86 

93 

9> 

</> 

Pu 

III 

in 

104 

107 

104 

104 

109 

no 

i/J 

hi 

iiS 

"S 

S26  In  the  accompanying  Table  4  are  given  the  measure- 
ments of  a  set  of  records  taken  without  distraction  or  stimulus 
of  any  kind,  for  purposes  of  comparison  with  records  in 
which  melodic  stimuli  were  used.  Elach  number  gives  the 
rate  of  5nger  movement  during  a  period  of  three  seconds. 
The  rate  is  expressed  in  beats  per  minute,  which  is  the  same 
as  the  method  employed  in  music  for  designating  rates.  The 
numbers,  then,  represent  the  metronome  rates  at  which  the 
observer  was  tapping  during  succesave  periods  of  three 
seconds  each.  To  facilitate  the  reading  of  the  table,  the 
rate  of  the  period  of  slowest  tapping  within  the  record  of 
each  observer  is  printed  in  bold-faced  type,  and  the  fastest 
rate  is  printed  in  italics.  A  glance  at  the  table  will  show  the 
extremes  between  which  the  rate  of  tapping  varied  within  the 
course  of  the  period  of  twenty-seven  seconds  covered  by  the 
record.  It  will  be  seen  that  four  of  the  nine  observifts 
exhibit  a  tendency  toward  an  increase  in  rate  during  this 
time,  while  an  opposite  tendency  appears  in  the  records  of 
two  observers. 

The  question  naturally  arises  whether  the  factor  of  fatigue 
may  not  enter  in  to  modify  the  nature  of  the  tapping  move- 
ment as  the  experiment  proceeds.  This  does  not  seem  to  be 
the  case  when  an  experiment  does  not  continue  for  more 


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54  IT.  VAS  DYKE  BINGBAU. 

than  thirty  seconds,  as  was  the  case  with  nearly  all  of  those 
to  be  described  below.  For  purposes  of  comparison,  how- 
ever, there  is  given  in  connection  with  the  normal  record  of 
the  accompanying  table  what  may  be  called  a  fatigue  record. 
This  is  really  a  continuation  of  the  normal  records,  one 
minute  of  unrecorded  tapping  having  been  permitted  to  elapse 
between  the  close  of  the  normal  record  and  the  beginningof  the 
fatigue  record.  During  this  interval  the  rate  of  tapping  of 
four  of  the  observers  showed  a  diminution.  With  four  of  the 
others  an  increase  in  rate  is  seen.  The  record  of  Fr.  showed 
the  greatest  variability  and  irregularity  during  this  closing 
period.  Only  two  observers,  Da.  and  Mc,  reported  any 
feeling  of  fat^e  after  this  experiment. 

Fatigue  maJces  its  appearance  very  quickly  if  a  rate  more 
rapid  dian  the  natural  rate  of  tapping  is  employed.  When 
the  recent  taps  as  rapidly  as  possible  the  entrance  of  fatigue 
brings  with  it  a  slowing  of  the  rate  and  an  increase  in  irregu- 
larity of  rate  and  of  amplitude. 

§27  Tables  5  and  6  exhibit  the  effect  of  auditory  stimuli 
upon  the  rate  of  tapping.  These  tables  are  prepared  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  table  of  normal  tapping;  each  number 
represents  the  rate  of  tapping  during  a  three-second  period. 
Measurements  of  the  first  few  taps  of  each  record  were  not 
made  because  they  are  certain  to  be  more  or  less  irregular. 
Measurements  of  the  rate  of  tappii^  are  given  for  three  periods 
of  three  seconds  each  before  the  incoming  of  the  stimulus. 
The  stimulus  consisted  of  the  tone  a  sounded  for  six  seconds 
on  the  harmonium.  Then  after  an  interval  of  three  seconds, ' 
this  tone  was  sounded  again,  this  time  for  only  three  secxtnds, 
but  it  was  immediately  repeated  and  sustained  for  three 
seconds  longer. 

A  study  of  this  table  should  disclose  the  effects  which  are 
produced  upon  the  rate  of  tapping  by  a  musical  sound  and  also 
by  the  repetition  of  a  musical  sound.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
in  the  records  of  four  of  the  seven  observers  there  is  a  marked 
diminution  of  rate  following  the  entrance  of  the  first  stimulus. 
The  record  of  one  observer  shows  a  marked  increase  of  rate 
at  this  point.    In  all  cases  there  appears  to  be  a  tendency 


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STUDIES  IN  MBlOOr. 


TABLE  Na  I 


Bffeaofaan^tont,aiidoflkaiUn£Tepeated.onr(>teoffimttr-m<wmaii.  The  rale  durint 
tack  thrte-steoud  ptriod  of  tMe  exptriment  is  then.  Stadfromleft  lo  rifkl.  Niamberi 
skmnnt  dtereatt  in  ratt  at  eritictil  points  in  the  record  art  prinltd  in  bold  face  typt; 
ale  art  printed  in  italics. 


, 

'  1   ' 

■c) 

■ 

Rk 

.* 

140 

141 

>» 

130 

13s 

«3J  '35 

13s 

158 

IH 

.0. 

109 

104 

82 

96 

So 

78   78 

(97)* 

90 

Ho 

79 

81 

So 

79 

78 

76 

7S 

7* 

71 

60 

Fr 

..« 

IS7 

'S7 

166 

15s 

US 

UO 

iSi 

ISO 

iss 

He 

■  16 

118 

iiS 

"S 

118 

III 

"7 

iig 

130 

T> 

77 

77 

76 

69 

75 

77 

76 

76 

80 

Pu 

60 

63 

69 

66 

es 

65 

66 

67 

7' 

ja 

«  fori.]  Ma  wbs 


uMoppad;  uul  UtMi  b«t>D  XnMof  V7. 


Effect  of  sudden  noise  on  rale  of  finger-motetnenl.    Entrance  of  stinmlus  at  beginmnfof 
fifth  Ihree-stcond  period  of  Ike  record. 


60 


I 


116 

114 

IS3 

160 

"9 

"4 

194 

194 

69 

70 

197 


to  return  to  the  original  rate  while  the  tone  is  still  sounding. 
The  records  of  three  observers  show  another  diminution  in 
rate  immediately  following  the  cessation  of  the  stimulus,  but 
no  decided  change  occurs  in  the  other  four  records  at  this 
point.  With  the  entrance  of  the  stimulus  the  second  time  a 
retardation  occurs  in  three  records,  but  this  time  it  is  not 
nearly  as  large  as  in  the  first  instance.  The  repetition  of  this 
stimulus  is  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  one 
observer  and  a  decrease  in  the  rate  of  another,  the  rates  of 
the  other  five  observers  not  changing  materially  at  this  point 
in  the  records.  The  cessation  of  the  stimulus,  however,  is 
accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  rate  with  two  observers, 
and  a  decrease  in  a  single  instance.  One  observer  stopped 
tapping  entirely  for  a  brief  time  when  the  stimulus  stopped 
and  then  began  again  at  a  rapid  rate. 


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56  W,  VAN  DYKB  BIHGBAM. 

It  thus  becomes  evident  that  under  the  conditions  of  this 
experiment  the  entrance  of  an  auditory  stimulus  introduces 
a  disturbance  in  the  process  of  tapping  which  shows  itself  as 
a  change  in  rate,  usually  of  the  nature  of  a  retardation. 
The  nature  of  the  disturbance  to  the  tapping  is  made  very 
evident  by  direct  inspection  of  the  kymographic  records. 
The  next  tap  after  the  one  during  which  the  stimulus  enters 
is  frequently  the  slowest  and  also  has  the  greatest  amplitude 
of  excursion  of  any  tap  on  the  record.  The  entrance  of  the 
stimulus  a  second  time,  after  a  pause,  produces  similar  but 
much  less  marked  effects;  and  when  no  time  interval  elapses 
between  the  clang  stimulus  and  its  repetition  no  effect  what- 
ever is  apparent. 

The  effects  of  a  momentary  noise  as  a  distraction  are  illus- 
trated in  the  experiments  summarized  in  Table  6.  Here, 
too,  a  marked  change  of  rate  appears  in  nearly  every  instance. 
The  solitary  exception  is  Rk.,  and  a  closer  examination  of  his 
record  than  the  table  permits  shows  clearly  that  here  too  the 
the  stimulus  had  its  effect.  The  tap  immediately  following 
the  one  in  which  the  stimulus  entered  is  the  slowest  tap  of 
the  record,  but  in  this  instance  it  is  followed  immediately  by 
taps  of  a  more  rapid  rate  which  bring  the  rate  for  the  entire 
three  seconds  up  to  the  figure  given. 

It  seems  to  be  a  general  tendency,  then,  for  alterations  in  the 
natural  tapping  rate  of  the  finger  to  occur  upon  the  entrance 
into  consciousness  of  an  auditory  sensation.  This  very 
natural  phenomenon  does  not  call  for  an  elaborate  explana- 
tion. It  may  be  dismissed  by  referring  it  to  that  large  group 
of  experiences  which  have  as  their  most  prominent  feature  the 
characteristic  of  "shock,"  of  sudden  disturbance  of  equi- 
librium demanding  an  adjusting  act  of  attention,  and  which 
consequently  interfere  more  or  less  with  pre-existing  adjust- 
ments and  on-going  activities.  Stated  in  strictiy  neural 
terms,  the  phenomenon  is  reducible  to  an  instance  of  the 
general  law  of  diffusion,  the  auditory  stimulus  introducing 
a  shift  of  neural  tensions  throughout  the  cortex,  and  more 
particularly  affecting  those  localities  in  the  Rolandic  region 
which  are  active  at  the  time. 


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STUDIES  in  ItELODr.  SI 

The  modification  of  rate  shows  itself  most  frequently  as  a 
retardation  probably  because  new  activities  of  adjustment 
result  in  inhibition  of  the  finger  movement  through  drain^^ 
of  the  neural  energies  elsewhere.  To  explain  those  relatively 
infrequent  instances  (15  per  cent  of  the  total  number)  where 
acceleration  follows  the  entrance  of  the  auditory  stimulus, 
one  might  assume  that  the  stimulus  operates  to  produce  a 
greater  alertness,  or  heightened  general  activity  in  which  the 
tapping  movement  shares.  To  explain  why  the  very  first  tap 
following  the  onset  of  the  stimulus  is  sometimes  unusually 
wide  and  of  long  duration,  but  occasionally  the  reverse, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  the  facts  brought  out  by  Hofbauer* 
and  Cleghom*  that  an  auditory  stimulus  occurring  at  the 
beginning  of  the  contraction  phase  of  a  movement  augments 
the  movementand  this  reinforcement  makes  the  total  duration 
of  the  contraction-relaxation  process  greater;  but  if  the 
stimulus  enters  at  the  banning  of  the  relaxation  phase  of  the 
cycle,  the  process  of  relaxation  is  hastened  and  the  total  period 
is  diminished. 

§28  We  may  now  turn  to  the  experiments  in  which  melo- 
dic stimuli  were  employed,  asking  what  significant  changes  of 
rate  appear,  to  what  extent  these  variations  are  the  same  for 
the  different  observers  under  identical  conditions,  and  especi- 
ally, what  relations  exist  between  changes  of  rate  and  the 
typical  phenomena  of  melody.  Do  characteristic  changes 
accompany  the  perception  of  a  melodic  interval  which  is  felt 
to  lack  finality?  How  do  these  changesdiffer  from  those  pro- 
duced by  an  interval  which  "ends?"  Does  a  succession  of 
two  tones  which  lack  melodic  "relationship"  have  a  peculiar 
effect?  Whatof  the  "return?"  What  of  disappointed  expec- 
tation? What  of  the  passage  to  a  tone  which  necessitates  a 
shift  of  tonality? 

Tables  7  and  8  show  the  changes  in  rate  of  tapping  which 
accompany  the  hearing  of  the  melodic  interval  of  the  fourth, 
i.e.,  of  two  tones  whose  vibration  rates  are  in  the  ratio  34. 

>  L.  Hofbauer,  Areh.f.  d.  (ei.  Phyiiol.  (Pfltlger's)  1897,  63,  546. 
■Alleo  Cleghoni,  "Tlie  Rdafarcement  of  Voluntary  Musculu  Conbactioa." 
Am.  Jour.  Pkysicl.    1898,  /,  338. 


,v  Google 


58  W.  VAN  DYKE  BINCBAU. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  any  of  the  melodic  inter- 
vals from  a  psychological  point  of  view  because  of  the  strong 
sense  of  finality  which  it  gives  when  the  higher  tone  is  the  last. 
When  heard  as  a  descending  interval,  it  lacks  this  finality,  and 
yet  does  not  leave  one  wholly  in  suspense,  for  it  has  those  ele- 
ments of  finality  which  are  the  property  of  any  descending 
interval  as  such,  and  also  those  which  belong  to  every  tone  in 
the  tonic  chord.  Because  of  this  complexity,  judgments 
regarding  the  finality  of  the  descending  fourth  are  often  uncer- 
tain and  variable.  As  an  ascending  interval,  however,  there 
is  seldom  any  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  observer  that  the  group 
is  a  completed  whole,  emphatically  coming  to  an  end.  It  is 
indeed  the  only  ascending  interval  of  which  so  broad  and  posi- 
tive an  assertion  can  be  made.  The  minor  second  and  minor 
sixth  are  the  only  other  intervals  at  all  comparable  with  it  in 
these  respects. 

The  tables  are  made  up,  as  were  the  previous  ones,  of  num- 
bers representing  the  metronome  rate  of  the  tapping  move- 
ment during  successive  periods  each  three  seconds  in  length. 
The  two  tones  were  each  sounded  for  three  seconds,  and  the 
numbers  immediately  under  the  letters  which  represent  the 
tones  consequently  express  the  rate  of  tapping  during  the 
course  of  the  melodic  stimulus.  To  call  attention  to  changes 
of  rate  at  critical  points  in  the  course  of  the  record,  use  is  made 
of  bold  faced  type  where  retardations  occur,  while  accelera- 
tions are  indicated  by  italics.  In  deciding  whether  or  not  a 
change  of  rate  accompanying  the  entrance  of  a  stimulus  was 
sufhcient  in  amount  to  be  of  any  significance,  the  writer  has 
taken  into  account  the  degree  of  regularity  shown  In  the  tap- 
ping of  the  six  seconds  preceding,  but  has  neglected  the  pieriod 
before  that,  which  was  often  so  near  the  beginning  of  the  tap- 
ping record  that  the  reagent  had  not  as  yet  found  his  pace. 

Examining  Table  7  with  reference  to  the  distribution  of 
retardations  and  accelerations  during  and  immediately  follow- 
ing the  melodic  stimulus,  one  notices  at  once  that  the  retarda- 
tions all  occur  during  the  sounding  of  the  tones  (six  during 
the  first  tone  and  two  during  the  second)  whereas  all  the  accel- 
erations are  found  within  the  period  of  the  last  tone  and  the 


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STUDIES  tit  MEWDT.  59 

period  immediately  after  it  (two  during,  and  six  after,  the  last 
tone). 

In  contrast  with  this  table  of  the  ascending  fourth,  the  table 
of  the  descending  fourth  exhibits  much  less  uniformity  in  the 
distribution  of  accelerations  and  retardations.  The  most 
striking  feature  is  the  large  proportion  of  retardations  which 
occur  during  or  immediately  after  the  sounding  of  the  second 
tone. 


eriiKol  poini,. 

<!     r 

Po   . 

»07 
94 

los 
190 
76 
iiS 

loS 
95 
106 
103 
192 
75 
117 

94 
104 
103 
186 

86 
i» 

91 
103 
93 

180 
73 
US 

91 
99 
93 
173 

7» 
118 

MS 

lOI 

'85 
87 

M3 

96 
96 

179 
78 

93 
90 

•ft 

•Stopi»l  twine 

TABLE  NO.  8 
PaStd  Fourth,  Deicaidini. 

f           (' 

148 
91 

104 
95 

81 

93 

97 
it4 

3S8 
95 
98 
99 

»I9 
85 

3U 

96 
">} 

99 

ai3 

80 

loS 

»58 
97 
103 
103 
SIO 
74 
Utt 

390 

96 

un 

104 

3X8 
73 
116 

9S 

«3 
77 
114 

as8 

Rg. 

103 

Ho 

116 

529  The  significance  of  these  facts  appears  when  they  are 
brought  into  comparison  with  the  results  of  the  previous  group 
of  experiments.  There  it  was  found  that  a  repetition  of  a  mus- 
ical sound  following  shortly  after  the  cessation  of  the  original 
stimulus  produces  effects  similar  to  those  of  the  first  sound, 
but  much  less  marked.  And  when  one  musical  sound  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  another  which  does  not  differ  from  it  in 


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«0  W.  VAN  DrSE  BINGBAM. 

pitch  or  intensity  there  is  no  apparent  effect  upon  the  on-going 
activity,  the  only  changes  observable  being  in  the  direction  of 
a  return  to  the  natural  rate. 

When  successive  tonal  stimuli  differing  in  pitch  are  used — 
in  this  instance  two  tones  at  an  interval  of  a  fourth — the  char- 
acteristic variations  of  rate,  most  of  them  retardations,  follow 
the  entrance  of  the  first  tone;  but  when  this  is  succeeded  by 
the  second  tone,  one  does  not  find  the  same  absence  of  further 
variations  which  marked  the  appearance  of  a  second  tone  iden- 
tical in  pitch  with  the  first.  Instead  one  finds  fresh  changes  of 
rate;  and  upon  comparing  the  ascending  fourth  with  the  des- 
cending fourth  one  is  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  accelera- 
tions  belong  mainly  to  the  rising  interval,  while  most  of  the 
new  retardations  accompany  the  hearing  of  the  descending 
fourth.  This,  it  will  be  bom  in  mind,  is  an  interval  that  "ends" 
better  on  the  higher  tone. 

An  hypothesis  with  reference  to  the  significance  of  these 
motor  phenomena  may  here  be  briefly  outitned,  as  follows: 
(a)  Attention  is  an  activity  which  involves  both  special  and 
general  motor  adjustments.  (6)  The  general  aspects  of 
attentive  activity  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  affect  general 
bodily  conditions;  and,  specifically,  (c)  the  rate  of  a  circular 
motor  process  (such  as  the  finger-movement)  which  is  going 
forward  semi-automatically,  will  be  affected  by  these  activi- 
ties, a  decrease  in  rate  signifying  inhibition,  due  to  increased 
activity  elsewhere,  and  an  acceleration  signifying  that  the 
task  of  attention  in  oi^anizing  these  activities  is  being  suc- 
cessfully carried  out.  Retardation  or  inhibition,  it  is  to  be  ex- 
pected, will  enter  with  the  appearance  of  the  stimulus  demand- 
ing attention.  Continued  slow  rate  of  movement  will  result  if 
the  organizing  activities  of  the  attentive  process  continue  to 
meet  with  difficulties,  while  the  rate  will  be  augmented  as  the 
new  adjustments  come  to  be  efiicientiy  established. 

In  terms  of  this  hypothesis,  the  above  facts  with  reference 
to  the  hearing  of  the  rising  fourth  would  be  described  as  fol- 
lows: Sudden  rise  in  the  level  of  attention  at  entrance  of  stim- 
ulus, continued  attentive  activity  during  the  sounding  of  the 
tones,  and  finally,  subsidence  of  attentive  activity  with  the 


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STODIRS  lit  UELODF.  6 1 

satisfactory  completion  of  its  task;  or,  stated  differently,  pre- 
sentation of  a  problem  of  adjustment  as  stimulus  enters,  con- 
tinuance of  the  process  of  establishing  coordination  during  the 
sounding  of  tones,  and  then  increase  of  rate  signifying  the  effi- 
cient accomplishment  of  this  act. 

It  is  this  acceleration  accompanying  the  sense  of  finality 
which  seems  to  be  of  particular  significance. 

S30  In  testing  the  hypothesis,  the  introspections  of  the 
observers  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  for  not  always  is  a 
melodic  interval  heard  in  the  same  way.  What  an  interval  is 
to  the  observer  depends  as  much  upon  the  "attitude"  with 
which  it  is  received  as  it  does  upon  the  ratios  of  the  physical 
vibration  rates.' 

The  order  of  arrangement  of  the  observers  in  all  the  tables, 
it  will  be  recalled,  is  that  determined  by  the  tests  of  musical 
ability.  Po.,  the  most  musical,  reported  that  the  ascending 
fourth,  while  it  has  the  attribute  of  finality,  is  less  final  than 
some,  e.g.,  the  descending  fifth. 

"The  pitch  of  the  second  tone  came  as  a  surprise.  The  feeling  of 
satisfaction  came  only  toward  the  end  of  the  second  sound,  after  I  had 
got  it  placed  with  reference  to  the  firat.  The  instant  of  entrance  of  the 
sense  of  satisfaction  was  very  marked." 

(The  rate  for  the  first  four  taps  of  this  period  was  210,  for  the 
next  four  it  was  228  and  for  the  remaining  three,  232.)  This  ex- 
perience might  be  described  as  the  final  acceptance  of  a  second 
tone  as  a  tonic  which  when  first  heard  was  not  so  construed. 
If,  during  the  hearing  of  the  first  tone,  a  tonality  feeling  gets 
established  with  this  tone  as  a  tonic — as  is  very  frequently  the 
case — the  transition  to  a  tone  of  different  pitch  presents  three 
possibilities,  (fl)  It  may  be  an  "unrelated"  tone,  foreign  not 
only  to  the  tonality  already  in  mind  but  also  to  any  other  tonal- 
ity withinwhich  the  first  tone  would  find  a  place.  In  such  an 
instance  there  can  be  no  melody  feeling,'  for  there  is  no  coher- 
ence or  relevance  between  the  tones;  they  do  not  tend  to  insti- 

'C/.«t^a,p.  ja/. 

'  Here,  and  througbout  the  discussion  o(  the  experiments,  it  will  be  understood 
that  these  statements  are  made  soldy  with  reference  to  the  experience  of  observers 
who  are  (amiliar  with  a  harmanic  muacal  system. 


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6»  W.  ¥AS  DYKB  BIHCBAM. 

tute  a  common  set  of  expectations;  they  do  not  belong  to  the 
same  whole.  (A)  The  second  of  the  two  tones  may  be  "related" 
to  the  first  as  to  a  tonic.  It  belongs  to  the  tonality  already  in 
mind,  and  consequently  it  is  welcomed,  as  partially  satisfying 
the  expectations  of  the  hearer;  but  it  does  not  wholly  satisfy 
them.  Instead,  it  only  makes  more  definite  and  insistent  the 
demand  that  the  first  tone  shall  be  heard  again,  at  the  end  of  the 
melody;  it  intensifies  the  original  tonality  feeling.  If  the  se- 
quence of  tones  ends  here,  one  experiences  the  feeling  of  unrest 
and  dissatisfaction  which  accompanies  disappointed  expecta- 
tion or  thwarted  intent,  (c)  The  second  tone  may  be  capable 
of  entering  into  tonality  relations  with  the  first,  but  not  into  the 
tonality  of  which  that  tone  is  the  tonic.  This  necessitates  a 
shiftoftonality.  In  place  of  the  organized  set  of  expectations 
already  present,  a  different  set  appears.  The  octreme  instance 
of  this  peculiarly  subtile  and  elusive  process  occurs  when  the 
second  tone  becomes  itself  the  tonic  of  a  new  tonality,  usurping 
the  power  and  function  originally  held  by  its  predecessor,  and 
organizing  a  new  set  of  expectations.  Such  an  instance  is 
found  in  the  interval  of  the  ascending  fourth. 

Po.  was  probably  not  the  only  observer  who  experienced  this 
peculiar  shift  of  tonality  upon  hearing  the  interval  of  the 
ascending  fourth ;  but  he  is  the  only  one  who  detected  and  de- 
scribed the  feeling  of  transition  and  the  satisfaction  which  fol- 
lowed. Rg.  reported  that  the  interval  seemed  to  him  to  be 
rather  indifferent,  but  after  hearing /c'  he  said  that  c'f  had 
more  finality  about  it  than  he  had  thought  at  first.  Rk. 
reports,  "That  sounds  like  'soldo';  there  is  no  need  of  a  third 
tone."  Ho.  "Thatends!  It  is  very  agreeable."  Fr.  "That's 
all  right."  Ta.  found  it  difficult  to  give  an  introspective 
report.  The  interval  he  said  was  elusive,  and  it  was  hard  to 
say  just  what  the  effect  was.  Pu.  reported  no  definite  effect 
of  any  sort.  It  must  be  noted  that  even  in  the  case  of  these 
last  two  observers  an  acceleration  of  rate  occurred  immediately 
after  the  close  of  the  tone. 

With  the  descending  fourth  we  find  much  less  uniformity  in 
the  distribution  of  accelerations  and  retardations,  and  also  a 
greater  diveraty  in  the  introspective  reports.    The  most 


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STUDIES  IN  MELODY.  6  j 

striking  and  important  feature  is  the  large  proportion  of  retar- 
dations which  occur  during  or  immediately  after  the  sounding 
of  the  second  tone.  Po.  reports  that  the  interval  was  pleas- 
ing, but  not  wholly  satisfactory  because  it  lacked  finality. 
During  the  sounding  of  the  second  tone  his  rate  recovered 
from  the  slowing-up  produced  by  the  first  tone  but  after  the 
melody  ended  there  was  a  retardation.  For  R^.  the  interval 
lacked  finality  but  as  to  agreeableness  it  was  indifferent. 
Rk.'s  introspections  were  interesting.  "That  is  all  right,  but 
I  can't  help  thinking  in  three's."  That  is  to  say,  he  gave  an 
intellectual  judgment  that  the  interval  was  complete  but 
really  felt  a  need  for  something  further.  (Note  the  retardation 
in  rate.)  Ho.says,  "  I  should  like  to  add  a  third  note  but  it  is 
not  bad."  Fr.,  "Unfinished,  but  pleasant  as  far  as  it  goes." 
Ta.  "I  cannot  decide.  I  keep  changing  my  mind.  It  is  a 
puzzling  interval."  Pu.,  "Very  definitely  complete  and 
pleasant." 

If  one  examines  the  table  in  the  light  of  these  introspective 
comments,  it  is  found  that  five  of  the  seven  records  suppwrt 
our  hypothesis  with  reference  to  the  motor  eflect  of  the  finality 
experience. 

With  all  of  the  remaining  tables  the  introspections  are  pre- 
sented in  very  brief  summary.  The  observer's  own  words  are 
used,  as  far  as  the  necessities  of  condensation  allow. 

§31  Tables  9  and  10  should  be  examined  tt^ther.  They 
show  the  effects  produced  by  the  melodic  interval  of  the  per- 
fect fifth,  ascending  and  descending.  With  regard  to  the 
aspect  of  finality,  all  the  observers  with  the  exception  of  the 
two  least  musical  ones  are  agreed  that  the  ascending  fifth  is 
lacking  in  completeness.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  the  proportion 
of  retardations  and  accelerations  during  the  period  while  the 
second  tone  was  sounding  and  immediately  after,  do  not  show 
a  balance  in  favor  of  the  retardations.  The  lack  of  finality  in 
this  interval  is  not  sufficientiy  marked  to  produce  the  vivid 
experiences  of  tension  which  characterize  the  perception  of 
some  melodic  intervals.  A  more  significant  reason  why  one 
should  not  expect  a  larger  proportion  of  retardations  here,  will 
become  evident  shortiy. 


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W.  VAN  DYKE  BINCBAM. 
TABLE  NO.  > 


Perfed  Fifth,  Auttidint-  Rait  of  tafping  during ._. 
Rtadfnm  kfl  U>  rigU.  Nrnnberi  thawing  decrtate 
art  printed  in  bald  fact  type.    Increosti  in  rait  or 


ptritds  «}  three  stcondt  each. 

rate  at  eritical  points  in  the  record 


»2S 

314 

12S 

114 

338 

336 

iig 

130 

IJ7 

irf 

laS 

133 

>»7 

117 

iiS 

119 

U6 
M 

"S 

*34 

»33 

13s 

'J7 

m. 

»3J 

73 

74 

76 

71 

77 

80 

10* 

109 

loS 

lOB 

III 

IM 

fnlrotpeclions. 

Po,  A  Knse  of  finality,  but  not  completely  final.    Pleasant. 

Rg.  A  beginning,  not  an  end.    Wanted  to  go  00. 

Rk.  Want  to  hear  first  again. 

Ho.  Needs  third  tone.    Not  extremely  bad. 

Fr.  Unfinished.    Pleasant. 

Ta.  llat  is  finisbedl    Felt  so  the  instant  it  sounded. 

Pu.  Faiiiy  complete.    Agreeable  ending,  but  I  do  not  like  so  wide  an  interval. 


TABLE  NO.  10 
Perfea  F^lh,  deicending. 


l" 

c- 

Po 

•97 
.., 
106 
109 

78 
103 

S04 
"5 
toS 
113 

335 
78 
106 

*oS 
I3S 
108 

78 
"3 

9H 

13a 
lOS 

un 

78 
un 

308 

Ui 

106 

78 
97 

"4 

10$ 

lop 
110 

S3 

319 

133 
103 

104 

R« 

143 
105 

aig 

Ta 

*Btappad  Tapplnc 

Introsptetioni. 

Po.  No  suggestion  of  further  movement.    Satisfactory. 

Rg.  Left  no  impression. 

Rk.  Doesn't  need  a  third.     Pleasant. 

Ho.  Can't  say  as  to  finality.     Faidy  agreeable. 

Fr.  Incoherent    Unfinished.    Unpleasant. 

Ta.  (Introspection  uncertain,) 

Pu.  Did  iK>t  demand  third  note. 


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STUDIES  III  MSLODT.  6$ 

Table  lo,  the  descending  fifth,  presents  a  much  more  uni- 
form appearance.  Accelerations  following  the  close  of  the 
melody  occur  in  every  record  except  that  of  Fr.,  which  shows 
no  change  in  rate  at  this  point.  The  introspections,  however, 
are  not  as  definite,  three  observers  failing  to  report  anything 
positive  regarding  the  finished,  self-complete  character  of  the 
melody.  The  only  one,  however,  who  found  the  melody 
incomplete  was  Fr.,  the  observer  whose  rate  is  the  only  one  to 
show  no  increase  at  this  point. 

TABLE  NO.  II 

Ptrftcl  Fifth,  ittetitdiit[.    TkrM  Uma  txftckd.    Aterate  rait  tf  tappmf  hy  Ihrtc-tecond 
periods.    Read  from  l^t  U  rifU. 


po 

>84 

io8 

104 

184 
117 

108 

375 
m6 
117 

77 
to8 

a77 
US 

«8 

106 

104 

106 

TO 
108 

am 

IM 

in 

73 
100 

169 
197 
1.8 
99 

,11 

169 

m 

73 

1<H 

Pu 

tnlroiptclioiu. 

Po.  Ammttig     Incomplete. 

Rg.  A  feeUng  of  ioconqjleteDCU. 

Rk.  Dinppnntuig. 

Ho.  Unfiiusbed,  because  of  eipecUjicy  of  utother  tocte. 

Tft.  lacoo^ilete.    Thou^t  you  were  trying  to  fool  me. 

Pu.  Surpiised  that  there  were  not  three.    Incomplete. 

The  records  from  which  Table  1 1  were  prepared  were  taken 
at  the  end  of  the  year's  experimenting  because  it  was  desired 
to  avoid  the  suspicious  attitude  which  it  might  possibly  have 
induced  in  some  observers.  One  of  the  details  of  method,  it 
will  be  recalled,  was  to  let  the  observer  know  beforehand  how 
many  tones  were  to  be  expected,  in  order  to  keep  the  conditions 
in  this  respect  as  constant  as  possible.  In  this  final  experi- 
ment, however,  the  observer  was  led  to  expect  three  tones, 
but  only  two  were  given,  the  same  two  used  in  the  experiment 
just  described.  (Table  lo).  Any  changes  in  rate  of  tapping 
produced  by  unftUfiUed  expectation  ought  then  to  become  evi- 
dent by  a  comparison  of  these  two  tables,  9  and  10,  and  indeed 


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46  W.  VAN  DYKB  BISCBAM. 

the  difference  is  sufficiently  striking.  Instead  of  uniform 
accelerations  following  the  tones  one  finds  retardations  in 
nearly  every  instance. 

This,  then,  may  aid  us  in  understanding  the  accelerations  so 
frequently  found  where  introspection  reports  that  the  interval 
lacks  finality.  As  a  melodic  interval  it  is  left  unfinished,  but 
in  so  far  as  the  hearer  was  expecting  a  certain  number  of  tones 
and  that  expectation  was  fulfilled,  the  experience  as  a  whole 
gets  a  certain  completeness  and  unity.  Part,  at  least,  of  the 
adjustments  of  attention  have  functioned  as  intended,  and 
only  so  much  of  the  total  motor  attitude  as  was  immediately 
concerned  with  the  tonality  experience  as  such  has  to  be  re-ad- 
justed when  the  melody  comes  to  an  end  on  what  is  not  a  final 
tone. 

The  diminished  fifth  (45:64)  was  selected  as  an  example 
■of  a  group  of  two  "unrelated"  tones.  The  testimony  of  the 
observers  is  nearly  unanimous  that  the  interval  lacks  complete- 
ness and  is  dis^reeable  to  hear  both  ascending  and  descending. 
(Tables  12  and  13.)  Nevertheless  there  area  lai^ernumber  of 
accelerations  than  of  retardations.  A  comparison  of  the 
"exceptions"  with  those  in  the  introspective  table  clears  up  the 
difficulty  somewhat,  but  even  then  it  must  be  said  that  this 
pair  of  tables  tells  against  our  hypothesis.    The  only  recourse 

TABLE  NO,  11 
DtnanisM  Fifth,  ascmdinf.     Average  role  by  tkree-see«nd  periods.    Read  acrott. 


b 

r 

265 

147 
76 

74 

80 
73 

377 
lis 

78 
7S 

no 
n 

»67 

ltd 

SS3 

73 
76 

J70 
UT 

»47 
76 
79 

170 
116 

78 
79 

36s 

Pu 

H 

Inlrosptelions. 

Po.    A  n«  rough  Interval.     AssodatioDS  with  Wagner  nude  it  less  diugtcesUe. 

Incomplete. 
Rg.    Disagreeable  because  incomplete. 
Ft.    Not  finished  but  good  as  fu  as  it  went. 
Ta.    Unfinished  but  a  pleasant  interval. 
Fu.     Very  disagreeable.     Felt  at  entrance  o[  second  tone. 


Digilizcd  by  Google 


STUDIES  IN  MBIODY. 
TABLE  NO.  a 
asked  Fifth,  Jescetiding.    Awarage  rate  by  time-second  periodt.    Read  aerois. 


/' 

6 

J63 
116 
193 
76 

So 

.76 
118 

78 
79 

117 
77 

J63 

"S 

J07 

TO 

79 

J67 

19B 

7' 

n 

»7J 
130 

76 
8a 

J70 
•31 

74 

is 

»67 
119 

76 

77 

Po.     Incomplete,  but  not  seriously  so. 

Rg.     One  more  tooe  (he  hummed  c)  would  make  a  great  difference. 

Fr.    Very  unpleasant.    It  seemed  complete  because  you  told  me  there  would  be  but 


At  fint  thought  it  disagreeable,  then  not 


Ta.     Finished.    A  pleasant  interval. 
Pu.     Didn't  think  about  completenesi 


is  to  the  principle  that  the  tapping  tends  to  become  rapid 
whenever  attention  is  freed  from  the  stimulus,  irrespective 
of  what  the  stimulus  may  be. 

The  descending  major  third  is  an  emphatically  final  melody 
(although  Fr.  and  Pu.  did  not  so  describe  it),  and  the  table 
(No.  14}  shows  the  expected  accelerations.  The  most  inter- 
esting feature  is,  however,  the  marked  retardation  in  the 
record  of  Rk.  The  last  tone  was  a  final  tone,  he  said,  but 
he  wanted  a  third  tone  in  between  the  first  and  second,  and 
tried  to  figure  out  what  tone  that  should  be.  The  retarda- 
tion occurs  in  the  portion  of  the  record  where  this  was  being 
done. 

In  this  and  several  of  the  following  tables  are  given  the 
measurements  of  a  single  record  in  which  the  rate  of  each 
separate  tap  is  determined.  Samples  of  the  tapping  of  each 
of  the  different  observers  are  thus  made  available  for  detailed 
inspection.  It  is  interesting  that  the  rate  for  individual  taps 
can  fluctuate  as  widely  as  it  does  without  greater  variability 
in  the  rate  as  measured  for  periods  of  three  seconds. 

The  minor  sixth  (5  :  8)  was,  somewhat  to  the  surprise  of 
the  experimenter,  judged  to  be  an  incomplete  and  disappoint- 
ing melody,  ascending  as  well  as  descending.     It  has  the 


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W.  YA«  DYK.R  BISCBAM. 


Major  Third,  iacatdini. 


177 
i8i 

187 
161 

198 
191 

ai8 

178 
149 

148 

106 

148 

181 

i6S 

181 

101 

i«S 

'S3 

148 

346 

IBs 

177 

tte 

179 

191 

171 

IS9 

198 

iSS 

iSi 

16* 

18s 

.76 

i6> 

j8) 

171 

176 

183 

■60 

M9 

181 

.48 

'53 

169 

>8a 

'S3 

190 

in 

'6.1 

'S9 

191 

IS8 

177 

»7» 

197 

Ml 

I3» 

148 

185 

171 

iSi 

1S3 

166 

i>6 

183 

'«3 

148 

Attract  rait 

for  eachOret-tecend  peruxt.    StadacroK 

178 
aJS 

'93 
80 

171 

103 
>95 
81 

«8s 
J»S 
104 
109 

8s 

i07 
»i7 

» 

17 

188 

»19 
97 

106 
80 

188 

106 
213 

88 

'76 
330 
.06 
19s 
84 

»37 

Pu 

86 

Introtptctimu. 
Rk.    Wanted  a  third  toiw  UhM»m.    Tried  to  dedde  wtwt  it  should  be. 
Po.    Surprising,  but  very  udsfying.    Fliwl. 

Ho.     It  became  satisfactniiy  complete  after  I  had  thought  about  It. 
Fr.    Coheient,  but  suggested  aomethiiig  further. 
Pu.    Needed  a  third  tone  b 


TABLE  NO.  It 

ilinor  Sixth,  dtittHdim.    ilttronomt  rale  of  tach  ttparaU  lap.    Read  itimt. 


103 
106 

"3 
"S 

119 
'<H 

109 
«9 

'OS 

9> 
103 

117 

119 

81 

96 

los 

101 

110 

I03 

114 

106 

no 

"7 

"3 

106 

118 

»9 

97 
106 

89 

AMragt  rait  by  Urte-iicond  periodt.    Road  « 


f 

b 

13S 

SKI 

314 

SM 

3M 

»i 

»37 

138 

I3S 

'39 

t4S 

180 

104 

106 

113 

108 

108 

98 

17a 

isi 

181 

I7S 

183 

'8.1 

106 

toi 

'OS 

'OS 

107 

100 

lis 

III 

113 

"4 

"7 

U8 

DBiizcdb,  Google 


STUDIES  IS  MStODY. 

Ititrosptttioru 

Po.  Surprise  and  disappointnieiit  on  teooud  tone.    Uiuatufactory. 

Rk.  E>oes  not  eod. 

Ho.  Very  noticeably  lacked  finality. 

Fr.  Quite  unrelated. 

Ta.  Tooe  pteaaant  but  iDek>dy  does  not  end. 

Pu.  Ungatiafactoty.    Incomplete. 

TABLE  HO.  II 
UinorSatk,aKaidi»(.     Melroitome  rale  of  each  stparaie  tap.      Rtaddawn 


b 

(' 

Ta 

So 

86 

75 

81 

77 

79 

79 

81 

86 

81 

«3 

7* 

81 

77 

79 

79 

81 

81 

8,1 

7a 

79 

Si 

81 

Si 

81 

81 

83 

73 

71 

86 

81 

75 

Attragt  role  by  liret-ieamd  periods.    Riadacron. 


97 


97 


97 


95 


Introiptclions 
Kg.    No  melody;  do  finality. 

Ho.    Seemed  bad  at  first  but  changes  to  a  final  interval. 
Fr.    Unconnected  and  therefore  unpleMant. 
Ta.     Incomplete. 
Pu.    Unrelated.    The  second  note  seemed  to  change  in  character. 

character  of  incompleteness  very  strongly  as  a  descending 
interval,  but  when  heard  in  the  opposite  direction  itispossible 
so  to  reconstruct  the  tonality  as  to  make  the  higher  tone  a 
tonic.  This,  the  observers,  with  a  single  exception,  failed 
to  do. 

Consequently  Tables  15  and  16  may  both  be  taken  as 
showing  the  effects  of  a  melody  that  lacks  finality.  The 
unusually  large  number  of  retardations  strikes  the  eye  at  a 
glance. 

§32  Turning  now  to  some  examples  of  three-tone  groups 
(tables  17  and  18),  we  are  confronted  at  the  outset  with  the 


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W.  VAN  DYKR  BINCBAM. 


difficulty  that  it  is  usually  quite  possible  to  interpret  any 
group  of  three  related  tones  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  we  are 
thrown  back  upon  the  introspections  of  the  observers  for  a 
starting  point  in  our  interpretation  of  the  results.  This 
method  has  its  obvious  disadvantages,  notably  those  result- 
ing from  the  probably  imperfect  reports  which  the  average 
observer  can  give  about  so  complex  an  experience  as  the 
course  of  a  three-tone  melody. 


TABLE  NO.    IT 
Tkree-  lone  froufs.    Attrage  rate  for  each  Ikree-teamd  period.     Rsai  aeroit. 


t 

Rk 

140 

'43 

I4> 

143 

"41 

146 

iSS 

■47 

141 

Ho 

111 

iia 

116 

IM 

117 

118 

116 

llS 

III 

Ta 

71 

74  1 

71 

70 

70 

s? 

as 

75 

7» 

Pu 

i»3 

110  1 

•35 

U4 

tiS 

117 

137 

iji 

138 

Inlroipeclhtu 
Rk.    Finished.    Very  good  mdody. 
Ho.    CoII^>lete,  satisfactory. 
Ta.    Inoomi^ete. 
Pu.    Uncertain. 

TABLE  NO.  IS 


t 

el^ 

frl> 

Rk 

..|      ..V. 

>3i 

116 

'Si 

'3Q 

iS^ 

170 

139 

1.16 

Ho 

118 

113 

'IS 

lU 

iiS 

118 

Ta 

70 

70 

6S 

C3 

67 

76 

66 

66 

66 

Pu 

..       145 

144 

154 

138 

141 

'4S 

lU 

146 

IS' 

Introsptclimu 
Rk.    Leaves  me  in  sublease. 
Ho.    Unfini^ied.    Don't  like  it 

Ta.    Second  note  did  not  fit  in  at  all.    Very  disconnected. 
Pu.     Fairly  good  ending,  but  the  intervals  are  too  wide. 


The  two  melodies  placed  together  here  for  comparison  are 
very  similar  in  form,  and  both  £ire  made  up  of  wide,  conso- 
nant intervals,  but  one  of  them,  the  first,  seemed  to  the  experi- 
menter to  have  a  more  positive  finality.    The  more  mumcal 


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STUDtSS  in  MSIODT.  Jt 

observers  ^ree  with  him  in  this.     All  of  the  retardations 
(n^lecting  of  course  those  which  accompany  the  entrance  of 
the  first  tone)  occur  at  the  end  of  the  less  final  of  the  two 
melodies. 
On  the  whole  these  tables  are  not  very  illuminating. 

TABLE  NO.      IS 

Thrtt'iont  poupi.    Ateraft  rale  for  taek  tkret-iecond  pvioi.    Read  across. 


c'          a          b 

Rk 

Ho 

T» 

Pu 

'54 
"S 

103 

107 

160 
tog 
71 
los 

104 

70 
96 

'S9 
1» 

71 

71 

166 

gf 
70 

too 

179 

70 
"4 

160 
104 
7» 

Rk.  Unsatisfactory.    UusI  go  back  to  fint  tone. 

Ho.  Periectly  horridl    Due  to  the  lut  tone. 

Ta.  Could  give  do  tntro^KcUon.    (Note  regularity  of  n 

Pu.  IndiSerent. 

TABLE   NO.  10 


Pu.. 


£' 

a 

fib 

164 

ite 

'S9 

'73 

US 

180 

170 

177 

*S9 

IS6 

157 

m 

14S 

146 

'SS 

171 

178 

180 

tH 

m 

tSo 

'ST 

1S8 

t8i 

97 

I03 

106 

104 

w 

103 

101 

100 

77 

80 

77 

n 

7S 

St 

8^ 

78 

97 

99 

98 

too 

m 

111 

IM 

99 

t.    Rk.     Wrong,  but  not  very  bad.     Second  note  spoiled  it. 

1.    Rk  andsRk.  (repetitions  at  a  later  date  of  some  tones.)    Both  satisfactory  and  com- 
plete, the  latter  reassuringly  so. 
Ha     Last  note  predominates  and  becomes  satisfactory  ending. 
Ta.     Indifferent  ending.    Last  note  a  disappaintmeDt. 
Pu.    Tones  seemed  disconnected. 

Table  20  is  of  interest  mainly  because  it  shows  the  different 
reactions  which  the  same  melody  elicited  from  one  of  the 
subjects  at  different  times.  The  group  of  intervals,  c'-a-bl», 
is  one  which  demands  a  shift  of  tonality,  but  which  then  ends, 
satisfactorily.  When  it  was  first  given,  Rk.  did  not  so  hear 
the  melody:  the  tonality  did  not  become  readjusted.  Two 
weeks  later  the  experiment  was  repeated  and  this  time  the 
tones  were  heard  as  a  complete  melody.  It  was  immediately 
given  again,  with    similar    but  more  positive  introspective 


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71  W.  VAK  DrKE  BINGBAM. 

reports  as  the  result.  The  three  records  show  the  expected 
differences  in  the  tapping. 

A  striking  record  is  that  of  Ta.  (Table  19).  He  tapped 
throughout  the  course  of  the  experiment  almost  with  the 
regularity  of  a  ruling  engine.  When  asked  for  an  introspec* 
tive  report,  he  could  find  nothing  to  say!  The  tones  had  had 
no  effect  whatever. 

Every  retardation  shown  in  these  tables (indsits explanation 
in  the  introspective  records.  Not  quite  as  much  can  be  said 
for  all  of  the  accelerations. 

With  table  21  we  take  up  the  study  of  the  "Return."  The 
interval  here  used  is  the  major  second  (8:  9).  This  is  a  very 
satisfactory  melodic  figure  when  the  lower  tone  is  the  start- 

TABLE  NO.  It 

Tkru-Ume  group,    iiajor  taond.    Avtrage  rate  for  tack  tkru-ttcond  period.    Read 


95 


91 


'OS 


103 


Po.    Second  tone  very  lu^leawnt.    Third  reimtated  calm  and  repose  of  the  fint.    At 

loose  cods  OD  second.    The  return  cluoged  all  this. 
Rk.    Veiy  unsatisfactory  as  a  whole  but  had  a  (%rtaiD  unity  about  iL 
Ho.    I  think  that  ended  nicdy.    It  b  curious  that  I  can  not  recall  the  middle  tone. 
Ta,    The  lower  would  have  been  a  better  ending. 
Pu.    Second  note  not  right.    Return  to  first  gave  feeling  of  finality. 

TABLE  NO.  n 


J59 

j6. 

=6S 

sn 

2H 

261 

SH 

26s 

161 

1S8 

181 

IM 

ue 

m 

m 

193 

"4 

lOJ 

no 

97 

too 

99 

too 

93 

114 

106 

lOI 

to? 

SB 

102 

70} 

118 

101 

98 

95 

toS 

lOO  1 

Ta.. 

Pu.. 

Po.  Third  tone  a  pleasant  rehef  from  suspense. 

Rk.  It  was  all  right  at  the  time. 

Ho.  Very  pleasant  and  complete. 

Ta.  Positively  finished. 

Pu.  Pleasant  and  complete. 


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STUDISS  IS  MBWDT. 


ing  point  and  the  end,  and  one  is  not  surprised  to  find  a  large 
proportion  of  accelerations  at  the  close.  (See  table  22,  c'- 
d'-c'.)     The  record  fits  well  with  the  introspections. 

When  the  upper  tone  is  made  the  point  of  departure  and 
return,  the  melody  tends  to  fall  apart.  The  middle  tone 
positively  will  not  fit  into  any  tonality  suggested  by  the  first. 
This  appears  very  prominently  in  the  introspective  records. 
Another  feature  is  that  without  exception  the  observers  felt 
that  the  return  from  this  lower  tone  to  the  upper  was  very 
satisfactory.  "The  third  reinstated  the  calm  and  repose  of 
the  first,"  etc.  The  entire  set  of  introspections  accompany- 
ing this  table  is  recommended  for  careful  perusal  as  clearly 
setting  forth  the  result  of  a  return  from  a  tone  felt  to  be 
foreign  to  the  first.  The  experience  acquires  a  unity  which  is 
most  certainly  not  contributed  by  any  interval  "relationship." 

TABLE  NO.  S 
Thne-Ume  tfoufi.     "Tk«  Return."    Aterafe  rait  for  tatk  Ikret-ticond  ptrtMl.     lUad 


d      r      *> 

Po 

i8s 

afo 

»S4    1    ajJJ 

SM 

SS8 

'48 

>S6 

>S8 

'S4 

161 

t64    ,    16S 

160 

tji 

178 

176 

167 

81 

8l 

81    {      78 

79 

78 

74 

76 

84 

99 

loS 

tio    1      96 

no 

» 

"3 

107 

108 

IntroapeetioTu. 

Po.    Much  lesa  complete  th&a  if  uppd  tone  were  last. 

Rk.    Satisfactory  ending,  but  not  so  good  as  f-<-^  (hummed). 

Ta,    Fmished. 

TABLE  NO.  M 

/'      c      r 

Po 149 

149         249    ^    236    ;     »34    1    iS4 

»}g 

161 

16} 

Bg ,    "9 

116 

i2ti    1    133 

1X7 

US 

126 

13S 

116 

Rk 171 

iSo 

183    1    173 

170 

176 

176 

181 

Ta 79 

76 

7S    1      73 

70 

73 

7J 

7S 

76 

Pu 81 

86 

87    1      90 

86 

90 

101 

97 

96 

Po.  Emphatically  final. 

Rg.  O.  K.     Finished. 

Rk,  Fairly  satisfactory.     More  so  than  c-f-t  (hiunmed). 

Ta.  Fairly  complete. 

Pu.  Complete. 


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W.  VAS  DrKS  aiSGBAM. 

TABLB  NO.  H 

Tkrtt-Unu  tnmfs.    "The  ROurn." 
Sou  for  each  ttparoU  lap.    Read  dawn. 


«' 

t 

c' 

Po 

m 

874 

343 

340 

367 

336 

348 

'36 

3S' 

»8s 

167 

346 

m 

'36 

'S4 

346 

139 

367 

»S8 

336 

360 

376 

304 

367 

aOS 

360 

>i6 

347 

3,6 

3sa 

36, 

"3 

'46 

*S« 

131 

339 

353 

376 

»54 

363 

313 

343 

160 

33a 

321 

363 

361 

369 

336 

339 

'S4 

»7a 

1S» 

334 

348 

367 

378 

'47 

3S6 

'S4 

2tS 

^S4 

'S3 

'33 

360 

350 

360 

36s 

U3 

36a 

3.16 

336 

333 

331 

350 

353 

360 

367 

37b 

Ml 

336 

as* 

369 

348 

»33 

356 

340 

171 

334 

JS« 

376 

377 

334 

370 

350 

373 

369 

333 

343 

373 

356 

33S 

360 

'S8 

'S3 

a;* 

336 

340 

373 

»S8 

340 

'34 

346 

'S4 

Tkret-4oiutmipt.    "TfteRaurn."    A^erateraUbythree-itcoHdpmoit.    Reaiat 


tf 

i 

e 

Po 

368 

3^8 

aifl 

'54 

3^8 

'48 

'St 

340 

'S4 

Rk 

118 

118 

118 

T18 

wS 

115 

117 

Ho 

79 

80 

79 

78 

80 

8i 

93 

9S 

9S 

308 

303 

3O0 

»99 

196 

206 

307 

300 

198 

Inlrotpeeliotu. 

Po.  More  or  less  complete.    Not  very  good. 

Ri.  O.  K.    Finished. 

Ho.  Complete.    Very  pleasant. 

Fr.  Complete,  but  not  wholly  satisfactory. 

A  Study  of  the  table  of  rates  itself  is  equally  illuminating. 
In  number  and  distribution  of  accelerations,  it  is  almost 
identical  with  the  companion  table,  where  the  return  was 
from  a  tone  felt  to  be  quite  coherent  with  the  first  tone  of 
the  melody. 

Tables  23-26  also  show  the  effects  of  the  return  to  the  start- 
ing point.  The  intervals  used  differ  from  the  preceding  in 
that  they  are  wider,  and  consonant  intervals.  The  fourth 
(tables  23  and  24)  ends  more  emphatically  upon  the  upper 
note,  the  fifth  (tables  25  and  26)  on  the  lower.  This  was  the 
judgment  of  the  observers.  ,  The  small  sprinkling  of  retarda- 


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STDDtaS  IM  UEWDT. 


tions  at  the  close  of  these  melodies  would  indicate  that  this 
difference  in  finality  is  unable  to  maintain  ttself,as  against 
the  two  factors  that  tend  to  exert  an  opposing  influence  upon 
the  tapping,  the  factors,  namely,  of  the  return,  and  of  the 
fact  that  the  expected  number  of  tones  was  heard  and  nothing 
further  anticipated. 


TABLE  NO. M 

*'              «' 

i 

no 

118 
77 

74 

*30 
■38 

78 
197 

74 
W*5 

»37 
140 

80 
106 

80 
107 

m 
w. 

79 
"97 

74 
Utt 

soe 

140 
77 
us 

73 

'39 
139 

80 
'9S 

76 
it6 

340 

lae 

86 
193 

81 
no 

118 
84 
196 

7S 

Rk 

Ho 

81 

to8 

T» 

P« 

Fo.  No  feeling  o(  finality;  therefore  uopleatant. 

Rk.  Not  as  complete  as  e'-g'-c'  (hummed),  but  one  isn't  left  in  suspense. 

Ho.  Can't  say  as  to  comidetcaesa.    Unpleasant. 

Ti.  Inono^ete. 

Ta.  Better  to  end  mi  second  note. 

Pu.  Not  enqkhatic  finality;  only  snch  as  any  'return'  ^vca. 

What  of  the  octave?  Meyer  was  unable  to  detect  any 
stronger  "trend"  to  the  lower  than  to  the  upper  tone,  and 
consequently  put  himself  on  record  as  opposed  to  Lipps  and 
the  other  writers  who  assert  that  the  lower  tone  possesses  the 
stronger  finality.* 

The  question  was  put  to  each  of  my  observers.  They  were 
asked  to  judge  with  reference  to  the  finality  of  ascendii^ 
octaves,  descending  octaves,  and  also  groups  of  three  tones, 
involving  the  return.  Intervals  in  the  middle  region  of  the 
scaleand  alsointhegreatoctave  wereused.  Theresults  were 
strongly  j^ainst  Meyer's  view.  Pu.,  the  least  musical  of  the 
observers,  could  detect  no  difference  in  finality  between  the 
end  on  the  upper  and  the  end  on  the  lower  of  two  tones  an 
"  octave  apart.  All  others  found  that  a  stronger  feeling  of 
finality  attached  to  the  end  on  the  lower  tone.    This  dif- 

'  Psyck.  Rev.  1900,  7,  148.  In  the  light  of  Ms  more  recent  studies  on  the  efiect  of 
the  faUing  inflectioD  (see  above,  p.  18)  ire  suspect  that  Meyer  would  today  formulate 
somewhat  more  guardedly  his  statements  r^arding  the  psychological  effect  of  the  close 


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W.  VAN  DTKB  BINCBAM. 


ference  of  preference  does  not  make  itself  evident,  however, 
in  the  tapping  records  of  tables  27  and  28  (the  octave).  At 
the  close  of  the  melody  there  is  found  almost  exactly  the  same 
preponderance  of  accelerations  over  retardations  in  each  of 
the  two  tables.    Although  one  ending  is  better,  both  are  good. 


TABLE   NO.    IT 


The  OdoN.    Rale  of  tack  leparaU  lap.    Rtad  d«tm. 


Bl 

90 

93 

96 

88 

8.1 

79 

81 

8^ 

86 

81 

83 

93 

8S 

93 

83 

9a 

93 

90 

88 

88 

95 

93 

81 

88 

97 

83 

83 

93 

88 

88 

81 

79 

81 

86 

90 

«S 

Awrage  rate  for  each  tkret-teeond  period.    Read  acrow. 


88 

88 

93 

as 

89 

8( 

SB 

88 

>S8 

ija 

>S4 

MB 

SS8 

*39 

»S7 

2s6 

»38 

23a 

116 

Ul 

9H 

MS 

no 

>i8 

"9 

IM 

108 

109 

» 

107 

186 

199 

>99 

305 

ai6 

807 

106 

»8 

78 

8t 

78 

n 

71 

73 

77 

81 

96 

93 

98 

109 

III 

UU 

'" 

110 

TABLE  NO.  « 

The  OcUte.    Kate  of  tack  separate  lap.    Riod  damn. 

tr      e 

e" 

Kg 

93 

96 

9« 

76 

9S 

90 

94 

88 

98 

9S 

91 

93 

93 

8.S 

99 

99 

101 

9" 

90 

90 

93 

89 

88 

88 

90 

9* 

93 

96 

"  1  « 

88 

89 

85 

86 

9> 

9» 

4.    Raadaerott. 

c"          if 

c" 

93 

94 

93 

8B 

90 

90 

93 

93 

36t 

177 

W 

2SS 

«Sa 

aH 

as6 

«■ 

ajo 

»S9 

a?6 

a6a 

160 

JS9 

ii68 

107 

to8 

U8 

97 

t04 

to6 

III 

198 

199 

19a 

"S 

116 

VI 

WS 

m6 

81 

81 

81 

78 

IS7 

81 

80 

8t 

130 

138 

116 

111 

114 

114 

124 

i» 

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STVDiaS  IN  UELODr.  77 

§33  In  the  last  two  tables  to  be  presented,  Nos.  29  and 
30,  are  shown  the  rates  of  tapping  during  the  hearing  of  a 
longer  group  of  tones.  Here  the  exact  number  of  tones  was 
not  told  in  advance,  the  observers  being  informed  merely 
that  they  might  expect  several  more  than  the  usual  number. 
The  two  "melodies"  are  alike  in  that  they  both  start  and 
end  with  "c,"  and  both  use  the  same  intermediate  tones;  but 
they  differ  in  the  order  of  these  tones.  The  firstgroup moves 
slowly  but  naturally  forward,  and  at  length  comes  inevitably 
to  rest  on  the  last  of  the  seven  tones.  The  second 
moves  as  slowly  and  as  regularly,  and  reaches  the  same  goal, — 
and  yet  the  goal  is  not  the  same.  Subjectively  it  is  no  goal 
at  all.  None  of  the  observers  knew  when  it  had  been  reached 
until  the  tones  abruptly  ceased,  whereas  with  the  previous 
group,  all  but  one  reported  that  they  knew  the  last  tone  was 
the  last  as  soon  as  it  began  to  sound.  The  first  sequence, 
then,  is  a  genuine  melody;  the  seoind  is  not. 

One  or  two  typical  introspections  may  be  quoted  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  sort  of  experience  which  was  more  or  less 
common  to  all  of  the  observers.     Rk.  {first  seven-tone  group.) 

During  the  first  three  notes  I  did  not  know  what  was  the  melodic 
■"""'"g  or  general  direction,  but  on  the  fourth  note  it  took  sh^>e  and 
I  anticyiated  what  the  next  would  be,  and  30  cm  to  the  last.  The  Last 
was  definitely  final.  It  didn't  occur  to  me  that  there  might  have  been 
more  tones  until  you  suggested  the  possilulity  of  it 

(Second  group.)  The  third  note  was  not  what  I  expected.  The 
sixth  would  possibly  have  made  a  good  ending.  The  last  note  was 
a  disappointment;  it  wasn't  offensive,  but  obviously  was  not  the  best 
possible. 

None  were  satisfied  with  the  ending  of  the  second  group 
of  tones;  all  thought  it  moreorless  incoherent  throughout  and 
hard  to  grasp.  But  with  the  first  group  every  observer  with 
one  exception  was  sure,  when  the  last  tone  had  been  reached, 
that  that  was  to  be  the  final  tone.  The  one  exception,  Pu., 
could  not  give  a  definite  answer  to  the  question  whether  the 
ending  were  a  surprise  or  not,  whether  or  not  anything 
fiuther  was  anticipated. 


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W.  VAN  DYKS  BINGBAM. 

TABLE  NO.  » 

Group  of  lona  judged  So  be  a  mdi>dy.    Rate  of  tadt  stparale  lap.    Read  dawn. 


c* 

e' 

t 

e- 

/' 

(C 

e' 

Po 

esi 

».l8 

3.,6 

*,18 

3S3 

33S 

331 

3.18 

3S8 

338 

3,1^ 

'48 

'.16 

146 

138 

ass 

340 

318 

330 

133 

333 

3S6 

304 

3S6 

3.16 

'.18 

2SO 

»,17 

3.16 

337 

308 

330 

136 

340 

140 

311 

160 

3.0 

»S4 

»,lo 

3,16 

»,17 

346 

308 

3,1,1 

118 

SI8 

»1I 

186 

«,11 

346 

118 

350 

",18 

3.1« 

330 

aos 

311 

330 

132 

146 

310 

318 

10 

IM 

118 

3,,(. 

3,13 

311 

33g 

330 

3S3 

3t<t 

2,16 

3H 

141 

'S4 

..rt 

».,& 

3SO 

3.0 

330 

306 

'.1,1 

»,1.1 

338 

340 

313 

3lS 

3,,6 

>,« 

M7 

34t> 

»S8 

311 

".M 

110 

».1I 

s." 

138 

*,14 

'44 

3.16 

..1! 

346 

"37 

iii 

20s 

1.17 

334 

3.17 

1,17 

»4.'! 

2.18 

356 

'S4 

'It 

117 

3M 

IS? 

317 

330 

317 

330 

3M 

trfi 

336 

34' 

=.14 

>.« 

345 

3SO 

3S3 

3,13 

311 

»3 

310 

«,18 

a.l8 

346 

340 

'.M 

>.» 

«6 

»,rt 

»S7 

136 

110 

310 

313 

330 

3.16 

346 

3.16 

344 

Averaff  rate  for  each  tknt-steotid  period.    Read  <k 


TABLE  NO.  M 


Po... 

.  160 

Rr... 

Rk... 

■  »5' 

Ho... 

.  I03 

Pu... 

■1  117 

e' 

r     d' 

f 

e" 

/' 

e- 

*,M 

361 

36B 

276   am 

380 

338 

364 

«T 

a6o 

i!i% 

36, 

108 

108 

lOp  113 

■  13 

I,*0 

Ui 

lOS 

lOI 

lO^ 

108 

"53 
los 

161 

,69 
100 
"7 

172   168 

110  :  112 

t6S 
M 

163 

113 

106 

11,T 

m 
"I 

US 
106 

Its 

IS3 

I'S 

171 

In  the  tables  the  changes  of  rate  are  shown  throughout  the 
course  of  the  melody,  but  the  ones  which  are  of  special 
significance  for  our  purposes  are  of  course  those  accompany- 
ing the  strongly  contrasted  feelings  at  the  end  of  the  tonal 
sequences.  At  the  close  of  the  first,  every  record  reveals  an 
acceleration  in  the  rate  of  tapping.     In  marked  contrast  are 


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STUDIES  IN  MBLODT. 


the  retardations  found  at  the  close  of  the  other  sequence. 
(See  accompanying  graph.  Fig.  3.) 


FiGnxE  No.  3.  Effects  of  a  Melodv  and  a  Non-Mewjdy  Contrasted. 
Each  tone  sounded  br  thne  seconds.  Gnphs  represent  rate  of  tapping  during  each 
of  these  three-second  periods.  Note  general  tendency  toward  increase  in  rate  at 
dose  of  melody,  uid  absence  of  such  acceleration  at  close  of  non-melodic  sequence. 

§34  It  remains  to  summarize  and  evaluate  the  foregoing 
experimental  data. 

The  facts  which  stand  out  with  most  prominence  are,  first 
the  correlation  between  the  banning  of  a  tonal  sequence  and 
a  drop  in  rate  of  tapping;  second,  the  correlation,  nearly  as 
close,  between  the  conclusion  of  a  tonal  sequence  and  an 
increase  in  rate  in  case  the  observer  knows  in  advance  how 
many  tones  are  to  be  expected ;  third,  the  retardation  of  rate 
at  the  end  of  a  two-tone  sequence  when  the  observer  has  been 
led  to  expect  three  tones,  the  sequence  being  one  which  under 
the  usual  conditions  produced  acceleration  instead  of  retarda- 
donof  rate;  fourth,  retardations  at  the  close  are  much  more 
frequently  encountered  among  those  two-tone  intervals  which 


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W.  VAK  DYKE  BIHGBAM. 


are  judged  to  be  "unrelated",  incoherent  or  decidedly  "  inconi' 
plete,' '  than  among  intervals  judged  to  be  melodious,  coherent 
or  chEiracterized  by  finality;  (vid.,  especially,  descending  vs. 
ascending  fourth,  ascending  vs.  descending  fifth,  minor  sixth 
vs.  major  third) ;  fifth,  the  return  to  a  first  tone  is  felt  as  giv- 
ing unity  to  a  three-tone  group,  and  retardations  at  the 
close  are  not  often  met  with,  no  matter  how  unrelated  and 
foreign  the  middle  tone  may  have  been ;  sixth,  longer  sequences 
of  tones,  the  pitch  relations  of  whose  elements  give  to  them 
opposite  characters  as  regards  internal  coherence  and  final- 
ity, produce  opposite  effects  upon  the  rate  of  tapping. 

In  an  examination  of  our  data,  these  six  points  come  to 
view.  The  attempts  to  apply  our  hypothecs  in  detail  to 
some  of  the  results  must  be  considered,  however,  simply  as 
indications  toward  a  possible  development  of  the  method  into 
an  analytic  tool  of  much  usefulness,  rather  than  as  brii^- 
ing  forward  further  positive  evidence  on  the  question  of  the 
motor  aspects  of  the  perception  of  a  melody. 


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SUGGESTIONS  TOWARD  A  MOTOR  THEORY  OF  MELODY. 

Such  evidence  of  the  interconnection  between  muscular 
activity  and  melody  experience  as  has  been  here  adduced  is 
too  slender  to  serve  as  the  support  of  an  elaborate  and  detailed 
theory.  But  the  broad  lines  along  which  a  motor  theory 
of  melody  must  some  day  be  worked  out  may  be  with  pro- 
priety suggested  here,  as  harmonizing  with  the  experimental 
facts  in  so  far  as  they  are  available. 

535.  Every  melody,  like  every  other  experience  which  is 
a  '  whole,'  must  have,  in  Aristotelian  phrase,  "  a  beginning,  a 
middle  and  an  end."  A  motor  theory  of  melody  finds  the 
'beginning'  in  the  upsetting  of  established  muscular  tensions 
which  the  onset  of  the  tonal  sequence  involves. 

The  'middle'  includes  the  taking  of  the  proper  'attitude, ' 
the  organization  of  a  set  of  incipient  responses,  and  then  as 
the  tonal  sequence  proceeds,  the  making  of  these  responses 
explicit  and  overt  in  the  acts  of  responding  to  the  successive 
tones.  Each  tone  demands  a  specific  act  of  adjustment  for 
which  a  general  and  also  a  more  or  less  specific  preparation 
has  already  been  made,  and  each  contributes  in  turn  to  the 
further  more  definite  organization  of  the  total  attitude.  If 
a  tone  appears  which  is  of  such  a  pitch  that  an  entirely  new 
adjustment  is  necessary,  that  tone  is  unrelated:  unity  is 
destroyed;  the  succession  of  tones  is  not  a  melody.  But  if 
the  new  tone  is  so  related  to  its  predecessors  that  it  institutes 
a  response  which  is  in  part  a  continuation  of  the  act  already 
in  progress,  the  unity  is  preserved. 

The  'end'  comes  only  with  the  arrival  of  a  phase  of  the  com- 
plex ongoing  activities  in  which  the  balanced  tensions  can 
merge  into  each  other  and  harmoniously  resolve  theiroppos- 
ii^  strains.     This  becomes  possible  when  a  suflliciently  defi- 


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83  W.  VAN  DtKB  BtNGBAM, 

nite  set  of  expectations  has  been  aroused  and  then  sadsDed. 
Here  we  find  a  reason  why  a  close  on  the  tonic  has  to  be 
'prepared  for,'  in  musical  phraseol(^;y,  by  a  'teadii^  tone' 
not  in  the  tonic  chord.  The  expectations,  the  muscular 
strains  and  tensions,  must  be  developed  to  a  certain  degree 
of  definiteness  of  oi^anization  before  a  return  to  the  tonic 
can  serve  as  the  cue  for  a  general  'resolution.'  'Losung^ 
describes  the  close  of  the  motor  process  somewhat  better  than 
its  English  equivalent,  relaxation.  A  single  muscle  can 
relax.  But  this  process  of  muscular  Losuttg  which  marks  the 
end  of  a  melodic  phrase,  a  spoken  sentence,  or  a  rhythmical 
period,  is  more  than  mere  relaxation;  it  is  an  organized, 
balanced  muscular  "resolution,"  to  borrow  a  very  apt  tech- 
nical term  from  the  musicians. 

Of  some  such  'beginning'  and  of  some  such  'end,'  even  so 
crude  and  apparently  remote  a  line  of  experimental  attack 
as  the  one  we  have  used,  has  furnished  an  indication.  In 
order  to  learn  about  the  nature  of  the  'middle '  muscular  proc- 
esses a  more  refined  way  of  approach  to  the  delicately  com- 
plex mechanism  of  the  melody  experience  must  be  deVised. 
One  would  like  best  of  all  to  record  the  tensions  of  the  laryn- 
geal muscles  when  no  sound  is  being  emitted.  Here  doubt- 
less is  one  of  the  centers,  with  many  persons  at  least,  of 
those  activities  by  means  of  which  a  series  of  separate  musical 
sounds  is  bound  together  into  the  unified  experience  we  call 
a  melody.  Already  some  few  significant  facts  have  been 
accumulated  regarding  vocal  tensions  durit^  auditory  stimu- 
lation. Seashore  and  Cameron  have  independently  demon- 
strated that  a  vocal  tone  sung  against  an  auditory  distrac- 
tion tends  to  vary  toward  a  pitch  which  is  consonant  with 
the  distracting  tone.* 

Is  this  muscular  process  whose  arousal  and  subsidence  give 
shape  and  unity  to  a  melody,  a  rhythm?  It  certainly  has 
many  of  the  earmarks  of  a  rhythm, — its  motor  mechanism, 
its  relaxation  following  tension,  its  conscious  aspect  describ- 
able  as  a  satisfaction  of  expectation — all    these  would  lead 

>  E.  H.  Ctinenw.  "Tonal  Reutioiu."  PtycM.  fict.  Ueno.  SuppUmmOs.  1907, 
8,  187. 


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STUDIES  IN  MEWDY.  83 

one  to  call  it  a  sort  of  macro-rhythm,  a  giant  process  similar 
in  its  essential  nature  to  a  rhythm  in  the  usual  sense.  But 
there  are  fundamental  objections  to  such  an  identification, 
chief  of  which  are  (l)  that  a  rhythm  involves  repeatedly 
recurrent  stresses,  with  recognition  of  similarities,  as  this 
'ground-swell'  muscular  process  does  not,  and  (2)  that  a 
certain  regularity,  with  possible  variations  between  well- 
defined  limits  only,  is  essential  to  rhythms.  The  two  phenom- 
ena, although  both  motor  at  basis,  must  not  be  confused. 

The  experimental  study  of  rhythm  has,  however,  disclosed 
a  motor  phenomenon  essentially  like  the  large,  basic  motor 
activity  underlying  a  melodic  unity.  I  refer  to  the  particular 
sort  of  muscular  tension-relaxation  process  which  Stetson* 
found  to  be  essential  to  the  unity  of  a  group  of  rhythmic  ele- 
ments felt  to  constitute  a  verse,  or  a  rhythmic  phrase. 

Using  a  modification  of  the  principle  of  the  phonographic 
recorder.  Stetson  made  records  of  spoken  verse,  and  measured 
with  microscope  and  micrometer  the  duration  and  the  rela- 
tive intensity  of  the  separate  syllables. 

In  unrhymed  stanzas  the  duration  of  the  verse  pause  was 
found  to  vary  widely,  but  it  was  invariably  longer  than  the 
foot  pause.  The  typical  dynamic  shading  of  the  verse  was 
found  to  be  of  the  crescendo-  diminuendo  form.  The  intro- 
duction of  rhyme  often  shifted  the  climax  of  the  crescendo 
to  the  final  foot  by  increasing  the  intensity  of  the  rhymed 
syllable.  Although  as  great  a  verse  pause  was  found  to  be 
possible  with  rhyme  as  without  it,  the  presence  of  rhyme 
tended  to  shorten  the  verse  pause,  to  bring  the  verse  to  a  close 
more  rapidly. 

WithiD  the  verse  the  general  form  of  the  syllable  as  it  appears  in  the 
mass  of  closely  written  vibrations  often  varies,  but  nearly  always  shows 
a  square  end.  Several  veiy  common  shapes  are  Doticed  and  f^pear  in 
the  record  as 'truncated  cones,'  'boxes'  and  'truncated  spindles.'    .     . 

One  syllable  form  has  an  espedal  interest,  because  of  its 

bearing  on  the  problem  of  '  finality '  feeling  at  the  dose  of  the  verse.  At 
the  dose  of  each  verse,  whether  with  or  without  rhyme,  the  syllable 

>R.  H.  Stetson.  Rhythm  and  Rhyme.  Uanard  Ptyck.  Studies,  VoL  L  Ptyek. 
Re*.  Mono.  Suppl.    igo],  4,  413. 


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84  W.  VAK  DTKE  BINGBAM. 

fonn  is  always  a  'cone.'    Of  about  600  verses  measured  not  more  than 

15  are  exceptions  to  this  rule 

The  fotm  very  rarely  occurs  within  the  verse,  and  when  it  does  it  is 
usually  before  some  caesura,  or  under  unusual  conditions. 

This  'cone'  form  of  the  closing  syllable  of  the  verse  indicates  a  fall- 
ing of  the  intensi^  of  the  voice.  It  is  often,  though  not  always,  asso- 
ciated with  a  fall  in  the  pitch,  showing  relaxation  of  the  vocal  cords. 
It  seems  to  be  an  indication  of  the  dying  out  of  the  intensity  factor,  a 
sinking  of  the  tension,  at  the  dose  of  the  verse.  In  the  case  of  unrhymed 
verses,  with  long  verse  pause,  the  cone  is  often  very  much  elongated,  and 
it  is  quite  impossible  to  say  where  the  sound  ceases.' 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  treat  here  of  those  portions  of  the 
motor  theory  of  rhythm  which  explain,  as  the  central,  or 
"mental  activity"  theories  have  failed  to  do,  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  various  sorts  of  unit  groups.'  We  shall  briefly 
sketch  only  so  much  of  the  theory  as  is  requisite  to  explain 
the  larger  groupings  such  as  the  phrase,  the  verse,  the  period. 

Stetson's  theory  of  rhythm  assumes  a  movement  cycle  in- 
volving the  activity  of  two  opposing  sets  of  muscles.  The 
varying  tension  between  these  muscle  sets  as  beat  follows 
beat  never  entirely  disappears  until  the  close  is  reached. 

The  continuity  of  the  rhythmic  series,  whereby  all  the  beats  of  a 
period  seem  to  belong  to  a  single  whole,  is  due  to  the  continuity  of  the 
muscle  sensations  involved  and  the  continuous  feeling  of  slight  tendon 
between  the  positive  and  negative  muscle  sets;  nowhere  within  the  period 
does  the  feeling  of  strain  die  out. 

But  at  the  dose  of  the  period  we  have  a  pause  which  is  demon- 
strably not  a  function  of  any  of  the  intervals  of  the  period.  During  this 
pause  the  tension  between  the  two  sets  'dies  out,'  and  we  have  a  feelii^ 
of  finality.  This  gradual  dying  out  of  the  tension  is  clearly  seen  in  the 
constant  appearance  of  the  cone-shaped  final  syllable  at  the  end  of  each 
nonsense  verse. 

The  period  composed  of  a  number  of  unit  groups  (the  verse,  in  non- 
sense syllables)  has  a  general  form  which  suggests  strongly  that  it  has 

'  L.  e.,  447- 

'  For  a  detenninatjOD  and  cqdaiutjoD  of  these  peculiarities,  such  as  the  closer 
proximity  of  the  unacceoted  to  the  accented  beat  in  the  iambic  as  coatiasted  with  the 
trochaic  foot,  etc.,  cf,,  StetsoD,"AMotot  Theory  of  Rhythm  and  Discrete  Si 
Psych.  RcB.  IQOJ,  ja,  393  ff. 


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STVDiES  IN  MBWDr.  85 

the  uni^  of  a  single  co5rdiiiated  movement.  There  is  no  more  reason 
for  assuming  a  transcendental  mental  activity  in  the  case  of  a  rhythmic 
period  than  in  the  case  of  a  single  act  which  appears  in  consciousness  as 

a  muty At  some  point  in  the  [>e- 

riod  there  is  a  definite  dimax,  a  chief  accent;  the  movement  'rises'  to 
that  point  and  then  falls  off.  This  is  strikingly  seen  in  nonsense  veises 
qmken  with  a  heavy  accent  within  the  verse.  The  accent  does  not 
stand  out  from  a  dead  level,  but  the  verse  culminates  at  that  point." 

As  a  result  of  his  previous  study  of  perceived  as  opposed 
to  produced  rhythms  and  especially  the  effects  of  rhyme  and 
of  wide  variations  of  tempo, — '1;^,' — introduced  into  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  verse  and  of  the  stanza,  Stetson  was  led  to 
the  conclusion  that 

there  is  some  definite  process  at  the  end  of  the  verse  which  marks 
the  dose  of  the  verse  and  which  takes  more  time  in  the  case  of  blank  verse 
than  in  the  case  of  rhymed  verse.  If  we  conceive  the  end  of  the  verse  as 
a  point  where  a  dying  out  of  the  tension  occurs,  we  may  imagine  that 
the  rhyme  brings  an  emphasis,  and  becomes  a  qualitative  signal  for 
this  rdease.  The  slight  increase  of  intensity  on  the  rhyme  contributes 
to  the  breaking  up  of  the  coSrdination,  and  at  the  same  time  exhausts 

and  satisfies  the  feeling  of  tension  which  the  verse  embodies 

A  qualitative  change  may  be  supposed  to  produce  the  e0ect  more  rapidly 
than  the  simple  dying  out  of  the  tensions,  which  occurs  in  bUnk  verse 
without  a  differentiated  end  accent.' 

This  finality  effect  which  rhyme  augments  is  entirely  analo- 
gous with  the  finality  phenomenon  in  melody.  We  have  seen 
that  in  three-tone  sequences  mere  return  to  the  original  pitch 
mayfumish  thequalitative signal  forthemuscular'resolution.' 
If  the  hnal  tone  is  not  merely  a  repetition  of  the  initial 
tone,  but  has  also  the  characteristics  of  a '  tonic, '  the  com- 
pletion of  the  finality  process  is  much  more  definitely  assured. 
A  third  cause  which  sometimes  operates  to  produce  the 
same  effect  is  the  mere  satisfaction  of  expectation.  If  one 
hears  a  certain  irregular  series  of  pitches,  "  related  "  or  "  unre- 
lated, "  often  enough  so  that  the  final  tone  can  be  recognized 
as  such,  one  comes  to  feel  that  the  group  has  a  certain  sort  of 

'  Rkytkm  and  Kkyme,  4SS- 

*L.C.  t3i. 


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86  W.  VAN  DTKK  BINGBAU. 

unity  even  though  there  is  neither  a  return  to  a  starting  point 
nor  an  end  on  the  tonic.  The  same  holds  true,  to  a  certain 
extent,  with  reference  to  an  unfamiliar  succession  of  tones 
whose  number  is  known  in  advance.  If  the  observer  is  told 
to  expect  four  tones,  a  motor  disposition  or  attitude  is  estab- 
lished which  constitutes  a  preparedness  to  react  to  four  tones, 
and  if  only  three  tones  are  heard,  the  finality  effect  may  fail 
to  appear,  although  the  third  and  final  tone  is  at  once  a 
tonic  and  a  return  to  the  pitch  of  the  initial  tone  of  the 
sequence. 

In  each  of  these  types  of  melodic  finality,  the  closing  tone 
institutes  a  response  which  is  not  wholly  a  new  reaction  but 
which  is,  on  the  contrary,  the  completion  of  an  act  already  tn 
progress.  The  feeling  of  finality  arises  only  when  the  comple- 
tion of  the  act  issues  in  a  muscular  relaxation  which  is  a  dying 
out  of  balanced  tensions.  The  facts  regarding  those  finality 
effects  which  are  due  to  the  falling  inflection  also  coincide  with 
such  a  view.  Rise  in  pitch  is  not  merely  a  result  of  increased 
tension  of  the  vocal  apparatus:  it  likewise  produces  increased 
muscular  tension  in  the  hearer.  A  falling  inflection  at  the 
close  consequently  serves  to  hasten  the  relaxation  process 
which  marks  the  completion  of  the  melody. 

Finally,  a  motor  theory  of  melody  makes  possible  an  unam- 
biguous statement  of  the  nature  of  melodic  "relationship." 
Two  or  more  tones  are  felt  to  be  "  related  "  when  there  is  com- 
munity of  organized  response.  "Unrelated"  pitches  fall 
apart  because  each  demands  its  own  separate  attentive  act  of 
adjustment;  but  with  "related"  tones  the  attitude  which 
appears  as  a  response  to  the  first  is  a  preparation  for  the 
response  to  the  second  and  is  completed,  not  destroyed,  by 
that  response.  The  feeling  of  "relationship"  is  the  feeling 
that  arises  when  the  tones  elicit  reactions  which  are  in  some 
measure  common.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  first  tone 
calls  up  one  set  of  associates  and  establishes  a  certain  attitude 
or  organization  of  incipient  tendencies,  while  the  second  tone 
tends  to  call  up  a  set  of  associates  and  establish  an  attitude 
which  is  at  variance  with  the  first,  there  can  be  no  adequacy  of 
coordinated  response  and  the  feeling  of  "relationship"  is  pre- 
vented from  arising. 


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STUDIES  IK  MBLODT.  87 

The  origin  of  these  well-articulated  responses  which  gener- 
ate the  feelings  of  "relationship"  is  not  to  be  sought  in  a 
single  source.  The  operation  of  two  main  forces  must  he 
distinguished — one  of  them  sensory,  the  other  associative. 
The  first  of  these,  the  phenomenon  of  consonance,  is  native 
and  doubtless  has  its  basis  in  the  relatively  simple  action  of 
the  sensory  apparatus  in  responding  to  auditory  stimuli  which 
are  mcM^  or  less  similar — are,  indeed,  in  a  measure  identical. 
But  although  the  basis  for  consonance  inheres  in  the  inborn 
structure  of  the  nervous  system  and  the  acoustical  properties 
of  vibrating  bodies,  nevertheless  it  isa  commonplace  of  musi- 
cal history  and  observation  that  these  same  native  tendencies 
are  subject  to  tremendous  modification  in  the  course  of  experi- 
ence. One  race,  one  age  hears  as  consonant  intervals  which 
another  age  or  race  has  never  learned  to  tolerate;  and  within 
the  history  of  individuals  it  is  easily  observable  that  conso- 
nance and  dissonance  are  merely  relative  terms  whose  deno- 
tation shifts  with  growing  experience.  Moreover  the  whole 
complex  group  of  phenomena  we  call  tonality  bears  witness 
to  the  f)ower  of  association  to  amplify  and  oi^anize  these 
native  feelings. 

But  the  associative  factor  or  the  factor  of  experience  is 
directly  efficient  in  determining  what  tones  shall  be  felt 
as  "related,"  quite  apart  from  any  effects  which  it  has  upon 
judgments  of  consonance.  Mere  custom,  mere  habituation 
to  a  certain  succession  of  pitches  results  in  a  facility  of  recog- 
nition and  response  which  is  capable  of  generating  these 
feelings  of  "relationship."  The  same  kind  of  coordinated 
reaction  is  instituted  and  this  makes  possible  the  same  result- 
ant feeling  as  that  brought  about  by  response  to  two  succes- 
sive consonant  tones.  The  "relationship  "  is  in  both  instances 
traceable  to  the  motor  phase  of  the  process. 

The  unity,  then,  which  marks  the  difference  between  a  mere 
succession  of  discrete  tonal  stimuli  and  a  melody,  arises  not 
from  the  tones  themselves:  it  is  contributed  by  act  of  the 
listener.  When  tone  follows  tone  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
hearer  can  react  adequately  to  each,  when  the  response  to 
the  successive  members  of  the  series  is  not  a  series  of  separate 


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88  W.  YAM  BTKM  MIMCaAM. 

or  conflicting  acts  but  rather  in  each  instance  only  a  continu- 
ation or  further  elaboration  of  an  act  already  going  forward, 
then  the  tones  are  not  felt  as  discrete,  separate,  independent, 
but  as  "related"  to  each  other.  And  when,  finally,  theseries 
of  tones  comes  to  such  a  close  that  what  has  been  a  continuous 
act  of  response  is  also  brought  to  definite  completion,  the 
balanced  muscular  "resolution"  gives  rise  to  the  feeling  of 
finality,  and  the  series  is  recognized  as  a  unity,  a  whole,  a 
melody. 


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Psychological  Monographs 


April,  1911 
Wbck  N*^  f  I 


Psychological  Review 


SDITMD  BY 

JOHN  B.  WATSON 

JOHHI    HoTKni  DKtnMtTT 

JAMES  R.  ANOEIX 
Uhivihitt  or  Cbicaoo 


Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  American  Psycho- 
logical Association  on  the  Teaching  of  Psychology. 

Presented  to  the  Association  December  29,  1909. 


Committee : 
Carl  E.  Seashore,  Chairman 
James  R.  Angell 
Maiy  Whiton  Calkins 
Edmund  C.  Sanford 
Guy  Montrose  Whipple 


Published  by  the  Association. 


THE  REVIEW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

41  NORTH  QUEEN  ST.,  LANCASTER,  PA. 
AND  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


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DiBiiizcdb,  Google 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  THE  TEACH- 
ING OF  PSYCHOLOGY. 

To  the  Members  of  the  American  Psychohgical  Assodaiion: 

Your  committee  appointed  a  year  ago  to  investigate  and 
report  upon  the  teaching  of  psychology  respectfully  submits 
its  report  herewith. 

The  committee  at  once  limited  its  investigation  to  the 
teiaching  of  the  first  year  course  in  psychology;  and,  to  secure 
uniformity,  this  course  was  defined  as  a  sophomore  course  run- 
ning three  hours  a  week  throughout  the  year,  or  five  hours  a 
week  for  one  semester,  whether  this  time  is  given  to  a  single 
course  or  to  two. 

The  committee  then  resolved  itself  into  three  subcommittees 
for  the  division  of  labor  as  follows: 

1.  The  Normal  Schools,  Guy  Montrose  Whipple. 

2.  The  Colleges  without  laboratories,  Mary  Whiton  Cal- 
kins. 

3.  TheColIegesandUniversitieswithlaboratories,  Edmund 
C.  Sanford,  James  R.  Angell. 

Each  of  these  subcommittees  has  circulated  a  questionary, 
worked  over  the  returns,  and  made  certain  recommendations 
on  the  basis  of  these  returns.  E^ach  of  these  four  reports  is 
herewith  presented  entire  and  independent.  The  arrangement 
represents  the  division  of  labor  in  the  committee.  No  effort 
has  been  made  to  reduce  these  individual  contributions  to 
any  formal  committee  report  having  the  stamp  of  authority 
either  from  the  committee  as  a  whole  or  from  the  Association. 
Our  aim  has  been  to  present  a  survey  of  existing  conditions, 
to  bring  t<^ether  some  of  the  most  helpful  hints  for  improve- 
ment, and  to  stimulate  interest  and  effective  cooperation  for 
the  advancement  of  the  teaching  of  the  first-year  course  in 
psychology. 

The  committee  tenders  its  most  sincere  thanks  to  all  the 
psychologists  who  have  given  their  generous  cooperation  in 
answering  our  inquiries. 


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THE  TEACHING  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  NORMAL 

SCHOOLS. 

By  Guy  Montrose  Whipple. 

Comdl  UnivertUy. 

This  report  is  based  upon  loo  replies  (84  from  public,  16 
from  private  normal  schools),  which  were  received  in  response 
to  a  printed  questionary,  mailed  to  the  259  institutions  (189 
public,  70  private)  listed  as  normal  schools  in  the  Report  of 
the  United   States  Commissioner  of  Education   for    1907. 

The  following  states  are  not  represented  in  my  replies: — 
Arkansas,  Georgia,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Missouri, 
New  Hampshire,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island,  Tennessee,  and  Texas. 
In  the  consideration  of  the  items  which  follow,  therefore,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  1 1  state  systems  are  unrepre- 
sented, and  that  somewhat  less  than  half  of  the  existing  institu- 
tions have  contributed  data.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  safe,  I 
believe,  to  regard  this  report  as  a  fair  representation  of  the  pre- 
sent status  of  psychology  in  our  normal  schools. 

The  printed  questionary  (with  the  omission  of  spaces  left 
for  replies)  is  as  follows: 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  NOR- 
MAL SCHOOLS. 

Please  read  all  the  questions  before  begirtrting  to  answer.  When  the  space 
allowed  is  insufficietU  Jot  your  reply,  phase  attach  extra  sheets,  but  number 
the  replies  thereon  to  correspond  with  the  numbering  of  the  questions.  If 
you  can  do  so,  mail  me  a  catalog  of  your  institution,  and  mark  the  courses 
in  psychology. 

Name  and  location  of  institution. 

Own  name  and  title. 

Address  to  which  you  irish  printed  rqiort  sent. 


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fsrcBouxsr  in  noxmal  schools  3 

A.    GENERALADCOFWOBEINPSYCHOLOGY:  ITSFLACEINTHECCKEICtJI.UH. 

I.  State  concisely  the  general  aim  of  the  work  in  psychology,  i.  e., 
tell  what  it  is  designed  to  do  for  the  students. 

a.  Do  you  give  separate  courses  in  general  (or  elementary)  psychology 
and  in  educational  psychology,  or  are  these  combined  in  one  course? 

3.  Do  you  offer  any  courses  in  experimental  or  laboratory  psychology 
in  addition  to  those  in  general  or  educational  psychology? 

4.  (a)  Have  you  a  psychological  or  psycho-educational  laboratory? 

(b)  Xf  not,  have  you  any  collection  of  psychological  apparatus? 

(c)  What  b  the  approximate  value  of  th^  equipment? 

(d)  When  was  the  laboratory  established? 

(e)  Is  it  supported  by  a  yearly  appropriation?    (f)  How  much? 
(g)  Has  it  separate  rooms  or  is  it  united  with  other  laboratories? 

(N.  B.    In  what  follows,  consider  all  courses  in  psychology.) 

5.  What  is  the  length  of  the  course  or  courses,  *.  e.,  number  of  exerdses 
pet  week,  length  of  each  exercise,  number  of  weeks  given? 

6.  Is  the  course  elective  (freely),  or  is  it  required?  If  the  latter,  of 
what  group  of  students  (what  year,  course,  etc)? 

7.  Is  the  course  a  prerequisite  for  other  courses,  e.  g.,  psychology,  prin- 
dfdes  of  education,  methods,  practise-teaching,  etc.?  (Please  submit  a 
brief  outline  showing  these  interrelations.) 

8.  What  is  the  average  number  of  students  registered  in  the  several 
courses  in  psychology  each  year? 

B.     METHOD  OF  COKDUCTING  THE  WORK. 

9.  Do  you  use  a  r^ular  text-book  or  books?    If  so,  what? 
10.  Does  the  work  in  psychology  center  chiefly  about  l^e  text-book 
(recitations,  discussions,  etc.)? 

II.  If  you  use  any  of  the  following  devices,  indicate  approximatdy 
the  rdative  amount  of  time  devoted  to  their  use: 

(a)  Lectures  by  the  teacher. 

(6)  Demonstrations  by  the  teacher. 

(c)  Experiments  by  students  (give  examines). 

(d)  Class  discussion  of  text  or  lectures. 

(e)  Dictation  by  the  teacher,  to  be  taken  down  verbatim  by  students. 
(J)  Written  exercises  of  various  sorts. 

(g)  Exercises  demanding  introspection  by  students. 

(A)  Exercises  demanding  observation  of  others. 

(t)  Outside  reading  by  students  in  books  other  than  the  text-boc^ 
(Required  of  all  students  or  assigned  individually  for  report? 
If  confined  to  a  few  books,  please  name  these.) 

(j)  Personal  appointments  with  individual  students  to  discuss  dif- 
ficulties, etc. 

(i)  Printed  or  mimeographed  lists  of  questions  or  outlines  for  use  by 
students  to  chedk  up  their  knowledge  of  the  course.  (If  feas* 
iUe,  send  a  copy,  or  state  where  it  may  be  bought.) 

(0  Any  other  devices. 


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4  car  MONTKOSE  WBIPPLE 

13.  Of  the  devices  justmentioned,  which  is  most  valuable  in  aiding  the 
students  to  assimilate  the  work? 

13.  If  you  give  any  demonstrations  in  class,  submit  a  list  of  these. 

14.  Mention  any  pieces  of  apparatus  that  you  consider  eqwdaUy  use- 
ful for  illustration  or  demonstration-work. 

15.  Is  the  class  period  ever  used  merely  as  a  study-period,  or  is  all 
study  done  outside  of  the  classroom? 

16.  If  you  give  lectures,  do  these  merely  illustrate  and  explain  the  text- 
book, or  do  they  develop  topics  not  mentioned  in  the  text? 

17.  Upon  what  is  the  final  grade  of  the  student  determined, — recita- 
tions, exercises,  examination  on  the  text-book,  or  what?  (Please  en- 
dose  a  sample  set  of  examination  questions.) 

18.  Does  the  class  always  meet  as  a  whole,  or  at  times  in  sections?  Is 
it  ever  quizzed  by  assistants  or  by  anyone  other  than  the  regular  teacher? 

19.  Do  you  have  lectures  on  psychological  topics  given  at  your  insti- 
tution by  persons  not  connected  with  your  faculty?  Is  there  any  regular 
system  of  such  lectures? 

C.      CONTENTS  OP  COUBSES. 

{Note.  If  you  faUow  exactly  Ike  topics  and  conietUs  of  a  textbook,  U  may 
not  be  necessary  to  answer  questions  in  this  Section  in  detail.) 

30.  Submit  an  outline  of  the  topics  given  or  discussed,  lecture  by 
lecture,  e.  g.,  (1)  nature  of  psychology,  (2)  nervous  system,  etc. 

31.  Please  iiulicate  as  nearly  as  possible  the  absolute  (or  relative)  time 
that  is  devoted  to  the  following  topics: 

(d)  Development  of  notions  of  scientific  method  (meaning  of  experi- 

ment, introq>ection,  etc.). 

{b)  Quad-pbilosophical  problems,  such  as  the  relation  of  mind  and 
body,  nature  of  mind,  biological  significance  of  consciousness, 
etc. 

(c)  Anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  central  nervous  system. 

{d)  Psychology  of  sensation  (including  structure  of  the  sense- 
organs). 

(e)  Attention  (including  interest). 

(f)  Affective  processes,  feeling,  and  emotion. 
(e)  Reflexes  and  instincts. 

(a)  Psychology  of  learning,  habit,  educative  processes. 

(i)  Complex  forms  of  action,  e.  g.,  impulsive,  selective,  volitional, 

etc. 
(j)  Association. 

(k)  Perception  (including  observation). 
(l)  Memory. 
(m)  Imagination. 

(«)  Conception,  judging,  and  reasoning. 

(0)  Problems  of  mental  development,  such  as  inheritance,  contata 
of  children's  minds,  adolescence,  and  other  child-study  t<^cs. 
(p)  Individual  differences  of  all  kinds. 
iqj  Animal  psychology. 


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FSTCBOUXT  in  SOKMAL  SCHOOLS 


fy)  Borderline  phenomena,  such  as  hypnotism,  sleep,  dreams,  psy- 
chotherapy, etc. 

(s)  Any  other  topics,  such  as  hygiene  of  the  sense-oi^ans,  fatigue, 
psychology  of  primitive  peoples,  etc. 


as.  Do  you  give  instruction  in  other  courses  than  psychology?  If  so, 
in  what? 

23.  Is  there  more  than  one  teacher  directly  or  indirectly  engaged  in 
giving  instruction  in  psychology? 

34.  Do  you  attempt  to  do  any  original  work  in  psychology?  If  so, 
are  you  aided  by  students? 

35.  Enumerate  any  studies  (magazine  articles,  books,  etc.)  on  psycho- 
logical topics  published  by  you  or  by  your  pupUs  in  the  institution. 

a6.  Where  did  you  receive  your  training  in  psychology? 
2j.  What  degrees  do  you  hold,  or  what  diplomas  or  certificates  have  you 
received? 

38.  How  long  have  you  taught  psychology? 

E.     RESULTS,  DIFnCTTLTIES,  POSSIBLE  IHFSOVEUENTS. 

39.  Do  the  students  display  distinct  interest  in  psychology?  In  what 
way? 

30.  Enumerate  the  ways  in  which  you  think  the  work  in  psychology 
helps  the  students  in  their  work  as  teachers. 

31.  Inpresenting  the  subject,  do  you  encounter  any  difficulties  that  the 
text-book  does  not  resolve?    What  are  they? 

3  2 .  If  you  had  a  free  hand,  would  you  make  any  changes  in  your  present 
methods  of  teaching  psychology,  and  if  so,  what  changes? 

33.  In  what  ways  could  this  Committee  be  of  assistance  to  you  in  your 
work? 

F.     KEUASKS. 

Kindly  add  any  remai^  that  would  assist  us  in  understanding  the 
status  of  the  teaching  of  psychology  in  your  institution. 

Before  listing  the  replies  to  the  questionary  in  detail,  a 
bird's-eye  view  of  the  teaching  of  psychology  in  the  normal 
school  may  be  of  value.  Such  a  view  may  be  secured  by  de- 
scribing, on  the  basis  of  the  data  submitted,  the  condition  of 
psychology  in  the  typical  (or  average)  institution. 

In  this  typical  institution,  then,  the  teacher  has  received  his 
training  froiii  an  American  college,  and  holds  a  bachelor's, 
and  possibly  also  an  advanced  d^;ree.  He  has  taught  psy- 
chology for  8.5  years,  has  sole  charge  of  the  courses  therein, 


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CU¥  MONTROSE  WHIPPLE 


and,  in  addition,  gives  instruction  in  certain  courses  in  educa- 
tion. 

His  class  of  107  pupils  demands  much  time  and  energy,  and 
other  circumstances,  such  as  scanty  library  and  laboratory 
facilities  and  the  immaturity  of  his  pupils,  conspire  to  render 
it  difficult  or  impossible  for  him  to  prosecute  original  work,  or 
to  keep  pace  with  the  contributions  of  others. 

In  teaching  psychology,  he  encounters  difficulties,  due  in 
part  possibly  to  his  own  lack  of  preparation,  in  part  to  the  im- 
maturity of  his  pupils,  in  part  to  the  inherent  complexity  of 
the  subject-matter,  but  more  especially  (at  least  in  his  opinion) 
to  the  inadequacy  of  the  available  text-books. 

He  is,  of  course,  anxious  to  improvehis  instruction :  he  would 
would  like  to  know  what  the  instructors  in  other  schools  are 
doing  in  psychology,  and  would  be  glad  to  receive  helpful 
suggestions  concerning  the  arrangements  and  conduct  of  his 
course.  If  he  could,  he  would  extend  the  time  given  to  psy- 
chology, and  would  work  out  more  satisfactory  correlations 
between  the  work  in  psychology  and  that  in  biolc^y  and  in 
education. 

The  coui^e  he  gives  in  psychology  is  a  combination  of  gen- 
eral and  educational  psychology:  it  is  required  of  all  students 
as  a  prerequisite  for  subsequent  or  concurrent  work  in  edu- 
cation,— especially  in  the  study  of  methods  and  in  practise- 
teaching.  The  class  meets  in  one  section  for  45-minute  pe- 
riods.   In  all,  90  (actual)  hours  are  devoted  to  the  subject. 

The  typical  teacher  £ums  to  give  his  pupils  general  familiar- 
ity with  the  laws  and  operations  of  mental  life,  with  the  par- 
ticular idea  of  rendering  this  knowledge  practical  and  useful  in 
the  life  work  of  the  teacher,  and  he  firmly  believes  that  this 
result  is  attained, — that  those  who  have  had  psychology  have 
gained  a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  child's  mental  life,  that 
they  appreciate  the  rationale  of  methods,  and  teach  more  skill- 
fully. Whether  the  students  are  at  the  time  convinced  of  the 
serviceability  of  their  study  of  psychology  is,  perhaps,  an  open 
question.  Probably  about  half  the  class  exhibit  interest:  the 
other  half  take  the  course  because  they  must,  and  in  so  far,  the 
teacher  is  always  conscious  of  the  necessity  of  striving  to  make 
psycholc^y  at  once  attractive  and  practical. 


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MTcaoLOcr  is  sosmal  scbools 


The  content  of  the  course  is  determined  almost  entirely  by 
the  text-book  (probably  some  one  of  the  volumes  of  Angell, 
Halleck,  James,  Thomdike  or  Titchener).  This  text  may  or 
may  not  distribute  the  emphasis  upon  those  topics  that  are 
most  significant  for  education.  The  chances  are  that  too 
much  time  is  paid  to  the  nervous  system  and  not  enough  to 
habit,  the  inheritance  and  acquisition  of  capacities,  and  other 
features  of  the  educative  process.  The  chances  are,  however, 
that  the  distribution  of  time  in  any  single  institution  does 
not  coincide  with  that  in  any  other  institution. 

In  presenting  psychology,  the  teacher  relies  m^nly  on  the 
text-book:  he  lectures  only  occasionally,  and  in  an  informal 
manner,  either  upon  topics  discussed  or  topics  not  discussed 
by  the  text. 

All  studying  is  done  outside  the  classroom. 

The  very  few  demonstrations  that  are  given  are  confined 
to  the  nervous  system,  central  or  peripheral. 

The  student  performs  few  or  no  experiments  for  himself, 
and  is  not  properly  trained  in  introspection;  he  may  submit 
occasional  reports  of  observation  upon  the  children  or  the 
teaching  in  the  practise  school. 

Discussion  in  the  class  is  a  feature  of  the  course  and  there  is 
a  reasonable  amount  of  as^gned  outside  reading,  both  of 
which  devices  are  regarded  as  valuable  adjuncts  of  the  course. 
These  exercises  are  supplemented  by  fairly  frequent  written 
Qcerdses, — themes,  tests,  etc. 

The  chances  are  about  even  that  the  teacher  hasoccasional 
personal  appointments,  especially  with  those  students  whose 
work  is  below  par.  The  chances  are  that  he  does  not  use 
formal  dictation,  or  printed  outiines,  or  quiz-lists. 

Finally,  in  our  'typical'  normal  school  there  is  no  psycho- 
Ic^cal  or  educational  laboratory,  and  probably  not  even  a 
collection  of  apparatus.  If  such  a  collection  exists,  it  is 
probably  confined  to  a  few  models,  charts,  or  lantern  slides 
of  the  nervous  system,  or  to  a  few  'show-pieces'  like  the 
ei^c^raph,  the  color-mixer,  or  a  simple  reaction-time  appara- 
tus. 

With  this  glance  at  the  condition  of  psychology  in  an  aver- 


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8  CVY  MOITTICOSE  WBlfetK 

a^e  normal  school,  we  may.  now  consider  the  statistical  results 
of  the  inquiry  as  exhibited  by  the  returns  from  the  lOO  insti- 
tutions. 

For  convenience  of  discussion,  the  order  of  presentation 
will  depart  from  that  embodied  in  the  questionary.  Atten- 
tion is  asked  (A)  to  the  teachers  (their  training,  opportunities, 
difficulties  and  desires),  (B)  to  the  place  of  psychology  in 
the  curriculum,  (C)  to  the  aim  and  success  attained  in  teach- 
ing psychology,  (D)  to  the  content  of  the  course,  (E)  to  the 
method  of  conducting  it,  (F)  to  the  use  of  experimental  or 
laboratory  work,  (G)  to  a  number  of  conclusions  and  sugges- 
tions. 

A.  THE  TEACHERS 
I.     Their  academic  status 

Question  27.  Degrees.  Of  the  loo  teachers  8i  reported 
collegiate  degrees.  These  include  64  Bachelor's,  47  Master's, 
and  32  Doctor's  degrees,  besides  2  Medical  and  3  Honorary 
degrees.  Five  hold  only  normal-school  diplomas,  or  state 
or  other  certificates. 

Question  26.  Institutions  at  wkick  training  in  psychology 
was  received.  Aside  from  20  normal  schools,  training  in 
psychology  is  reported  as  follows;  at  Chicago,  19;  Columbia, 
14;  Clark,  13;  Harvard,  11;  Michigan,  8;  Indiana,  5;  Penn- 
sylvania, 4;  3  each  at  California,  Jena,  Leipzig,  New  York 
University,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Yale;  2  each  at  Berlin, 
Cornell,  Gdttingen,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Stanford,  Zurich; 
I  each  at  Adelbert,  Albion,  Amherst,  Bryn  Mawr,  Columbian, 
Cumberland,  Edinburg,  Erskine,  Halle,  Hamline,  Hillsdale, 
Hobart,  Howard,  Illinois  College,  Kansas,  Lafayette,  Lebanon, 
Nebraska,  Northern  University,  Oberlin,  Pennsylvania  State 
College,  Smith,  Toronto,  Tennessee,  Tufts,  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  University  of  Nashville,  University  of 
North  Carolina,  Wellesley,  and  Yankton  College.  In  many 
cases  the  teacher  had  attended  two  or  more  institutions  of  col- 
legiate rank. 

Question  28.  Length  of  time  the  teacher  has  taught  psy- 
chology.   The  replies  to  the  question;  "How  long  have  you 


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rsrcBowar  in  normal  schools  g 

taught  psychology?"  are  summarized  in  Table  I,  whence  it 
is  evident  that  teaching-experience  ranges  from  one  term  to 
26  years.  If  we  disregard  the  tendency  to  give  the  nearest 
5-year  multiple, — a  tendency  which  has  obviously  distorted 
the  frequencies  at  5,  10,  20,  and  possibly- at  15  years, — we 
may  determine  the  average  teaching-experience  at  8.5  years. 

Table  i. 
Teaching-Experience,  in  Years,  of  Normal  School  Teachers  o(  Psychology. 
Years...!     1234      s     6     7    S    9     10     It     II     15     17     18     20    25     j6 
Number., 3     565?     i"    3671     14      6      7      2       2      4      $       •       ■ 

Question  23.  Number  teaching  psychology  in  each  school. 
But  43  replies  were  made  to  this  query.  Since,  presumably, 
lack  of  reply  indicates  that  but  one  teacher  is  engaged  in 
psychology,  we  may,  by  adding  9  replies  of  'one  only,'  con- 
clude that  in  65  of  the  100  schools,  the  work  in  psychology  is 
given  by  a  single  teacher.  In  18  schools  there  are  2  teachers 
of  psychology,  in  7  schools  3  teachers,  in  i  school  4  teachers 
in  6  there  is  more  than  one  teacher,  but  the  number  is  not 
stated. 

Question  22.  Number  giving  other  instruction  than  in  psy- 
chology. In  the  typical  normal  school,  not  only  is  there  but 
one  teacher  of  psychology,  but  this  teacher  is  also  in  charge 
of  instruction  in  other,  often  quite  unrelated  subjects.  To 
be  specific,  78  of  the  100  teachers  give  instruction  in  courses 
other  than  psychology.  This  additional  instruction  is  com- 
monly concerned  with  some  phase  of  pedagogy  or  with  logic 
and  ethics,  as  the  following  figures  indicate: 

31  History  of  education.  3  Child-study. 

30  Pedagogy  or 'education.'  3  Biology. 

t4  Methods.  3  Phyacs. 

13  School  administration  or  school  3  Latin. 

management.  3  Economics. 

II  Ethics.  3  Philosophy  of  education. 

10  Logic.  3  Algebra.  - 

8  Principles  of  education.  i  Arithmetic. 

6  Literature.  i  Astronomy. 

6  Histoiy.  I  Botany. 

4  English.  I  Chemistry. 

4  School  law.  I  Critic  teadung. 


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lO  GUr  UONTBOSB  WBIPPLK 

4  Civics.  I  Kinderg&rten  methods. 

3  Philosophy.  i  Manual  training. 

3  Physiology.  i  School  hygiene. 

3  Geography.  i  Seconda^  education. 

I  Zo5logy. 

Question  24.  Original  work  attempt^.  Of  the  lOO  teachers 
who  reported,  22  attempt  to  do  some  form  of  research  work, 
in  which  7  of  them  are  aided  by  seniors  or  selected  pupils. 
But  most  of  these  22  state  that  in  the  normal-school  environ- 
ment it  is  hard  to  get  the  time,  energy,  or  incentive  to  do  such 
work.' 

Question  2S.  Publications  by  teacher  or  pupils.  Twenty- 
seven  normal-school  teachers  have  published  articles  or  books 
upon  psychological  topics.  In  several  instances,  however,  the 
titles  mentioned  are  those  of  doctorate  theses  or  other  studies 
prepared  by  the  teacher  in  the  university  or  at  least  outside  of 
the  normal  school.  It  appears  again,  therefore,  that  only  in  a 
few  exceptional  institutions  are  the  conditions  (whether  of 
teaching  staff  or  institutional  routine)  such  as  to  favor  cre- 
ative work. 

2.     Their  difficulties  and  desires. 

Question  31.  Difficulties  encountered  in  teaching  psychol- 
ogy. Difficulties  are  attributed  (a)  to  the  pupil,  (b)  to  the 
teacher  himself,  (c)  to  the  inherent  complexity  of  certain  top- 
ics, and  (d)  to  the  text-book. 

'The  writer  is  impresMd  with  the  bet  thst  the  (^>portuiiity  ^qiuently  open  to  the 
normil-Khool  teacher  of  psychology  to  conduct  eqieriments  on  4  Unge  scale  in  regaid 
to  the  application  in  classroom  teaching  of  psychological  principles,  >. «.,  the  opportunity 
to  indulge  in  experimental  pedagogy-is  not,  for  one  reason  or  another,  adequately  utili- 
zed. The  model,  practice,  and  observation  dassea  attached  to  the  normal  schools  would 
seem  to  offer  a  rich  field  for  experimental  work  of  this  kind.  The  most  obvious  difficulty 
is,  presumably,  the  lack  of  properly  trained  students,  and  the  short  time  availaUe  in 
the  average  nonnal-school  course,  which  puts  pressure  on  the  teacher  to  concentrate 
his  attention  upon  the  work  of  teaching  his  pupils  the  elementary  facts  of  psydiology. 
But  there  are  a  limited  number  of  normal  schools  that  aspire  to  the  dignity  of  "Normal 
Collies  "and  that  even  grant  an  A.B.  degree.  Here,  with  high-school  preparation  of  all 
students  and  a  four-year  profesuonal  course,  there  should  be  a  place  lor  valuable  experi- 
mental woA. 


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fSYCBOLOcr  m  sokmal  schools  i  i 

(a)  The  pupil  is  said  to  be  too  immature  (2)*  or  disin- 
clined to  think,  to  be  willing  to  mjister  the  text,  but  not  the 
subject. 

(d)  Only  two  teachers  attribute  their  difficulties  in  some 
measure  to  themselves.  One  teacher  does  not  feel  sure  what 
ought  or  what  could  be  taught  in  psychology  in  the  normal 
school :  another  regrets  his  inability  to  keep  up  with  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject. 

(c)  Special  difficulty  is  reported  with  heredity,  the  theory 
of  evolution,  the  psychol(^y  of  hearing,  the  affective  pro- 
cesses, the  "physiolc^cal  side,"  the  nervous  system,  the 
history  of  psychology,  volition,  the  hygiene  of  study,  the 
functional  point  of  view,  the  tendency  to  confuse  the  mental 
and  the  physical.  Five  teachers  say  that  the  principal 
difficulty  is  that  of  so  adapting  psychology  that  it  shall  bear 
on  the  daily  life  of  the  pupils  and  particularly  upon  the  work 
of  teaching.  Two  believe  that  the  absence  of  a  laboratory 
equipment  makes  their  work  more  difficult. 

(d)  But  the  text-book  is  evidently  the  bite-noire  of  the 
normal-school  teacher,  although  at  the  same  time,  as  will  be 
seen  later,  it  is  a  main  reliance  in  his  teaching.  The  text- 
book is  said  to  have  too  few  historical  sketches,  to  be  too 
vague,  too  abstract  (5),  too  difficult  (6),  too  technical  in 
terminology  (5).  It  fails  to  show  the  bearing  of  psychology 
upon  conduct,  and  fails  to  make  proper  use  of  the  student  as 
his  own  laboratory  {3).  "The  scientific  texts  are  too  hard: 
the  easy  texts  are  not  scientific. "  Those  at  present  on  the 
market  are  declared  to  be  "the  pedag(^cal  blunders  of  great 
scientists  who  know  enough  psycholc^y  to  write  a  book,  but 
not  enough  to  understand  the  mind  of  the  high-school  graduate. 
Again,  it  is  remarked  that  "  the  text-book  doesn't  resolve  any 
difficulties:  it  makes  them." 

Question  33.  How  assistance  could  berendered.  The  normal- 
school  teachers  think  that  they  could  be  best  helped  in  their 
work  (a)  by  the  preparation  and  circulation  of  reports  such 

'Numben  in  parentheses  following  duaificatoir  data  in  this  and  other  pangr^du 
refer  to  the  niunber  of  reports  in  triiich  the  data  appear,  but  irtiere  an  itemiamentioaed 
but  once  the  number  has  been  frequently  omitted. 


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1 1  Gur  MONmosE  wbifflk 

as  the  present  one,  because  they  "want  to  know  what  others 
are  doing"  (incidentally,  a  few  desire  that  this  report  be  sent 
to  their  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  or  to  those 
that  prepare  the  state  examinations  in  psychology),  (6)  by 
extending  suggestions  as  to  the  arrangement  and  conduct  of 
courses  in  psychology,  (d)  by  giving  attention  to  the  text- 
book evil,  and  (e)  in  miscellaneous  ways. 

(b)  The  desire  (or  help  in  the  conduct  of  oiurses  may  be 
evidenced  by  the  following  quotations:  "Outline  for  us  a 
laboratory  course,  giving  a  list  of  apparatus,  maker,  cost, 
etc."  "Outline  a  course  in  educational  psychology,  with 
experiments  and  apparatus"  (2).  "Outline  a  two-year 
course  in  normal-school  psychology,  recommending  texts,  and 
supplying  a  bibliography."  "Outline  a  20-weeks  course  in 
psychology."  "Show  us  how  to  teach  psychology  to  16- 
year  old  pupils."  "Set  standards  for  this  kind  of  work. 
Show  us  the  essentials"  (3).  "Suggest  books  on  the  psy- 
chology of  method,"  etc. 

(d)  Five  teachers  beg  the  Committee  to  write  "a  decent 
text-book. "  The  characteristics  of  such  a  text  are  also  speci- 
fied by  several  correspondents:  it  should  be  "aliving,  working 
psychology,"  "one  that  is  free  from  scientific  3lang,"(!)  "one 
that  treats  of  psychology  as  personal  experience,"  and  "a 
sensible  one  for  beginners." 

(e)  Other  suggestions  of  ways  of  assistance  are :  "  Develop 
cooperation  between  university  and  normal-school  teachers. " 
"Find  out  from  teachers  who  have  graduated  from  normal 
schools  what  work  In  psychology  was  actually  helpful  to 
them."  Some  teachers  ask  for  specific  information,  e.g., 
"Give  me  some  scientific  information  about  the  relation  of 
blood  to  brain  activity."  "Tell  me  if  there  are  any  psycho- 
logical differences  between  the  whites  and  the  colored  race." 

Question  32.  Changes  desired.  The  changes  that  would 
be  made  by  the  teachers  of  psychology,  if  they  had  a  free 
hand,  relate  in  the  main  either  (a)  to  the  place  of  psychology 
in  the  curriculum  and  its  relation  to  other  branches,  or  (ft) 
to  the  content  or  method  of  the  course. 

(a)     The  crying  need  is  that  of  more  time  (11).     It  is  also 


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rsTCBOLOcr  in  NOKMAL  SCSOOLS  13 

desired  to  defer  psychology  until  the  last  year  (3),  or  to  divide 
the  work  into  two  courses,  an  elementary  and  an 
advanced  (3).  The  wish  is  expressed,  also,  for  better  articu- 
lation with  biology  (3),  physiology  (3),  pedagogy,  school 
hygiene,  methods,  and  practise  teaching. 

{b)  So  far  as  alteration  of  content  or  method  of  presenta- 
tion is  concerned,  it  is  significant  that  19  wish  to  introduce 
laboratory  or  experimental  work.  Seven  wish  to  give  more 
exercises  in  the  observation  of  children,  4  to  "emphasize  the 
genetic  side,"  e.g.,  by  adding  a  course  in  child-study,  4  to 
give  more  demonstrations  in  class,  3  to  work  more  by  the 
inductive  method.  Other  desired  changes  are  to  emphasize 
social  psychology,  philosophy,  religion,  and  mental  hygiene, 
to  provide  more  reference  books,  to  institute  more  group  work, 
more  conferences  with  students,  to  give  intensive  work  on  a 
few  important  topics,  to  increase  the  teaching  staff,  and  to 
provide  a  vacant  period  after  each  recitation  for  use  in  dis- 
cussion, conferences,  experiments,  etc. 

B.       THE  PLACE  OP  PSYCHOLOGY  IN  THE  CURRICXn.tTU. 

Question  8.  Number  of  students.  Restricting  considera- 
tion where  more  than  one  course  is  offered  to  the  introductory 
or  first  general  course  in  psychology,  we  find  that  90  institu- 
tions report  9,669  students  in  psychology,  an  average  per 
class  of  107.3  (in.v.  68.6).  The  largest  number  is  500,  at 
Ypsilanti,  Michigan;thesmallest5,attheJ.  K.  Birch  [Private] 
School,  Enfield,  N.  C. 

Question  18.  Meeting  in  sections  or  as  a  whole?  In  71 
schools  the  psychology  class  meets  as  a  whole;  in  14  it  meets 
in  2,  3,  6,  8  or  9  sections.  In  6  institutions  the  class  meets 
occasionally  in  sections,  e.g.,  for  laboratory,  or  some  form  of 
advanced  work. 

Question  2.  Elementary  and  educational  psychology  com- 
bined or  separate?  The  97  replies  show  that  these  courses  are 
combined  in  67,  separated  in  30  institutions. 

Question  6.  Elective  or  required  course?  Only  6  schools 
report  elective  courses.    These  courses  may  be  taken  after 


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14  GVF  MOr/TSOSE  WBIPPLB 

the  introductory  course  in  general  psychology  (including 
usually  educational  psycholt^y),  and  are  devoted  to  such 
phases  as  physiological,  genetic,  or  abnormal  psychology,  or 
'mental  hygiene.' 

Question  6  (ctmtinued).  Required  of  what  group  of  students? 
It  is  impossible  from  the  data  at  hand  to  draw  reliable  con- 
clusions upon  this  point,  both  because  practise  evidently 
differs  widely  in  different  institutions,  and  because  the  normal- 
school  course  varies  from  i  to  4  years  in  length,  and  the 
descriptive  terms  "2d  year,"  "Junior,"  "Sophomores,"  etc., 
have  no  meaning  unless  a  catalogue  of  every  school  is  at  hand  ' 
to  discover  their  significance.  From  appended  remarks, 
however,  it  is  clear  that  two  factors  are  at  work,  (l)  a  desire 
to  postpone  psycholt^y  as  late  as  possible  in  order  that 
students  may  be  more  mature  and  experienced,  and  (a)  a 
desire  to  introduce  it  earlier  so  that  it  may  serve  as  a  basis  for 
the  study  of  method,  and  for  observation-work  and  practise- 
teaching.  Even  when  psychology  is  deferred  to  the  final  year 
of  the  normal-school  course,  it  precedes  or  accompanies  the 
courses  and  work  just  mentioned.  In  a  few  schools  a  very 
elementary  course  is  given  in  the  first  and  a  more  systematic 
course  in  the  last  year, — a  procedure  which  evidently  aims  at 
the  accomplishment  of  both  of  the  desires  cited. 

Question  7.  Psychology  a  prerequisite  for  what  courses? 
As  has  been  noted,  psychology  in  the  normal  schools  is  a 
required  subject  and  must  commonly  precede  certain  other 
courses.  In  the68  replies  received  to  Question7,thesesequent 
courses  are  specified  as  follows :  practise- teaching  (48) ,  general 
or  special  method  (29),  pedagogy  in  general  (17),  history  of 
education  (13),  principles  of  education  (12),  observation 
work  (9),  supervision  or  school  man^ement  (9),  philosophy 
of  education  (6),  advanced  psychology  (3),  child-study  (3), 
moral  philosophy  (i). 

Question  5.  Length  of  the  course.  The  length  of  each  daily 
exercise  in  psychology  was  reported  by  83  institutions.  From 
the  accompanying  distribution  (Table  2)  it  is  clear  that  40- 
45  minutes  is  the  typical  class  period  in  the  normal  school. 
The  few  cases  of  90-minute  exercises  presumably  refer  to 


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psrcBOLoar  in  nokmal  schools 


laboratory  or  demonstration  periods  or  to  exerdses  given 
over  partly  to  observations,  discussions,  etc. 

Tabu  3. 
Number  of  Minutea  Devoted  to  CIui  Period*  in  Psycbcdogy. 


In  81  reports,  the  data  were  sufficient  to  enable  the  compu- 
tation (with  a  possible  error  of  some  5  per  cent)  of  the  total 
time  (in  60-minute  hours)  given  to  psychol(^y.  The  results 
are;  average  time,  90  hours  (m.v.  34);  maximum,  270  hours 
(3  years,  120  weeks,  at  the  State  Normal  School,  Albany, 
N.  Y.);  minimum,  22.5  hours,  (10  weeks,  three  45-minute 
periods  each,  at  the  State  Normal  School,  Danbury,  Conn.). 
These  extremes  and  the  large  mean  variation  of  the  averse 
indicate  that  there  exists  litUe  ^reement  in  normal  schools 
with  regard  to  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  psychology. 

C.     THE  AIM  IN  TEACHING  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  ITS  REALIZATION. 

Question  1.  General  aim  of  the  course.  The  usual  answers 
are:  the  aim  of  psychology  is  to  give  a  general  familiarity 
with  the  operations  and  the  laws  of  mental  activity  (28)  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  afford  a  satisfactory  basis  for  the  art  of 
teaching  (75).  Less  frequentiy  is  the  aim  considered  to  be  the 
supplying  of  general  culture  (19).  The  introductory  course 
is  often  conducted  primarily  as  the  basis  for  further  study 
of  advanced  psychology  (22).  In  a  few  instances  (3),  the 
aim  is  frankly  stated  to  be  the  satisfaction  of  legal  require- 
ments. 

Question  29.  Interest  displayed  by  students.  Of  54  replies, 
distinct  interest  is  reported  in  50,  interest  on  the  part  of  a  few 
students  in  4  cases.  It  may  be  fair  to  assume  that  in  the  46 
institutions  that  fail  to  reply,  little  interest  is  shown  in  psy- 
chology. When  it  is  displayed,  interest  is  said  to  be  mani- 
fested by  questions,  by  participation  in  discussioBS  aad 
debates  (21),  by  the  voluntary  assumption  of  studyand  lead- 
ing beyond  the  class  assignments  (14),  by  the  appUcatiaa  of 


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t(i  GVY  MOKTKOSR  WBIPPLE 

psychological  principles  in  practise- teaching  (9), by  general 
good  work  and  zeal  in  the  classroom  (5),  by  the  election  ci 
non<required  advanced  courses  (3),  by  continuing  to  study 
psychol(^^  after  graduation  (2),  by  acknowledging  help  from 
psychology  in  other  studies  (2),  by  acknowledging  a  changed 
attitude  toward  books,  people,  and  life  in  general  (2). 

Question  30.  How  psychology  helps  students  in  their  work 
as  teachers.  As  already  noted,  a  primary  aim  in  normal- 
school  psychology  is  to  afford  a  basis  for  the  art  of  teaching. 
It  is  evident  that  as  a  rule,  the  teachers  of  psychology,  believe 
that  this  aim  is  attained,  though  not  to  the  degree  that  might 
be  wished.  We  have,  unfortunately,  no  information  from 
the  graduates  of  the  schools  themselves  as  to  the  value  they 
have  gained  from  psychology:  according,  however,  to  the 
school  authorities,  psycholc^y  gives  teachers  greater  sym- 
pathy, tolerance,  and  patience  (10) ,  enables  them  to  teach  more 
intelligentiy,  scientifically  and  skillfully  (8), especially  because 
they  know  how  to  organize  or  plan  their  work,  (8)  and  see  the 
reasons  for  the  devices  and  rules  of  method  (6),  which  now 
become  guides  instead  of  rules,  so  that  teaching  becomes  a 
profession  instead  of  a  trade  (2).  Psycholc^y  develops 
thoughtfulness  (2),  an  investigating  spirit  (2),  and  common- 
sense  (i);  it  prevents  sentimentalism,  makes  students  more 
critical  (i),  in  that  they  search  for  causes  and  know  what 
proof  is  (i);  it  makes  them  also  more  observant  (2),  more 
confident  (i),  more  tactful  (i),  more  progressive  (i).  It 
''pves  a  safe  attitude  toward  mental  processes"  (1),  and 
makes  a  saner  disciplinarian  (i).^ 

Psycholt^y  is  calculated  also  to  improve  the  relation  of  the 
teacher  to  the  child,  since  the  teacher  who  has  studied  psy- 
(Aology  has  a  better  understanding  of  the  child's  nature  (7), 
knows  what  to  expect  and  what  not  to  expect  of  children  (6), 
and  appreciates  individual  differences  in  children  (6). 

■Id  the  irords  of  one  enthusiutic  teacher:  "If  the  great  truths  presented  thereiiiu« 
Gompreheiided,  the  teacher  is  enabled  to  see  life  as  a  compact  whole,  with  all  itt  mem- 
bers bound  tx>Kether  by  a  common  Creator,  common  tenqitations,  and  a  common  des- 
tiny. He  is  able  to  rise  above  the  petty  vexatious  things  of  every-day  life  to  the  serene 
hdghts  attained  only  by  those  who  can  see  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  the  plan  of 
an  all-wise  Creator  working  itself  out  to  a  glorious  triumphant  endingl" 


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PSrCBOWCr  IN  NOKMAL  SCHOOLS  IJ 

Again,  psychology  renders  assistance  because  it  makes 
clear  the  real  nature  of  the  educative  process  (2),  particularly 
of  the  process  of  learning  (1),  and  shows  the  teacher  how  to 
develop  concepts  (l),  how  to  develop  ideals  and  motives  (i), 
how  to  secure  independent  work  by  pupils  (i),  and  how  to 
utilize  play,  imitation,  suggestion,  and  other  instinctive  ten- 
dencies. 

By  showing  the  physical  conditions  of  mental  life,  psy- 
cholc^y  enables  teachers  to  understand  mental  hygiene  (3). 
It  is  said  both  to  "get  students  away  from  books,"  and  to 
"enable  them  to  understand  pedagogical  literature." 

"  It  induces  organization  with  reference  to  development  of 
children,  school  hygiene-nature  and  value  of  subject-matter, 
means  of  communication,  personal  and  social  control  "(i). 

D.      THE  CONTENT  OF  THE  COURSE  IN  PSYCHOLOGY. 

Question  20.  Outline  of  topics  presented.  Only  8  outlines 
were  submitted  in  response  to  this  query.  These  have  been 
subsumed  under  Question  2 1 .  One  institution  follows  a  state 
syllabus:  several  institutions  shift  the  contents  of  the  course 
from  year  to  year:  27  follow  a  prescribed  text-book  for  the 
content,  and  of  the  60-odd  institutions  that  remain,  the 
majority  may  be  assumed  to  follow  a  text*book,  so  that  the 
content  of  the  course  is  best  indicated  in  the  list  of  texts  that 
follows. 

Question  9.  Text-book  used?  If  so,  what?  (a)  No  text 
is  used  in  5  institutions,  a  single  text-book  in  34,  two  texts  in 
26,  three  texts  in  15,  four  or  more  texts  in  12  institutions. 
Many  teachers  assert  emphatically  that  no  one  should  attempt 
to  teach  psychology  with  but  a  single  text-book,  and  it  is 
probable  that,  of  the  34  that  use  only  a  single  text,  there  is 
more  or  less  use  of  other  books  for  collateral  reading. 

(b)    Classification  of  texts  used  in  normal  schools. 

If  we  divide  the  texts,  as  reported,  into  three  groups,  we 
obtain  the  following  distribution:  (i)  extensively  used, — 
Angell,  Halleck,  James,  Thomdike,  Titchener;  (2)  less  exten- 


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I8  GDV  MOSTSOSR  WBtfPLS 

sively  used, — Betts,  Dexter  and  Garlick,  Gordy,  Kirkpatrick 
Salisbury,  Witmer,  (3)  used  only  occasionally, — Baker,  Bald- 
win,  Binet,  Buelt,  Davis,  Deatrick,  Dewey,  Hall,  Hannahs, 
Harris,  Hill,  Home,  Huey,Judd,  Ladd,  Maher,  McLellan, 
Morgan,  Putnam,  Ribot,  Roark,  Sanford,  Seashore,  Stout, 
Sully,  Tracy,  White. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  of  course,  that  many  institutions 
that  use  one  of  these  books  for  a  text  make  more  or  less  use 
of  others  for  outside  reading,  especially  of  texts  on  experi- 
mental work,  such  as  Judd,  Seashore,  Sanford,  Titchener, 
Witmer.  Use  is  made  also  of  Baldwin's  Dictionary  of  Psychol- 
ogy and  of  texts  in  neurology  and  physiology. 

Question  2 1 .  Distribution  of  time  to  the  several  topics  within 
the  course.  Because  the  majority  of  teachers  follow  the  dis- 
tribution found  in  the  text-book  at  hand  it  is  well-nigh  impos- 
sible to  present  a  satisfactory  picture  of  the  distribution  of 
time  in  normal  schools  to  the  several  topics  that  comprise 
the  usual  course  in  psychology.  Unless  these  text-books  are 
collected  and  examined,  the  status  of  the  courses  in  which  they 
are  used  cannot  be  reduced  to  quantitative  terms,  and  the 
difficulty  of  this  task  has  seemed  out  of  proportion  to  the 
probable  value  of  the  results  that  would  be  obtained.  In 
some  35  cases,  the  classification  embodied  in  the  quesdonary 
has  been  utilized,  and  these  data  have  been  summarized  in 
Table  3.» 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  feature  of  this  Table  is  the 
divergence  that  it  reveals  in  the  extent  of  time  that  different 
institutions  devote  to  the  several  topics.  This  divergence  is, 
of  course,  due  in  large  part  to  the  divergence  already  noted  in 
the  total  amount  of  time  devoted  to  psychology,  yet  it  seems 
worth  while  to  accentuate  the  variability  in  the  allotment  of 

'Id  ezpUnatioii  of  this  Table,  it  should  be  uid  tlut  the  data  were  submitted  ia  abto- 
lute,  ia  icUtive,  and  in  descriptive  teims.  Where  the  distribution  of  time  was  indicated 
as  a  fraction  of  the  totiU  time,  this  has  been  recalculated  by  reference  to  the  data  sap- 
plied  under  Question  5  lo  that  it  might  be  stated  in  absolute  units.  The  descriptive 
terms  have  been  reduced  to  three  groiqM,  (i)  "incidental,"  "brief,"  or  "very  little," 
{»)  "■ome,""occaMonal,"  (3)  "much,"  "wnphaaitwl,"  or  "spedal attention." 


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FSYcaouoor  in  nokmal  schools 


time  by  bringing  together  in  another  place  (Table  4)  the  min- 
imal and  the  maximal  time  devoted  to  the  several  topics,  in  so 
far  as  this  is  revealed  by  the  data  of  Table  3.' 

Table  3. 
DufrtfrvliM  of  Time  to  Various  Topics  in  Fsycliology,  by  Itumbtr  of  InttiHiUoiu. 


1 

■5-H 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

■ 

! 

i 

: 

1 

i 

1 
1 

1 

A 

b 

c 

d 

« 

t 

8 

h 

i 

i 

k 

I 

m 

. 

0 

P 

q 

r 

• 

I 

3 

, 

J 

I 

, 

, 

3 

., 

Lessons         i 
3 

6 

5 

9 

S 

' 

3 

3 

, 

6 

J 

^ 

3 

3 

] 

4 
3 

' 

3 

4 

3 

4 
3 

t 

4 

' 

^ 

* 

» 

^ 

^ 

" 

' 

3 

3 

• 

' 

' 

, 

, 

6 

7 

7 

6 

7 

4 

6 

u 

9 

10 

7 

, 

J 

I 

4 

3 

» 

3 

8 

8 

8 

'3 

8 

9 

9 

5 

5 

7 

9 

'3 

I 

I 

I 

3 

I 

I 

4 

3 

I 

2 

I 

3 

1 

S 

4 

1 

1 

t 

4 

3 

3 

» 

* 

3 

> 

' 

Weds 

6 
9 

»4 

■ 

■ 

I 

VeryUttk.... 

S 

8 

4 

, 

, 

3 

3 

S 

3 

, 

1 

, 

, 

4 

4 

10 

6 

Some. 

4 

4 

1 

a 

6 

' 

' 

3 

9 

S 

3 

7 

" 

4 

S 

S 

3 

6 

6 

' 

■This  divergence  in  emphasis  of  different  pluses  of  psydiology  io  the  normal  school 
msy  be  further  illustrated  by  the  following  examples  of  questions  selected  from  num- 
erous ezamination  papas  submitted  with  the  replies  to  the  questionary.  An  inqtec- 
tion  of  these  questions  will  convince  the  reader  that  the  instruction  in  the  schools  con- 
cerned is  sometimes  too  technical,  sometimes  too  diSuse,  and  that  it  often  exacts  on 
the  part  of  the  piqiih  ability  to  answer  questions  that  scarcely  confonn  to  a  sdentlfic 
standard. 

I.  On  what  docs  the  value  of  a  school  eierdse  depend? 

3.  Why  is  he  who  is  no  longer  a  student  unfit  to  lead  others? 

3.  Name  lo  standpoints  from  which  one  may  study  the  stream  of  thought. 


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GBf  MONTSOSB  WBIPFLS 


Minimal  and  Maximol  Amovnti  of  Time  DaeUi  to  Important  Topia  in  Ikt  Cenrst  n 
Psydulogy. 


Topic. 

(a)  Sdentificmethodi 

(b)  Quaai-philoMiplucal  probtani 

(c)  Central  nervous  system 

(d)  Sensation  and  the  sense-oigans. 

<c)  Attention  and  iotcRat 

(f)  Afiection,  feeling,  and  emotion 

(g)  Reflexes  and  instincts 

(h)  Learning,  habit,  educative  processes 

(i)  Action  and  volition 

(j)  Association 

(k)  Perception  and  observation 

(1)    Memoiy 

(m)  Imagination 

(q)  Conception,  judging,  reasoning 

(o)  Mental  development,  heredity,  child-study 

and  adolescence 

(p)  Individual  differences 

(q)  Animal  psychology 

(r)  Hypnotism,  sleep,  dreams,  etc 

(s)  Hygieneoftbesenses, fatigue, etc 


HinlmilTImt.  MutatlTI 


I  Lesson 

aLessons 
3  Lessons 


4PeTiodi 
jWe^ 
9We^ 
9  Weeks 
3Weeb 
3We^ 

3  Weeks 
6  Weeks 

4  Weeks 
jWe^ 
4We^ 

3  Weeks 
>We^ 

4  Weeks 

i4Wedks 
sWe^ 
SWeAs 

3  Weeks 

4  Weeks 


eof  th« 

5.  Analyze  water  in  teims  o(  the  Atomic  theory. 

6.  Distinguish  between  sensations  and  associations. 

7.  Name  10  differences  in  pitch. 

8.  Is  an  educated  man  always  a  good  man? 
g.  Outline  imagination  as  in  class. 

10.  Recall  thewdght  of  your  books  on  your  arm:  contrast  and  con^wietbewd^t 
of  the  inner  order  with  that  of  the  outer  otder. 

J I .  Give  in  full  the  principles  of  a  system  of  education  that  is  the  logical  outcome  of 
psychology. 

11.  Name  50  instincts,  localizing  each  loosely  in  its  period. 

13.  What  is  right,  good,  wrong,  evil,  and  what  drives  us  to  do  right? 

14.  Define  materialism,  personal  identity,  intuition,  synlhem,  enthymeme. 

15.  Name  10  recognized  psychologists;  mention  some  of  their  writings  and  state  their 
general  position  in  the  field  of  psychology. 

16.  Is  space  subjective  or  objective?    Give  your  reasons  for  our  answer. 

17  Discuss  the  validity  of  the  conclusions  readied  by  experimental  psyduJogy. 

18.  Arrange  a  program  of  studies  for  children  from  three  to  sixteen  that  shaU  be  in 
harmony  with  genetic  psychology. 

19.  Explain  the  psychologic  basis  of  "I  think,  therefore  I  am." 

30.  What  is  meant  by  intuitive  knowledge?   Give  three  classes  of  intuitions. 


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FsrcBOLOcr  m  normal  schools  ai 

E.      METHOD  OF  CONDUCTING  THE  WORK  IN  PSYCHOLOGY. 

Question  10.  Use  of  the  text-book.  Of  73  replies,  67 
asserted  that  the  text-book  was  the  chief  feature  of  the  work, 
i.e.,  the  text  supplied  the  essential  information,  formed  the 
basis  of  recitations,  discussions,  etc.  In  6  other  schools,  the 
text-book  is  the  main  feature  of  the  course,  but  there  are  con- 
siderable departures  into  fields  not  therein  presented.  In  7 
institutions,  the  work  emphatically  does  not  center  about  a 
text-book,  but  consists  in  a  discussion  of  the  experiences  of 
the  students  and  of  their  observations  of  the  behavior  of 
children.  In  some  of  these  institutions  a  text-book  is 
employed,  but  more  than  half  of  the  time  of  the  class  is 
occupied  with  discussions,  outside  reading,  and  lectures  by 
the  teacher. 

As  an  example  of  work  which  is  but  little  confined  to  a  text,  I  may  refer 
to  the  extended  report  submitted  by  Prof.  Frank  Manny  of  Kalamazoo, 
Michigan,  in  the  course^of  which  he  says:  "In  the  introductory  courses, 
the  problem  in  each  case  is  to  learn  to  read  the  text  and  similar  material 
in  the  library  with  intelligence."  A  handbook  is  issued  which  serves  the 
pupils  as  an  aid  in  selecting  material.  "We  aim  to  introduce  students 
to  some  of  the  literature  and  materials  with  which  they  need  acquaint- 
ance for  work  in  classrooms,  teachers'  meetings,  private  study,  etc." 
About  one-fourth  of  the  time  is  given  to  "very  exact  ' reaction- work, ' 
such  as  five  or  ten  minutes  writing  on  a  prepared  or  unprepared  topic, 
furly  extended  individual  recitation  with  a  view  to  test  ability  to  '  think 
through'  and  organize  a  definite  section  in  its  larger  relations.  This 
frees  the  rest  of  the  time  for  more  informal  discussion  and  coofetence. 
Informal  lectures  take  probably  another  fourth  of  the  time.  A  physician 
came  in  and  gave  demonstrations  on  the  human  brain.  Some  simple 
experimentation  is  done  along  the  lines  suggested  by  Thomdike,  Judd, 
Witmer,  and  Seashore." 

Question  15.  Studying  in  the  class.  In  one  institution 
nearly  all  the  studying  done  by  the  pupils  is  actually  carried 
on  during  the  periods  that  the  class  meets:  in  8  institutions 
the  class  hour  is  either  often  used  entirely  for  studying  or  a 
portion  of  it  is  regularly  so  used:  in  15  institutions  the  class 
period  is  occasionally  used  as  a  study  period,  e.g.,  during  the 
first  few  days  or  at  other  times  when  the  work  is  difiicult  or 
during  the  discussion  of  the  assignment  for  the  following 
lesson:  in  the  majority  of  institutions  (66),  however,  all 
studying  is  done  outside  of  the  meeting  period  of  the  class. 


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39  cur  MOHTKOSE  WBIPPLB 

Question  16.  Use  of  lectures.  Of  73  teachers  who  give 
lectures  in  the  classroom,  14  confine  these  lectures  to  an  expo- 
sition of  the  material  of  the  text-book;  25  lecture  only  on 
topics  not  treated  in  the  text;  34  lecture  both  on  the  text- 
book and  on  outside  topics. 

Question  19.  Lectures  by  non-faculty  members.  No  normal 
school  reports  a  regular  system  of  public  lectures  by  'outside' 
talent.  In  one  school  there  are  frequent,  in  36  occasional 
lectures  on  psychological  matters  by  visiting  authorities. 

Question  11.  Devices  of  method.  The  compilation  of  the 
replies  concerning  the  plans  used  to  present  psychology  offers 
somewhat  the  same  difficulty  that  was  encountered  in  Ques- 
tion 31  (distribution  of  time  to  topics),  although  the  replies 
are  more  numerous  and  the  generalizations  are  correspond- 
ingly more  reliable. 

Table  5  summarizes  the  results,  by  number  of  institutions, 
in  three  groups,  according  as  the  replies  were  given  in  descrip- 
tive, absolute,  or  relative  terms.  For  convenience,  the  chief 
points  of  interest  in  this  Table  are  here  restated  in  verbal 
form. 

(o)  Lectures  by  the  teacher.  The  most  common  proportion 
of  time  expended  in  lectures  is  one-fifth.  Most  normal- 
school  teachers  of  psychology  make  occasional  use  of  lectures, 
but  it  is  not  usual  to  devote  as  much  as  one-half  of  the  time 
to  them.  The  single  institution  in  which  lectures  are  given 
daily  is  that  at  Danbury,  Connecticut,  where  but  22  hours 
in  all  are  given  to  psychology.  Most  of  the  lectures  reported 
as  'occasional'  are  of  an  informal  nature  and  restricted  to 
portions  of  the  subject-matter  that  offer  particular  difficulty. 

(ft)  Demonstrations  by  the  teacher.  These  exercises  are,  as 
a  rule,  used  but  seldom  in  the  normal-school  course.  Pre- 
sumably 5  minutes  per  day  would  cover  the  time  thus  expended 
in  the  average  institution.  In  so  far  as  reported, 
the  demonstrations  appear  to  be  confined  almost  wholly  to 
the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  brain  or  of  the  special 
senses,  and  only  infrequently  serve  to  illustrate  more  strictly 
psychological  principles.'    It  is  probably  fair  to  assume  that 

'See  also  under  queadon  13,  in  Section  F.  below. 


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rsrcBOLOCT  in  nokual  scaoots 


Tabu  s- 
Frtfuaicy  0}  EmploymaU  o/Diftrent  Uahodt  oJPrumtmt  Piychology 


I! 


11 


Seldom. . 
Some — 
Much... 


laMonth.. 
laWeek... 
saWeek... 
3«Week... 
Daily 

A 

A 

■h 


most  of  the  50  teachers  that  did  not  reply  to  this  F>oint  do  not 
use  any  form  of  class  demonstration. 

(c)  Experiments  by  students.  As  43  teachers  do  not  reply 
to  this  point,  and  as  43  of  the  57  who  do  reply  report  either 
merely  'yes'  or  'seldom,'  it  is  obvious  that,  unless  a  special 
course  is  given  in  exiierimental  work,  or  a  special  period  is 
set  apart  for  it  weekly,  the  normal-school  student  of  psy- 
chology does  little  or  no  experimental  work. 


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14  GVr  MOKTROSE  WBIPFLS 

The  following  compilation  of  the  subject-matter  of  these 
student  experiments  shows  that  most  instructors  do  not  use 
a  regular  laboratory  manual,  but  pick  up  a  few  simple  experi- 
ments from  texts  like  Witmer  or  Titchener's  Primer  of  Psy' 
chology,  and  that  the  work  is  confined  for  the  most  part  to 
sensation  (especially  the  eye,  ear,  and  skin)  and  to  association, 
memory,  and  reaction-time. 

SUBJECT-MATXEE  OF  S3£PEBI1CENTS,  BY  NXniBER  OF  mSTITUnONS. 

DeaUtif  vilk  setuatum  Mid  ftrception  Dealing  mlh  ellur  Tapiet 

Sensation  (not  specified) 4  Attention i 

Tests  of  the  senses 3  Reaction-time i 

Training  of  the  senses. i  Association 5 

Visual  sensation 3  Memory 9 

Optical  illusions 5  Imagery i 

Colormixture i  Halut i 

After-images i  Fatigue. . 

Color  Vision i 


Temperature  3 

Esthesiometiy i 

Weber's  law i 

Space  perc^tion 2 

Localization  of  sound. i 

Suggestions  for  this  work  are  derived  from  Judd  (2),  San- 
ford  (l),  Scripture  (i),  Seashore  (4),  Titchener  (5),  Witmer 
(7). 

(d)  Class  discussions.  The  practise  of  holding  class  dis- 
cussions of  text  or  lecture  is  observed  in  a  large  proportion  of 
normal  schools,  and  in  many  cases  such  discussions  occupy  a 
large  share,  one-half  or  more,  of  the  daily  recitation  period. 
This  practise  has,  of  course,  both  advantages  and  disadvan- 
t^;es,  chief  among  the  latter  being  the  waste  of  time, — at 
least  the  waste  of  time  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  exposition 
of  a  system  of  psychology. 

(e)  Dictation.  It  is  to  be  inferred  from  the  data  at  hand 
that  in  69  of  the  100  schools  listed,  no  use  is  made  of  formal 
dictation  by  the  teacher  to  pupil.  In  the  24  schools  where 
occasional  dictation  is  reported,  the  material  thus  presented 
appears  to  be  outiines  or  summaries.    Some  5  institutions 


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rsTCBOiocr  in  nosual  schools  15 

indulge  in  what  is  undoubtedly  an  undesirable  use  of  this 
form  of  instruction.  In  one  school,  indeed,  the  work  in  psy- 
chology consists  substantially  in  the  dictation  from  day  to 
day  of  the  substance  of  a  text-book  on  psychology. 

(J)  Written  exercises.  The  normal  schools  make  much 
use  of  written  exercises  in  the  form  of  topic-reviews,  themes, 
tests,  answers  to  questions  in  the  text,  or  individual  reports 
of  various  kinds.  A  frequently  reported  plan  is  to  have  some 
form  of  written  exercise  at  the  conclusion  of  each  main  topic 
in  the  course. 

(g)  Introspective  exercises.  A  few  schools  give  their  pupils 
training  in  introspection  in  connection  with  experimental 
work:  a  few  have  regular  introspective  exercises;  the  lai^r 
number  make  but  rare  or  semi-occasional  use  of  introspective 
exercises.  The  statement  of  one  teacher : ' '  We  give  just  enough 
to  get  the  method  "  is  so  typical  of  many  statements  that  one 
has  the  impression  that  the  value  of  introspective  work  as  a 
constant  accompanimentof  the  coursein  psychology  is  not  prop- 
erly recognized  by  many  normal-schopl  teachera.  Introspec- 
tion is  looked  upon  as  something  to  be  defined  or  understood, 
or  even  to  be  tried  once  and  then  dropped.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear always  to  be  understood  that  to  teach  psychology  one 
must  make  the  student  psychologize. 

(A)  Exercises  in  observation.  This  form  of  work  is  used 
with  about  the  same  frequency  as  individual  introspective 
exercises.  It  consists  largely  in  some  form  of  child-study 
work,  usually  in  reports  upon  the  children  (or  upon  the  work 
of  the  teachers)  in  the  practise-school.  In  perhaps  a  fifth  of 
the  schools  this  observation-work  may  be  said  to  be  a  promi- 
nent feature  of  the  instruction  in  psychology:  here  the  obser- 
vation-work is  extensive  in  scope;  the  data  are  tabulated  and 
often  subjected  later  to  class-discussion. 

(0  Outside  reading  in  books  other  than  the  text-book.  This 
kind  of  instruction  is  in  almost  universal  use.  It  may  take 
the  form  of  assigned  references  upon  which  written  reports 
are  required  from  all  students,  or  of  individual  reports  from 
different  books  on  different  topics,  especially  if  the  class  be 
large  or  the  library  small.    The  reading  is,  I  judge,  for  the 


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36  GVT  MONTROSE  WBIPPLS 

most  part  in  text-books,  though  some  schools  make  a  feature 
of  assigning  reading  in  current  psychological  magazines  or  in 
the  monographic  literature  of  child-study.  In  one  institution 
where  no  regular  text  is  used,  all  of  the  work  is  based  upon 
such  reports  of  outside  reading.  Many  teachers  are  hampered 
by  a  lack  of  library  facilities:  there  are  not  enough  reference 
books  to  'go  round,'  and  the  files  of  educational  and  psycho- 
ogical  magazines  are  scanty  and  incomplete.  Herein,  inci- 
dentally, lies  another  reason  for  the  hesitation  of  the  normal- 
school  psychologist  to  embark  upon  research  work  or  to 
enga^  in  publication. 

(J)  Personal  appointments  with  students  to  discuss  difficul- 
ties.  In  about  one-half  of  the  normal  schools  the  teacher  of 
psychology  has  occasional  personal  meetings  with  students. 
As  a  rule  these  meetings  are  voluntary  on  the  part  of  the 
student:  if  otherwise,  it  is  either  the  student  that  is  likely 
to  fail  or  the  advanced  student  with  a  special  problem  that  is 
summoned  to  an  appointment. 

(k)  Printed  lists  of  questions  for  use  by  students.  Only  25 
institutions  employ  this  useful  and  time-saving  device.  The 
lists  reported  range  from  occasional  dictation  or  black-board 
presentation  of  a  few  questions  to  the  use  of  questions  printed 
in  text-books  or  in  training-schoo!  or  state  examinations  in 
psychology.  Five  teachers  have  printed  for  local  use  fjurly 
comprehensive  lists  of  questions,  with  or  without  accompany- 
ing synopses  of  lectures. 

(0  Other  devices.  Methods  of  making  the  presentation 
successful,  other  than  those  already  discussed,  are  reported  as 
follows: — dictation  of  an  outline  of  psychology  in  the  form 
of  a  series  of  questions  and  answers  (3),  note-books  or  out- 
lines to  be  handed  in  by  the  students  (2),  arrangement  of 
debates  on  psycholt^cal  or  psycho-educational  questions 
(2),  organization  of  a  "psychological  club,"  character  study 
of  the  pupil's  self,  'slip-exercises'  about  every  other  les- 
son, mimeographed  directions  and  references  for  the  con- 
duct of  simple  experiments,  study  of  charts  and  models, 
the  making  of  drawings  and  charts,  blackboard  schematic 
drawings  to  represent  the  topics  read  about,  much  time  devote 


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PSYCB0L0G7  IN  NOKUAL  SCBOOIS  17 

to  definitions,  lo-minute  oral  summary  of  a  topic  by  a  pupil 
followed  by  general  discussion  of  this  summary,  a  weekly 
report  of  reading  accomplished  bearing  on  the  course.' 

Question  12.  Which  device  is  most  valuable?  In  77  replies 
the  following  preferences  are  indicated:  class  discussions  (22), 
observation  work  {13),  introspective  exercises  (11),  outside 
reading  (7),  lectures  by  the  teacher  (5),  experimental  work 
(4),  printed  outline  of  the  course  (3),  and  oneeach  forthe 
following:  informal  'text-book  talks,'  individual  and  group 
work  with  children,  application  of  psychology  in  actual  teach- 
ing, oral  recitations,  demonstrations  by  the  teacher,  personal 
appointments,  questions  by  the  inductive  method,  "enlarge 
(?)  drawings  of  the  brain,"  blackboard  digrams  of  psycho- 
logical principles,  collection  of  charts,  analysis  of  concrete 
instances  of  conduct,  "use  of  the  text  through  personal  expo- 
ation." 

F.      THE    USE    OF    EXPERIHENTAL,    OR    LABORATORY    WORK    IN 
THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Question  3.  Courses  in  experimental  psychology.  Only  4 
institutions  report  a  regular  course  in  experimental  psychology 
viz:  Duluth,  Minn.;  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa;  Emporia,  Kansas; 
and  Greeley,  Col.  Duluth,  in  fact,  ofTers  two  courses:  those 
at  Emporia  and  Greeley  are  more  on  the  order  of  experimental 
pedi^ogy  than  of  regular  experimental  psychology. 

In  a  number  of  schools  circumstances  are  such  that  a  for- 
mal course  in  experimental  work  is  out  of  the  question,  yet  a 

'TliiB  device  lepDrtedfromaMichiguiidiool,  deserves &short  explanation.  I  quote 
u  follows:  "Onedevicegivea  very  utisl&ctory  results:  it  is  c&lled  the  "Weekly  Com- 
munication"  and  is  due  each  Monday.  The  requirement  is  simple  and  does  not  need 
.  to  take  more  than  five  minutes.  It  is  that  the  student  list  any  reading  he  has  done 
during  the  week  that  has  bearing  upon  the  course  he  is  taking.  Many  students  very 
soon  come  to  extend  this  to  cover  practically  all  their  reading  and  also  to  mention  lec- 
tures, sermons,  concerts,  observations,  etc.  In  many  cases  comment  is  nude  and 
questions  asked  which  lead  to  real  communication.  Where  the  matter  is  too  involved 
for  writing,  there  is  a  conference  at  office  bouts,  or  at  my  home,  or  on  Friday  afternoon 
tramps  in  the  case  of  the  boys.  The  time  given  to  reading  these  'communications' 
is  a  real  pleasure  and  it  always  brings  to  n^  notice  material  of  value  which  otherwise 
would  have  esc^»ed  me." 


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38  GUr  UONTSOSB  WHIPPLE 

considerable  amount  of  this  work  is  incorporated  in  the 
courses  in  general  or  educational  psychol(^y. 
Question  4.     The  laboratory  equipment. 

(a)  Is  there  a  psychological  laboratory?  Fiveof  looschools 
reply  in  the  affirmative,  but  only  3  (Los  Angeles,  Greeley.and 
the  Brooklyn  Training  School)  seem  to  have  an  equipment 
worthy  of  the  name. 

(b)  Any  collection  of  psychological  apparatus.  Although 
33  schools  report  collections  of  apparatus  (not  targe  enough  or 
sufficently  organized  to  term  a  laboratory),  these  collections 
are  for  the  most  part  but  scanty  and  are  not  strictly  psycho- 
logical in  character,  but  comprised  of  models,  charts,  and 
lantern  slides  illustrative  of  the  central  nervous  system  or  of 
the  sense-ot^ns. 

(c)  Its  value.  From  26  replies,  it  ts  found  that  the  average 
value  of  the  laboratory  or  collection  of  material  is  $215,  the 
maximal  value  $1000  (Brooklyn  Training  School),  the  mini- 
mal value  about  $25.  The  laboratory  at  Greeley  isappraised 
at  $500,  that  at  Los  Angeles  at  $300. 

(rf)  When  established  or  collected.  The  oldest  'laboratory* 
dates  from  1893  (purchase  of  $500  worth  of  apparatus  by  the 
Keystone  Normal  School,  Kutztown,  Pa.) :  all  the  others  date 
since  1903.  Three  institutions  are  starting  laboratories  dur- 
ing the  present  year  (1908-9).  It  may  be  recalled  in  this 
connection  that  a  lai^  number  of  teachers  desire  to  institute 
laboratory  work  in  the  normal  schools  as  soon  as  local  condi- 
tions will  permit  (Question  32). 

(e)  Yearly  appropriation.  Only  5  replies  were  received: 
three  stated  that  appropriations  could  be  secured  to  meet  the 
teacher's  demands  from  time  to  time.  The  Albany  State 
Normal  School  will  soon  have  a  yearly  appropriation,  though 
the  amount  is  not  yet  known.  The  Central  State  Normal 
School,  Mt.  Pleasant,  Michigan,  is  the  only  institution  in 
our  list  of  100  that  enjoys  a  yearly  appropriation  ($250)  for 
the  equipment  of  a  psychological  or  psycho-educational 
laboratory. 

(/)  Housing  of  the  collection  of  apparatus.  From  15 
answers,  we  learn  that  7  schools  have  a  separate  room  given 
over  to  work  in  psychology,  while  in  the  remaining  8  the 


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PSrCBOLOGT  IS  NOKMAL  SCBOOLS  39 

psychological  apparatus  is  housed  in  rooms  devoted  to  other 
laboratory  work,  usually  to  physics  or  biolc^y.  In  a  number 
of  schools  the  modest  equipment  of  charts  or  brain  models  is 
tucked  away  somewhere  in  a  recitation-room,  while  several 
teachers  regret  that  what  little  material  they  possess  is  not 
available  for  want  of  room. 

Qnestion  13.  Demonstraiions  of  an  experimental  character 
given  in  class.  The  frequency  of  the  use  of  demonstrations 
is  shown  in  the  following  list: 


m-time 6 

Memory 5 

Tests  of  assodatiOQ 4 

Central  nervous  system 4 

Optical  illusions 3 

Fatigue 3 

Colormlxture a 

Range  of  attention 2 

Duration  of  attention 2 

Auditory  localizatioD 2 

Perception 3 

Apperception 2 

Feeling-tone 2 

The  list,  it  will  be  noted,  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that 
of  the  experiments  performed  by  students  (Question  ll,  c). 

Question  14.  Apparatus  deemed  especially  useful  for  demon- 
strations. The  order  here  naturally  reflects  in  large  measure 
the  preferences  of  the  preceding  list. 


Use  of  kymograph. 

Field  of  vision 

Dermal  sensation 

Sense  training 

Color  sense  tests 

Test3  of  senses 

Tests  of  discrimination . . 

Motor  sense 

Weber-slaw 

\^ual  perception 

Reflex  action 


Thought  processes . . 


Colored  papers... 
Electric  motor... 

Esthesiometer 

GaltoD  whistle 

Ophthalmotrope . . 

Prisms 

Sphygomgraph. . . 
Spirometer 


Reaction-time  a[q>aratus> 8 

Colormizer , 6 

Ei^ograph 4 

Charts 4 

Tuning  forks 4 

Brain  models 4 

Kymograph 3 

Pseudc^tics 3 

Set  of  lantern  slides 2 

Drop-screen  apparatus a 

Test-weights a 

Tambours 2 

Monochord 2 

Autoharp i 

Audiometer i 


'  Usually  Sanford's  Vemiei  chroooscc^,  although  one  school  boasts  a  Hipp. 


Resonators 

Tapper' 

'  Time  of  movement  apparatus' . 

'Testofattraition' 

Witmer's  test  material 


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CUT  MONTKOSE  WBIPPLB 


CONCLUSIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 


1.  The  normal  school  as  an  institution  differs  in  so  many 
respects  {requirements  for  entrance,  age  of  pupils,  length  of 
course,  professional  aim,  etc.)  from  the  college  or  university 
that  the  teaching  of  psychology  in  the  one  differs,  and  in  all 
probability  must  differ,  from  its  teaching  in  the  other.  It 
follows  that  what  proves  to  be  best  for  the  college  course  in 
psychott^^  is  not  necessarily  best  for  the  normal-school 
course  in  psychology.' 

2.  It  would  undoubtedly  be  advantageous  to  arrange 
conferences  among  those  who  are  interested  in  normal-school 
psychology,  for  the  interchange  of  views  and  for  the  discussion 
of  the  problems  suggested  by  this  Report.  I  should,  there- 
fore, recommend  that  this  Association  appoint  a  Committee 
to  draw  up  an  advisory  syllabus  of  subject-matter,  to  supply 
lists  of  references,  to  outline  suitable  experiments  and  demon- 
strations, and,  in  general,  to  standardize,  so  far  as  may  prove 
feasible,  the  normal-school  course  in  psycholc^. 

3.  The  teacher  of  normal-school  psychology  should  have 
received  at  least  three  years  of  special  graduate  training  in  one 
or  more  universities.  This  training  should  be  such  as  is 
required  for  the  doctor's  degree,  and  should  include  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  laboratory  methods.  The  study  of  the 
science  of  education  should  have  received  a  d^ree  of  atten- 
tion at  least  equal  to  that  required  for  a  minor  subject  for 
the  doctorate,  and  the  teacher  should  have  paid  special 
regard  to  the  points  of  contact  between  these  two  subjects. 

4.  It  is  desirable  that  the  normal-school  teacher  of  psy- 
chology confine  his  work  to  that  field.  If  circumstances  com- 
pel him  to  teach  other  subjects,  it  is  best  that  these  subjects 
be  those  closely  correlated  with  psychology  in  the  work  of 
the  institution,  viz:  general  and  special  methods,  school 
hygiene,  child-study,  the  principles  of  education,  observa- 
tion and  practise-teaching.    These  are,  in  fact,  the  combina- 

'  The  writer  keenly  appreciates  these  differeocea,  and  hai  had  no  penonal  experience 
in  nontul-Khool  leaching.  Hence  the  propoaitlona  that  follow  are  offered  with  no 
thought  of  authotitativeness,  but  solely  with  the  idea  that  they  may  serve  as  a  provift. 
ional  basis  for  discussion. 


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PSYCBOWCr  IK  HOKMAL  SCHOOLS  31 

tions  most  commonly  found.  Biology  and  physiology,  and 
perhaps  to  a  less  extent,  ethics  and  logic,  if  these  are  taught. 
may  also  be  regarded  as  natural  concurrent  lines  of  work  in 
the  small  school  with  few  teachers. 

5.  Given  the  preparation  described  in  Proposition  3,  the 
normal-school  teacher  of  psychology  should  have  his  work  so 
arranged  that  he  secures  the  time  and  the  energy  required  for 
productive  original  work.  This  point  is  urged  from  the  con- 
viction that,  although  the  normal  school  is  essentially  a 
training  school  and  is  conducted  for  the  immediate  benefit 
of  its  students,  nevertheless,  many  capable  teachers  of  psy- 
chology can  undertake  original  work  with  consequent  increase 
of  their  teaching  efficiency  and  with  advant^e  to  the  cause 
of  learning,  and  from  the  further  conviction  that,  if  normal- 
school  teaching  is  to  offer  nothing  but  routine  class  work,  the 
better  class  of  college  and  university  graduates  will  never 
look  to  these  institutions  for  a  permanent  career. 

6.  The  teaching  of  psychology  in  the  normal  school  un- 
questionably presents  difficttlties  that  are  greater  than  those 
met  with  in  the  college.  This  condition  follows  (i)  from  the 
immaturity  and  me^er  general  information  of  the  average 
student,  (2)  from  the  short  time  available  for  the  entire  course, 
and  (3)  from  the  constant  pressure  to  make  everything  simple 
and  immediately  practical.  To  meet  the  first  difficulty  the 
normal  school  should  require  a  four-year  high-school  course 
as  a  prerequisite  for  admission:  to  meet  the  second,  it  should 
rearrange  or  extend  its  own  curriculum :  the  third  would  be 
partially  avoided  by  these  two  modifications;  it  may  be  fur- 
ther met  by  securing  teachers  who  know  enough  pisychology 
to  adapt  it  to  the  situation.  Just  now,  in  not  a  few  normal 
schools,  lack  of  preparation  of  the  teacher  is  probably  as 
evident  as  lack  of  preparation  of  the  student. 

7.  In  schools  offering  more  than  a  two-year  course,  it 
would  probably  be  found  advantageous  to  give  to  first-year 
students  a  brief,  elementary,  and  introductory  course  in  psy- 
chology designed  for  general  orientation,  and  to  give  one  or 
more  advanced,  systematic  courses  to  the  same  students  in 
the  last  year. 


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3»  cur  UOSTROSB  WBIPPLS 

8.  In  the  normal  school  it  is  not  necessary,  and  probably 
on  the  whole  it  is  not  desirable,  to  separate  general  and  educa- 
tional  psychology. 

9.  There  is  no  need  in  the  normal  school  for  courses,  either 
required  or  elective,  in  physiological  or  in  abnormal  psychology. 

10.  Psychology  should  be  taken  up  either  before,  or 
together  with,  courses  in  the  principles  of  education,  child- 
study,  and  exercises  in  observation  or  practise-teaching,  and 
the  study  of  special  methods  of  teaching  the  several  studies. 
A  course  in  'general  method'  would  appear  to  be  quite  un- 
necessary if  the  educational  psychology  has  been  properly 
taught. 

1 1 .  The  average  time  given  to  psychology  in  normal  schools, 
90  actual  hours,  is  sufficient,  if  properly  utilized,  for  the  pre- 
sentation of  a  sound  course  in  psychology,  general  and  educa- 
tional. If  elective  or  advanced  courses  are  to  be  introduced, 
more  than  90  hours  are  needed. 

12.  Classes  numbering  more  than  50  students  ought  to 
meet  in  two  or  more  sections,  and  no  one  of  these  should 
exceed  30  to  35  students,  if  the  best  work  is  to  be  accomplished. 

13.  The  general  aim  or  purpose  of  normal-school  psychol- 
ogy  is  phrased  in  much  the  same  way  by  the  majority  of 
teachers,  who  seek  to  impart  such  an  acquaintance  with 
mental  operations  as  shall  contribute  to  the  success  of  the 
graduate  in  his  professional  work.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
this  statement  of  the  aim  is  not  definite  enough  to  determine 
the  actual  content  and  method  of  presentation  of  the  course. 
The  aim  as  thus  stated  might,  for  example,  be  interpreted 
to  mean  that  a  number  of  isolated  facts  or  principles  should  be 
selected  from  psychology  and  applied  to  the  art  of  teaching; 
or,  to  mean  that  examples  of  educational  procedure  should 
be  analyzed  in  the  effort  to  work  back  to  the  psychological 
principles  involved  in  them ;  or,  again,  to  mean  that  the  course 
should  be  conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  develop  a  'point  of 
view'  in  the  student's  mind.  For  myself,  I  am  convinced 
that  the  first  aim  must  be  to  familiarize  the  student  with  his 
own  mental  processes:  only  when  he  has  thus  learned  to 
'  psychol<^ze'  can  he  be  taught  to  see  the  application  of 


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rsrcBOWGT  in  normal  schools  33 

psychology  in  the  classroom.  And  I  am  convinced,  further- 
more, that  the  preliminary  appreciation  of  the '  lawful'  charac- 
ter of  mind  which  the  first  aim  implies  can  be  gained  best 
through  the  presentation  of  psychological  principles  in  a 
systematic  manner.  The  first  aim  is,  therefore,  to  secure 
real  assimilation  of  a  system  of  psychology:  the  second  aim 
is  to  develop  skill  in  observing  and  in  interpreting  the  mental 
phenomena  of  daily  life  in  terms  of  this  assimilated  knowledge. 

14.  The  present  report  sheds  little  light  upon  the  success 
achieved  in  normal-school  psychology,  save  that  it  reveals  a 
consensus  of  opinion  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  of  psychology 
that  the  general  aim  just  mentioned  is  attained.  An  investi- 
gating committee  might  conceivably  find  it  worth  while  to 
collect  evidence  from  normal-school  graduates  in  the  field 
as  to  the  manner  and  d^ree  in  which  psychology  has  benefited 
them. 

15.  In  studying  the  distribution  of  time  to  the  subject- 
matter  of  psychology,  we  find  that  there  is  scarcely  any  topic 
or  phase  of  psychology  that  does  not  seem  to  receive  relatively 
too  much  attention  in  some  normal  schools  and  too  little  in 
others.  But  it  is  probably  more  nearly  true  of  psychology 
than  of  any  other  normal-school  subject  that  no  two  teachers 
or  text-book  writers  would  agree  upon  the  distribution  of  time 
and  emphasis.  The  writer's  own  judgment  would  be  some- 
what as  follows:  (i)  that  special  consideration  should  be  given 
to  instinct,  attention  and  interest,  habit,  the  process  of  learn- 
ing, associative  and  organizing  activities,  including  memory, 
concept-forming,  judging  (apperception),  (2)  that  a  moderate 
amount  of  consideration  should  be  given  to  sensation  and  the 
sense-organs,  the  general  organization  and  operation  of  the 
nervous  system,  the  psychology  of  action,  and  the  psychology 
of  individual  diflerences  (with  reference  to  the  inheritance  of 
capacities),  and  (3)  that  only  occasional  or  brief  reference 
should  be  made  to  philosophical  problems,  affection,  feeling, 
emotion,  reflex  action,  space-perception,  animal  psychology, 
sleep,  dreams,  hypnotism,  fatigue,  and  mental  hygiene. 

But  any  such  advisory  list,  unsupported  by  reasons,  must 
of  necessity  appear  personal  and  arbitrary.     Again,  it  is  to 


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34  cor  UOHTMOSE  WaiFPLX 

be  noted  that  the  very  idea  of  classifying  and  'pigeon-holing' 
mental  experience  is  repugnant  to  some  teachers,  who,  either 
because  the  notion  of  a  'system'  implies  for  them  something 
formal,  'cut-and-dried,'  and  arbitrary,  or  because  mental  life 
impresses  them  as  being  essentially  unitary,  prefer  to  study 
behavior  in  wholes,  directly,  and  in  concrete  situations,  or 
at  least  to  avoid  what  they  term  the  disjecta  membra  (sensa- 
tion, imagination,  memory,  etc.)  of  the  psychological  texts. 

I  have  already  expressed  my  conviction  that  the  use  of  a  system  is 
essential  in  the  teaching  of  psycholt^y,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured. 
Insupportof  this  position,  it  may  be  said:  (i)  that  practically  every  ade- 

?UBte  text-book  is  cast  in  the  fomi,  and  uses  the  terminology  of  a  system; 
2)  that  it  is  impossible  for  a  teacher  who  knows  psychology  not  to  think 
this  psychology  in  terms  of  a  system;  (3)  that  a  system  is  of  the  highest 
value  to  the  student  in  enabling  him  to  comprehend  and  especially  to 
relate  and  organize  his  observations  and  information;  (4)  that  an  intdli- 
gent  student  will  inevitably  organize  his  information  into  some  system, 
and  this  system  will  almost  inevitably  be  inadequate  and  incorrect  if 
he  is  left  to  his  own  devices;  (5)  that  a  system  serves  to  reveal  the  'gaps' 
in  our  knowledge;  it  is  worth  while  'knowing  what  we  don't  know;'  (6) 
that  the  sp>edal  objection  to  system  in  psychology  (that  the  several  dass- 
ificatory  terms  are  interpreted  by  the  student  as  entities  and  as  isolated 
elements  of  mind,  so  that  his  whole  notion  of  mental  life  is  distorted  and 
erroneous),isanobjectionthatmust,  and  may  be  met  by  careful  instruc- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  It  is  quite  possible,  for  instance,  to  avoid 
the  "  maelstrom  of  faculty  psychology,"  as  one  writer  phrases  it,  if  mem- 
ory, imagination,  perception,  etc.,  are  treated  as  typical  ways  in  wbidi 
mind  may  be  found  at  work,  and  if  the  inter-relations  of  these  and  other 
types  of  actimty  are  frequendy  and  deariy  set  forth, — if,  for  exaxajAe, 
'memory'  is  shown  to  be  a  name  for  a  type  of  mental  attitude  or  activity 
that  is  already  familiar  to  the  student  through  his  study  of  organic  plas- 
ticity, retention,  habit,  associative  tendencies,  'centrally-ezdted  sensa- 
tions,' etc. 

16.  Every  normal  school  should  offer  a  specific  course  in 
school  hygiene.  The  testing  of  the  senses  for  practical  pur- 
poses, the  hygiene  of  study,  fatigue,  and  allied  topics  should 
be  placed  in  this  course. 

17.  While,  for  normal-school  use,  some  future  text-book 
may  improve  upon  those  now  in  the  market,  many  teachers 
apparendy  fail  to  select  the  best  texts  now  available,  or  to  use 
them  with  skill  when  they  are  selected.  Again,  it  may  as 
well  be  admitted  that,  for  some  students,  psychology  is  intrin- 
sically difficult,  and  that  psychology  is  necessarily  more  com- 


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PSrcaOlOGT  IK  KOKMAL  SCEOOLS  35 

plex  than  other  normal-school  subjects,  so  that  any  text-book 
that  treats  the  subject  adequately  will  be  difficult  for  these 
students. 

1 8.  Less  reliance  should  be  placed  upon  the  text-book  and 
more  upon  the  teacher's  expository  talks  or  lectures  than  is 
at  present  the  custom  in  the  typical  normal  school.  This 
procedure  will  render  the  text-book  less  of  a  stumbling-block 
than  it  seems  now  to  be,  and  will  enable  the  students  to  make 
more  rapid  progress:  it  will  thus  save  some  of  the  time  that 
many  teachers  find  insufficient. 

19.  It  should  be  possible  in  any  ordinary  institution  to 
arrange  that  aii  studying  he  done  outside  the  classroom. 

20.  The  normal-school  teacher  should  enrich  his  course 
by  the  introduction  of  more  demonstration-experiments,  espec- 
ially demonstrations  of  the  more  strictly  psychological  princi- 
ples. The  Committee  contemplated  in  Proposition  2  might 
profitably  collect  or  prepare  a  list  of  recommended  demon- 
strations. 

21.  Class-discussions  should  be  carefully  directed,  and 
probably  less  freely  employed  than  is  now  the  custom.  These 
exercises  are  not  an  end  in  themselves,  but  a  means  of  teach- 
ing psychology.  To  stimulate  the  active  interest  of  imma- 
ture students  and  to  detect  and  avoid  misunderstandings  of 
the  text-book,  they  have  unquestioned  value,  but,  in  ped^ogy 
as  elsewhere,  there  can  be  "  too  much  of  a  good  thing. "  Who 
has  not  seen  'class-discussions'  degenerate  into  aimless  anec* 
dote  or  blind  dispute  over  topics  that  might  have  been  pre- 
sented by  the  teacher  in  a  few  minutes  of  clean-cut  exposition, 
to  the  gain  of  the  pupils  in  intelligent  grasp  of  the  points  at 
issuei*  Normal-school  teachers  who  find  the  time  too  short 
to  teach  psychology  may  well  consider  whether  a  portion  of 
the  time  that  they  now  devote  to  class-discussion  might  not 
be  employed  more  profitably  in  other  and  more  direct  methods 
of  instruction.' 

'  To  Uke  an  curarae  illusUatirm,  I  heard  recently  of  a  young  teftcber  who  was  m 
impieased  with  Uie  virtues  of  the  inductive  method  that  he  used  this  mode  of  procedure 
almost  exclusively  in  his  dais  in  psychology,  with  the  result  that  at  the  end  of  the  tenn 
the  dass  had  coiiq)leted  the  survey  of  the  field  of  sensation.  This  daw  even  hdd, 
'discussiom'  of  the  itructuie  of  the  central  oervous  system. 


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36  CVr  IfONTROSB  WHIPPLB 

22.  Format  dictation  is  out  of  place  in  normal-school  psy- 
chology, save  for  occasional  and  special  purposes,  e.g.,  the 
dictation  of  a  few  important  definitions,  of  summaries,  etc. 

22.  Exercises  demanding  introspection  are  of  fundamental 
value  in  any  course  in  general  or  educational  psychology. 
The  normal-school  teacher,  like  the  college  instructor,  must 
lead  his  pupils  to  'psychologize,'  to  the  end  that  the  mental 
operations  of  which  psycholc^y  treats  shall  be  realities  and 
not  mere  empty  verbal  assertions.'  The  formulation  of  a 
series  of  introspective  exercises  should  receive  careful  and 
intelligent  consideration  by  the  teacher.  Suggestions  are  to 
be  found  in  many  texts  .  The  Committee  already  mentioned 
might  again  be  of  assistance  in  this  connection. 

24.  Observation-work  is  of  special  value  in  making  the 
operation  of  the  salient  principles  of  educational  psychology 
visible  to  the  normal-school  student.  If  the  work  be  properly 
articulated,  courses  in  psychology  and  in  special  method  ought 
to  play  into  one  another's  hands  through  the  medium  of 
observation  and  practise-teaching.  If  observation-work  can 
be  arranged  concomitant  with  the  work  in  psycholt^;y,  so 
much  the  better,  but,  even  so,  the  value  of  the  observation 
will  be  largely  lost  if  it  is  not  both  systematized  and  super- 
vised by  the  teacher  of  psychology:  the  novice  in  psychology 
fails  to  see  psychology  in  application  until  he  is  told  where  to 
look.* 

25.  The  assignment  of  outside  reading  is  another  device  of 
value;  but  this,  too,  demands  careful  supervision.  The  diffi- 
culties are  evident:  students  dislike  to  read  the  same  thing  in 
several  different  books;  still  more  do  they  dislike  to  read 
apparently  conflicting  statements  or  to  encounter  unfamiliar 
terminology.     If  written  reports  are  demanded,  these  take 

'  It  U  the  writer's  experience  that  it  is  always  the  studeot  who  cannot,  or  will  not 
get  the  introspective  habit,  who  falls  back  upon  the  verbal  reproductiou  of  text  <m  lec- 
ture-mateiial  as  the  real  content  of  the  course,  and  that  it  is  nearly  always  this  student 
who  finds  psychology  "  too  abstract,"  and  who  runs  perilously  near,  if  not  over,  the 
danger-mark  in  the  final  examination. 

*  The  writer  has  found,  for  example,  that  the  use  of  a  printed  "  Guide  to  Observa- 
tion" very  greatly  increases  the  value  to  college  students  of  the  ao-hours  of  hi^-sdiool 
observation  required  for  the  New  York  State  College  Graduate  Certificate. 


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rsrcaoLOGT  in  nohmal  schools  ^j 

much  time  both  from  student  and  teacher:  if  they  are  not 
demanded,  the  reading  is  lilcely  to  be  hurried  and  thus  to  be 
of  little  permanent  value.  Again,  if  the  class  be  large  and 
the  assignments  numerous,  the  library  is  taxed  to  supply 
numerous  copies  of  certain  books  and  may  thus  be  unable  to 
purchase  others  that  are  much  needed.  Many  students,  in 
our  experience,  have  almost  literally  to  be  taught  to  read 
intelligently.  Yet,  as  the  reports  show,  outside  reading  is, 
on  the  whole,  a  valued  and  a  valuable  adjunct:  it  helps  par- 
ticularly to  overcome  the  limitations  felt  to  inhere  in  the 
'single  text-book'  plan. 

26.  If  lectures  are  given,  as  we  think  they  should  be,  they 
may  be  profitably  accompanied  by  a  printed  or  mimeographed 
outline  or  syllabus,  This  plan  helps  the  student  to  follow  the 
lectures  (or  to  read  the  texts)  intelligently,  gives  him  a 
general  perspective  of  the  course,  and  compels  the  instructor 
to  arrange  his  material  in  orderly  fashion. 

27.  Whether  or  not  lectures  are  given,  the  assimilation  of 
the  work  in  psychology  will  be  distinctly  facilitated  by  the 
use  of  lists  of  questions,  preferably  printed  andsupplied  to  each 
student.  These  questions  must,  in  the  main,  avoid  a  form 
that  admits  of  answer  by  direct  reference  to  the  text-book, 
and  should  seek,  rather,  to  develop  introspection,  observation 
and  thought:  in  short,  they  should  test  the  student's  ability 
to  apply  his  psychology.* 

28.  The  oral  recitation  of  the  examining  type  (quiz  on  the 
text)  is  probably  a  necessary  feature  of  normal-school  work, 
but  the  teacher  should  not  employ  it  further  than  conditions 
demand.  Like  class  discussions,  it  may  be  made  a  fetich.  It 
is  a  time-consuming  operation,  more  needed  in  instruction  on 
the  public-school  than  on  the  professional  level.  The  reci- 
tation when  used  for  development-work  has,  of  course,  greater 
value,  expedally  in  the  hands  of  a  skillful  teacher. 

'Iflnuiybe  permitted  ODce  more  to  refer  to  my  peraonaJ  experience,  I  may  itatethit 
I  have  found  a  printed  list  of  questicHis,  when  properly  HamifiBd  and  supplied  with 
references  to  a  number  of  teiU,  to  be  of  great  assistance  to  college  students  in  chccUng 
op  their  progress  in  psychology.  Such  a  quis-list  is  equally  useful  for  review  or  for 
■dvanod  assignment:  in  dther  case  it  guides  the  student  in  his  study,  ^ows  him  what 
he  should  know,  and  compels  his  active  thought  and  attention. 


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38  cur  MONTKOSB  WHIPPLE 

29.  In  general,  the  normal-school  teacher,  owing  to  the 
conditions  under  which  he  works,  must  search  for,  and  use  as 
skillfully  as  he  may,  all  the  devices  of  presentation  that  can 
further  his  aims.  Notebooks,  personal  appointments,  debates, 
psychological  clubs,  charts,  diagrams,  etc.,  are  schemes  that 
will  occur  to  all  teachers.  It  would  be  absurd  to  attempt  to 
prescribe  in  detail  which  of  these  aids  should  be  used,  andto 
what  extent,  since  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that 
every  teacher  works  best  by  the  methods  that  he  himself 
devises,  or  in  which  he  himself  most  thoroughly  believes,  and 
that  a  skillful  teacher  often  achieves  His  success  by  a  method 
that  a  poor  teacher  employs  in  vain. 

30.  The  problem  of  the  introduction  of  experimental  psy^ 
chology,  or  of  laboratory  courses,  is  the  most  perplexing  one 
that  confronts  the  normal-school  teacher.  Various  reasons 
may  be  adduced  for  the  introduction  of  such  courses :  the  seven 
that  follow  are,  of  course,  not  exhaustive  or  mutually  exclusive : 
(i)  to  illuminate  and  illustrate  the  subject-matter  of  the  gen- 
eral course  in  psychology,  (2)  to  add  a  certain  attractiveness 
to  the  work  in  psychology,  (3)  to  make  cleju^er  to  students  the 
methods  by  which  modem  psychology  has  been  elaborated,  (4) 
to  give  training  in  scientific  procedure  and  acquaintance  with 
the  spirit  and  method  of  experimental  investigation  in  science, 
(5)  to  train  a  limited  number  of  advanced  students  to  parti- 
cipate in  minor  pieces  of  research  work  in  the  institution,  (6) 
to  prepare  students  to  appreciate  and  to  participate  in  experi- 
mental pedagogy  (as  distinct  from  experimental  psycholc^y), 
(7)  to  train  students  in  making  examinations  and  tests  of 
children  in  the  classroom  (particularly  various  forms  of  mental 
and  physical  tests,  diagnostic  of  retardation,  sensory  handicap, 
etc.) 

We  have  seen  that,  as  matters  stand,  experimental  psychol- 
ogy is  not  a  feature  of  the  typical  normal-school  curriculum, 
but  that  a  considerable  number  of  teachers  wish  to  incor- 
porate such  work.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  serious 
attention  has  been  paid  by  many  of  these  teachers  to  the 
reasons  for  this  introduction,  since  the  experiments  that  are 
already  in  use  appear  to  have  been  selected,  not  so  much 


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FsrcaoLocr  in  horual  schools  39 

because  they  bear  upon  educational  psychology,  as  because 
they  are  stock  experiments  in  the  psychological  laboratory. 
I  yield  to  no  one  in  my  love  for  research  work  in  psychology, 
in  my  belief  that  a  drill-course  in  experimental  psychology 
has  lai^  possibilities  of  culture-value,  or  in  my  conviction 
that  the  experimental  method  must  be  applied  to  educational 
problems  before  these  can  be  solved,  but  I  do  not  on  this 
account  believe  that  every  kind  of  experimental  work  in 
psychology  that  is  given  in  college  classes  can  be  offered  with 
equal  success  or  justification  in  the  normal  school.  I  see  no 
reason,  for  example,  why  every  prospective  teacher  should 
work  out  the  constants  for  Weber's  Law,  or  investigate  the 
localization  of  sound,  or  try  to  measure  fatigue  on  the  ergo- 
graph,  although  these  are  perfectly  legitimate  and  regular 
features  of  experimentation  in  the  college  laboratory. 

For  these  reasons  it  seems  to  me  that  the  present  experimental  work  in 
the  nomial  schools  shows  faulty  perspective.  Take,  for  example,  two  of 
the  most  used  demonstration-experimenta — the  ergograph  and  the  reac- 
tion-time test.  These  have  the  merit  of  being  'showy,'  but  it  would  be 
hard  to  select  another  pair  of  experiments  that  would  be  more  complex 
and  'tricky'  in  their  real  meaning  and  interpretation.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  centr^  feature  of  educational  psychology, — assuredly  the  process  of 
learning — is  not  mentioned  specifically  in  the  list  of  demonstrations, 
althou^  it  may  be  covered  in  part  by  experiments  in  memory  or  apper- 
ception. Again,  the  demonstration  of  reliable  tests  of  vision  and  hearing 
— ^tests  wbidi,  in  the  absence  of  special  courses  in  hygiene,  demand  treat- 
ment as  a  phase  of '  mental  hygiene'  in  the  normal-s(£ool  course — is  men- 
tioned in  the  list  of  but  a  single  institution. 

I  contend  (i)  that  the  teacher  of  psychology  should  be 
drilled  in  laboratory  methods  and  practice,  and  that  he 
should  endeavor  to  keep  himself  informed  of  the  progress  of 
experimental  psychology  at  large,  (2)  that  a  selected  number 
of  experiments,  mainly  illustrative  of  the  more  important 
principles  of  mental  elaboration,  should  be  presented  to 
students  in  the  general  course  in  psycholc^y  at  a  special  period 
and  in  a  special  room  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  (3)  that  in 
institutions  offering  more  than  a  two-year  course,  a  more 
systematic  course  in  experimental  work  including,  the  solu- 
tion of  simple  psycho-educational  problems,  should  be  given 
as  an  elective  to  advanced  students,  and  (4)  that  those  stu- 


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40  CUT  UONTMOSK  WBIPPLS 

dents  who  display  exceptional  ability  in  experimental  work 
should  be  encouraged  to  seek  further  instruction  in  depart- 
ments of  psychology  and  education  in  the  university. 

31.  In  the  absence  of  any  exercise-book  or  ffianua/ specially 
prepared  to  guide  experimental  work  in  normal  schools,  the 
teacher  must  adopt  an  eclectic  plan.  The  laboratory  and 
library  should,  accordingly,  be  supplied  with  copies  of  all  the 
texts  in  experimental  psycholc^y.  That  normal-school  teach- 
ers would  welcome  suggestions  as  to  the  best  selection  of 
experimental  problems  has  already  been  pointed  out. 

32.  The  equipment  of  the  normal-school  laboratory  for  the 
prosecution  of  such  work  as  has  just  been  proposed  need  not  of 
necessity  be  expensive.  For  an  original  outlay  of  from  $200 
to  $750  the  beginning  of  an  experimental  course  canbesecured: 
for  maintenance  and  further  extension  a  yearly  appropriation 
of  $50  to  $100  would,  perhaps,  suffice.' 

'  The  practical  working  out  of  the  piindples  of  general  laboratory  economy,  like 
the  successful  application  of  methodi  of  instruction,  hinges  in  the  last  resort  upon  the 
teacher.  A  sldUed  psychologist  can  give  an  instructive  danonstiatioii  with  such  homely 
materials  as  colored  paper,  strings,  scissors,  and  cardboard,  when  the  neophyte  would 
be  helpless  without  his  kymograph,  his  electric  motor,  and  his  other  "brais-ware." 
This  is  not  to  be  construed,  however,  to  discourage  elaborate  equipment,  or  to  applaud 
a  policy  of  parsimony  on  the  part  of  normal-school  authorities.  The  skilled  piycholo- 
gist  welcomes  a  good  color-mixer,  too. 

If  advanced  or  original  work  b  attempted,  then,  of  course,  instruments  ol  predaion 
become  imperative.  In  working  up  an  nlucational  laboratory  for  research  and  demon- 
stration-work at  Cornell  University,  a]^>roziniatdy  $1000  baa  been  invested  during 
the  past  eight  years,  while  the  yearly  maintenance  appropriation  averagei  about  $ioo. 
An  inventory  of  this  equipment  will  be  published  in  the  Jottmal  of  Eiueaiioiial 
PtycMogy  mthin  a  few  months  in  the  hope  that  it  may  ofier  some  auggestiona  to 
those  who  are  develt^ing  experimental  work  in  the  normal  school. 


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THE  TEACHING  OF  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY 
IN  COLLEGES  SUPPOSED  TO  HAVE  NO  LAB- 
ORATORY. 

By  Mary  Whiton  Calkins. 

WdUsUy  CaUttt. 

The  first  part  of  the  report  herewith  submitted  summarizes 
the  replies  to  a  questionary  sent  out  to  80  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. Replies  complete  enough  for  use  were  received 
from  47  institutions.'  It  appears  from  these  statements 
that  the  elementary  course  as  given  in  the  aver;^  college  is 
usually  a  required  course,  more  often  running  less  than  a  year, 
and  often,  though  not  always,  meeting  in  large  divisions. 
The  course  tends  to  be  taken  mainly  by  juniors  but  in  con- 
siderable number  also  by  seniors  on  the  one  hand  and  by 
sophomores  on  the  other.  It  is  conducted  partly  by  lectures 
and  partly  by  discussions  or  recitations.  The  students  make 
use  of  a  text-book  but  their  study  of  it  is  supplemented  in 
various  ways. 

The  replies  to  the  questionary  are  summarized  in  more 
detail  in  the  statements  which  follow ;  and  these  are  condensed 
from  verified  tables  compiled  by  Professor  E.  A.  McC.  Gam- 
ble.*   The  replies  concern: 

■The  list  is  the  following:  Amherst,  Bates,  Bethany,  Boston,  Bowdoin,  Brenau, 
BuUer,  CtJgate,  Cobrado  College,  Columbia  College  (South  Carolina),  Dalbou^e, 
Det Moines, Dickiiuon,EImira,  Fayette  (Upper Iowa),  Geocpa,  Georgetown,  Grinnell, 
Haveriord,  Knox,  Maine,  Maiietta,  Mercer,  Middlebury,  Morningdde,  College  of 
City  of  New  York,  New  York  Normal  College,  Oberlin,  Ohio  University,  Penn.  State, 
RandoIph'UacoD,  Ripon,  Rocbester,  Rutgers,  Simmons,  Swarthmoie,  Tennessee,  Texas, 
ToroDto,  Trinity,  Tufts,  Union,  Vermont,  Viiginia,  Wabash,  Wells,  West  Virginia. 

*  To  Dr.  Gamble  and  to  Mias.  S.  J.  Woodward,  who  assisted  her,  my  warm  thanks  are 


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ItASr  WBITON  CALKINS 

I.  Tke  Academic  Status  of  the  Course  (47  cases). 


(a)  Required,  absolutely:  Cases 30 

Elective  absolutely:  Cases 11 

Part  of  a  group  in  which  a  given  number  of  hours  must  be 

taken:  Cases 5 

Prerequisite  to  pedagogy  (which  is  largely  elected) :  Cases . .     i 

(i)  Prerequisite  to  other  courses  in  psychology:  Cases 23 

Not  a  prerequisite  to  such  courses:  Cases 6 

No  other  courses  (or  no  answer):  Cases 18 

(c)  Prerequisite  to  all  or  any  courses  in 

philosophy;  Cases 29 

Prerequisites  to  all  or  any  courses  in 

education :  Cases 20 

Prerequisite  to  all  or  any  courses  in 

sociology:  Cases 2 

Not  a  prerequisite:  Cases 8 

No  answer:  Cases   5 


Separate  Cases 34 


II. 

TkeLmtUiafllieCimne 

«.™. 

1 

™™. 

=„™ 

? 

i' 

i 

■omrak  wm 

. 

. 

s 

.  . 

. 

. 

. 

i 

. 

. 

' 

3 

• 

> 

*v 

■ 

3 

■ 

■ 

4 

' 

■ 

■ 

■ 

■ 

47 



///.     Tke  CoOete  Rank  of  the  Students  in  the  Course  {47  Cases). 
The  course  is  open 

To  seniors  only:  Cases 4 

To  juniors,  or  to  seniors  and  juniors:  Cases 33 

To  seniors,  juniors  and  sophomores:  Cases 10 

To  sophomores,  or  to  sophomores  and  freshmen:  Cases 6 

Without  restriction:  Cases i 

No  definite  answer:  Cases 3 

IV.    The  Numbers  in  the  Course. 

The  couise  varies  in  number  from  less  than  10  (In  i  case  only)  to  301- 
300  (in  2  cases).  In  only  4  cases  (out  of  38)  in  which  courses  mrniber 
60  or  less  are  the  classes  broken  into  divisions.    In  i  case,  a  course  num- 


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COLLEGES  WITHOUT  LABOKATORIES 


bering  300-300  is  undivided.  Of  13  courses  numbering  more  than  60, 
5  are  divided  into  5  divisions  each,  4  into  2  divisions  each:  while  one 
class  of  301-300  meets  in  8  groups. 


V.     The  Rank  and  Work  of  the  Teacher  {47  Cases). 
The  course  is  taught 

By  ihit  president  (who  teaches  [^osophy  also) :  Cases i 

By  a  professor,  teaching 

P^dwrfogy  only:  Cases  1 

Philosophy  also;  Cases 15 

Education  also:  Cases 1 

Both  philosophy  and  education  also:  Cases 11 

Miscellaneous  subjects:  Cases 3 

(No  answer  concerning  other  subjects) 3 

By  an  instructor  teaching 

Philosophy  also :  Cases 3 

Education  also:  Cases 3 

By  one  man  with  assistants,  all  teaching 

Psychology  only:  Cases  i 

Philosophy  also:  Cases  a 

Other  cases  (and  question  unanswered) :  Cases 5 

The  statements  which  follow  are  contrasted  with  those  which  precede 
in  that  they  concern  not  so  much  the  academic  status,  student- r^k,  and 
numbers  but  the  avowed  aims  and  methods  of  the  elementary  course  in 
psychology.    Part  U  of  this  paper  takes  special  account  of  these  results. 

Vt.    The  Emphasis  of  the  Course    {40  Cases.    No  reply  in  7  Cases). 


latraspectioD 

Phjraiology 

Biology 

Practical  Applicadoiu  of  psychology 
Philoaophy 


VII.    The  General  Method  of  the  Course  {47  Cases). 

(a)  Predominantly  by  lectures:  Cases 8 

Predominantly  by  class  exercise:  Cases 24 

A  fairly  even  mixture  of  the  two  methods:  Cases 10 

No  definite  answer:  Cases S 

(b)  Recitation  required  (31  replies). 

To  a  considerable  extent:  Cases 30 

To  some  extent  only:  Cases 11 


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44  V>(Jtr  WBITON  CALKIUS 

VIII.     The  Method  of  IntrodaciKe  a  SiOjea  U?  Cosa). 

By  assignment  of  reading  in  textbook:  Cases 35 

By  lecture:  Cases 8 

By  questions  demanding  introspection:  Cases 5 

No  definite  answer:  Cases 11 

IX.    Details  of  Method  (Cases  47,  not  exdusive). 

A  textbook  is  used:  Cases 40 

Outlines  are  used :  Cases 33 

Review  questions  are  used:  Cases 19 

CdlateraJ  reading  is  assigned:  Cases »S 

(In  10  of  these  cases  the  extent  of  the  reading  is  "considerable. ") 

X.    The  Use  of  Experiment  (Cases  47). 

(a)  Real  laboratory  work 7 

(In  3  of  these  cases  tJie  laboratory  work  is  "important;"  in  3 
others  it  is  supplemented  by  out-of  class  eiqwrimenting.) 

(d)  Directed  experiments  outside  the  laboratory:  Cases rS 

(In  9  of  th^  cases  in  the  experimenting  is  "important.") 

No  experimental  work  (so  far  as  indicated) :  Cases a 

(c)  Use  by  the  lecturer  of 

Demonstration  experiments:  Cases 16 

Physiological  material:  Cases 17 

If  we  suppose  that  an  inquiry  similar  to  this  had  been  con- 
ducted twenty-five  years  ago  and  if  we  compare  its  hypo- 
thetical results  with  our  own  figures,  the  outlook  will  be 
mainly  encouraging.  The  course  in  psychol(^;y  has  been 
pushed  backward  from  the  senior  year  so  that  a  student  can 
apply  his  psychology  in  his  further  college  study.  The 
course  is  no  longer  taught  by  the  college  president  in  the 
intervals  of  administrative  duty,  nor  as  a  secondary  occupa- 
tion by  the  teacher  of  radically  different  subjects;  and  psy- 
chology has  been  freed  from  its  entangling  alliance  with 
philosophy.  On  alt  sides,  also,  we  find  evidences  ofvigorous 
and    individual    teaching. 

Our  results  are  however,  of  chief  importance  in  so  far  as 
they  make  clearer  and  more  vivid  our  conception  of  the  true 
aim  and  of  the  right  methods  of  the  elementary  course  in  psy- 
cholt^y.  In  the  paragraphs  which  follow  I  have  ventured  to 
formulate  the  results  of  my  own  experience  and  observation. 


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COLLEGES  WirSOVT  LABORATORIES 


noting  at  various  points  the  relation  of  these  suggestions  to 
the  actual  procedure  already  described.  My  recommenda* 
tions  have  reference  to  the  general  course  in  psychology 
regarded  as  introductory  not  only  (and  not  chiefly)  to  more 
advanced  courses  in  psycholt^y,  but  to  courses  in  philosophy, 
in  education,  and  in  other  subjects.  In  but  one  respect,  I 
believe,  may  such  a  course  differ  from  that  elementary  course 
which  is  planned  to  introduce  the  student  to  further  psychol- 
ogy: the  more  general  introduction-course  may  run  through 
a  semester  rather  than  through  a  year.  Without  doubt  the 
full  year  course  treats  the  subject  more  adequately.  Yet 
precisely  because  of  the  fundamental  nature  of  psychology, 
it  forms  an  important  member  of  every  group  of  studies, 
literary  as  well  as  scientific  or  philosophical.  And  in  many 
institutions  psychology  can  hold  this  central  position  only 
if  it  be  ofFered  as  a  semester  course.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
writer,  such  a  course  can  be  given  without  prejudice  to 
scholarship  by  a  teacher  who  keeps  pace  with  his  science,  who 
distinguishes  essential  from  accidental,  who  systematizes  his 
material,  and  who  never  lowers  his  standards  of  accuracy. 
■  With  this  introduction  I  offer  four  more  or  less  obvious 
recommendations : 

I .  Psychology  is  psychology  whatever  the  use  to  be  made 
of  it.  First  courses  in  psychology  should  therefore  be  essen- 
tially the  same  in  content  and  in  method,  whether  they  intro- 
duce the  student  to  advanced  work  in  psychology  or  to  the 
different  problems  of  pedagogy,  of  ethics,  or  of  metaphysics. 
the  immediate  purpose  of  every  course  in  psychology  is  to 
make  the  student  expert  in  the  study  of  himself:  to  lead  him 
to  isolate,  to  analyze,  to  classify,  and  (in  the  scientific,  not  in 
the  metaphysical  sense)  to  explain  his  own  perceiving,  remem- 
bering, thinking,  feeling,  and  willing.  In  the  effort  to  classify 
and  to  explain,  the  student  will  of  course  attack  the  relevant 
facts  of  sense  physiology  and  of  bodily  behavior  He  will 
study  these  however  as  conditions  and  accompaniments  of 
consciousness.  Psychology  is  nothing  less  than  such  a  study 
of  selves — and  primarily  of  one's  own  self — in  relation  to  the 
environment,  personal  and  impersonal;  and,  conversely,  any- 


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46  UAKr  WaiTON  CALKINS 

thing  more  than  this  though  it  may  be  related  to  psychology, 
is  not  psychology.  If  we  are  in  earnest  in  the  belief  that 
psychology  is  an  important,  indeed,  an  essential  introduction 
to  the  disciplines  already  named,  we  must  mean  by  the  term — 
psycholc^y,  and  not  a  conglomerate  of  which  a  dilute  psy- 
chology is  one  component  only.  Whatever  is  necessary  to 
the  study  of  psycholc^y  for  itself  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
the  first  course  in  psychology  as  introductory  to  other  sub- 
jects. As  has  appeared,  this  does  not  mean,  that  the  two 
courses  need  be  equally  long  and  equally  detailed.  In  par- 
ticular, laboratory  experiments  will  probably,  for  reasons  of 
time  and  convenience,  be  barred  out  of  the  general  course. 
Yet  it  has,  I  think,  been  shown  that  individual  experiment  as 
well  as  demonstration  may  advant^eously  be  introduced. 
And,  on  the  negative  side,  the  utmost  pains  should  be  taken 
not  to  encourage  applications  of  psychology  at  the  expense 
of  the  psychology  to  be  applied.  The  bearing  of  psychology 
on  practical  problems  of  every  day  living  and  of  pedagogy 
may  most  advantageously  be  emphasized  by  the  instructor ; 
but  the  applications  should  follow  upon  analytic  study.  Not 
only  the  purposes  of  scholarship  but  the  practical  aims  them- 
selves are  thwarted  by  the  tendency  to  form  conclusions  for 
the  sake  of  applying  them. 

The  last  par^raph  has  made  reference  to  the  relation  of 
psychology  to  ethics  and  to  pedagogy.  I  wish  to  say  a 
special  word  of  its  relation  to  philosophy.  In  my  opinion  the 
teacher  of  philosophy  should  connect  the  study,  constantly, 
with  psychology;  whereas  the  teacher  of  psychology  should 
exclude  all  discussion  of  metaphysical  problems  insisting  on 
the  purely  scientific  study  of  consciousness.  He  should  bar 
out  discussions  of  materialism,  free  will,  and  the  like,  point- 
ing out  that  psychology  is  compatible  with  any  one  of  the 
metaphysical  solutions  to  these  problems.  Only  by  such  a 
differentiation  of  the  science  of  psychology  from  philosophy 
can  we  rightly  study  the  former;  and  only  psychology  rightly 
studied  can  be  of  real  aid  to  philosophy.  An  indirect  support 
to  this  view  may  be  found  in  the  answer  to  the  questions  on 


dbyGOOglt. 


COLLEGES  WITHOUT  LABORATORIES  47 

the"emphasisof  thefirst-yearcourse."'  Of  the 40 instructors 
whoanswer  this  question,  20  lay  '  predominant'  or '  great'  stress 
on  introspection  and  only  3  set  'tittle  or  no'  store  by  it; 
whereas  2  lay  'predominant'  and  10  'great'  stress  on  the 
applications  of  psychology,  and  10  pay  'little  or  no'  attention 
to  the  applications.  Only  two  instructors  emphasize  strong- 
ly the  relation  of  psychology  to  philosophy  as  against  14  who 
lay  great  stress  on  physiological  explanation  and  biological 
relation.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  the  courses 
of  these  different  colleges  concern  themselves  mainly  with 
the  problems  of  general  individual  psychology.  Only  5 
devote  'considerable  time'  to  comparative  psychology;  and 
only  2  to  abnormal  psychology. 

2.  The  second  group  of  my  conclusions  is  of  a  more  general 
nature.  The  class  in  psychology  should  not,  it  seems  to  me, 
be  conducted  by  means  of  'recitations,'  or  'quizzes,'  and  the 
student  should  more  often  lake  part  in  discussion  than  listen 
to  lecture.  I  think  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  negative 
part  of  this  statement  is  sound.  A  teacher  has  not  the  right 
to  spend  any  considerable  part  of  the  time  of  a  class  in  finding 
out  by  oral  questions — "how  does  your  author  define  per- 
ception?" or  "what  are  the  laws  of  color  mixture?" — whether 
or  not  the  student  has  done  the  work  assigned  to  him.  The 
good  student  does  not  need  the  questions  and  is  bored  by  the 
stumbling  replies  which  he  hears;  and  even  the  poor  student 
does  not  get  what  he  needs,  which  is  either  instruction  a  deux, 
or  else  a  corrected  written  recitation.*  One  is  often  reminded 
by  the  conventional  oral  recitation  of  the  little  boy's  descrip- 
tion of  his  first  day  at  school:  "An  old  woman  asked  me  how 
to  spell  'cat,'  and  I  told  her."  Not  in  this  futile  way  should 
the  instructor  squander  the  short  hours  spent  with  his  stu- 
dents. The  purpose  of  these  hours  is  two-fold :  first,  to  give 
to  the  students  such  necessary  information  as  they  cannot 
gain,  or  cannot  so  expediently  gain,  in  some  other  way;  second, 
and  most  important,  to  incite  them  to  '  psychologize'  for  them- 

'  Cf.  Statement  VI.,  (p.  43  above). 

*  Of  39  instructors  who  reply  on  this  point  to  the  questionary,  35  nuke  use  o{  this 
indiqtensaUe  method 


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MAST  WBITON  CALKIHS 


selves.  The  first  of  these  purposes  is  best  gained  bv  the 
lecture,  the  second  by  guided  discussion.  'Guided  discus- 
Mon'  does  not  mean  a  reversal  of  the  redtation-process — an 
hour  in  which  students  ask  questions  in  any  order,  and  of  any 
degree  of  relevancy  and  seriousness,  which  the  instructor 
answers.  On  the  contrary,  the  instructor  initiates  and  leads 
the  discussion :  he  chooses  its  subject,  maps  out  its  field,  putls 
it  back  when  it  threatens  to  transgress  its  bounds  and,  from 
time  to  time,  summarizes  its  results.  This  he  does,  however, 
with  the  least  possible  show  of  his  hand.  He  puts  his  ques- 
tion and  leaves  it  to  the  student  interested  to  answer  him; 
he  restates  the  bungling  answer  and  the  confused  question; 
he  leaves  one  student  to  answer  the  difficulties  of  another. 
In  a  word,  he  takes  advantage  of  every  suKcstion,  he  stimu- 
lates and  trains  his  students  by  intelligent  question  and  swift 
reasoning,  he  subordinates  scattered  conclusions  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  discussion  as  a  whole. 

The  advantage  of  the  discussion  over  the  lecture  is,  thus, 
that  it  fosters  in  the  student  the  active  attitude  of  the  thinker 
in  place  of  the  passive  attitude  of  the  listener.  For  this 
reason,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  lecture  should  be 
used  mainly  as  introduction  and  as  summing  up  of  a  subject, 
not  as  chief  method.  A  study  of  the  answers  to  the  question- 
ary  seems  to  confirm  my  estimate  of  the  lecture  as  subsidiary 
method,  for  less  than  one-fifth  of  those  who  reply  to  this 
question  (8  of  42)  make  predominant  use  of  the  lecture.' 
The  answers,  however,  are  either  non-committal  or  negative 
as  regards  the  far  more  important  question  of  the  relative 
merit  of  'discussion'  and  of  recitation.  It  is,  to  be  sure,  not 
easy  to  reduce  the  replies  to  common  terminology,  yet  20 
make  'considerable'  use  of  recitation  and  1 1  more  make 
'some'  use  of  it.  In  presenting  my  urgent  recommendation 
of  the  guided  class  discussion  which  is  neither  lecture  nor  reci- 
tation I  have,  therefore,  no  right  to  claim  the  support  of  '  my 
constituents.' 

In  this  connection  a  comment  should  be  made  on  the  size 

'  C(.  Statemeot  VII  (p.  69), 


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COLLBCES  WITBOUT  LABORATOKISS  49 

of  classes.'  Obviously  it  is  simplest  to  teach  large  classes  by 
lecturing  to  them.  Yet  a  spirited  and  relevant  discussion 
may  be  conducted  in  a  class  of  a  hundred  or  so.  Of  course 
no  more  than  eight  or  twelve,  or,  at  most,  twenty  of  these  will 
take  even  a  small  part  on  a  given  day;  perhaps  a  half  or  two- 
thirds  will  never  take  part;  and  some  will  remain  uninterested. 
But  there  will  be  many  intelligent  listeners  as  well  as  active 
participants;  and  these  gain  more,  I  believe,  by  the  give  and 
take  of  good  discussion  than  by  constant  lectures  however 
effective. 

For  the  benefit,  however,  of  large  classes  I  am  convinced 
that  careful  provision  for  more  individual  instruction  should 
be  made.  It  goes  without  saying  that  students  with  special 
questions  and  difficulties  should  be  welcomed  in  private  con- 
sultation hours.  Yet  I  think  ^at  more  than  this  is  needed; 
and,  to  colleges  which  lack  the  means  to  establish  a  full  pre- 
ceptorial system,  I  recommend  the  division  of  a  targe  class 
into  small  weekly  divisions  or  conferences.  Such  conference 
divisions  may  take  the  place  of  one  weekly  appointment  of  the 
classasawhole;or,  better,  each  may  be  treated  as  a  laboratory 
hourin  addition  to  the  regular  app>ointments.  The  timeof  the 
conferences  may  be  variously  used,  Students  disinclined  to 
join  in  discussion  in  a  large  group  will  express  their  difficulties; 
assigned  questions  may  be  answered  and  the  answers  dis- 
cussed; written  review  papers  may  be  returned  with  com- 
ments ;  physiological  modelsand  preparations  may  be  examined 
by  each  student  of  these  smaller  groups;  and,  more  important 
perhaps  than  any  specific  result,  a  personal  contact  may  be 
established  between  teacher  and  student.  Obviously  the 
success  of  such  a  plan  depends  on  those  to  whom  the  con- 
ferences are  entrusted.  Able  and  well-trained  assistants  may 
advantageously  conduct  most  of  them;  but  it  will  be  unfor- 
tunate if  the  main  instructor  of  the  course  cannot  feel  the 
pulse  of  his  class  by  himself  conducting  one  or  two  of  these 
conferences.  And  it  is  essential  that  he  should  give  over- 
sight to  the  conference  and  unity  to  the  work,  by  stated  meet- 

>  CI.  Statement   IV  (p.  68). 


.yGoo^Ie 


$0  MARY  WBITON  CALKINS 

ings  with  the  conference-instructors  and  discussions  of  am- 
ference  methods.  I  find  no  evidence  that  this  plan  has  as 
yet  been  adopted.  Indeed,  only  5  instructors  report  con- 
ferences with  individual  students  (and  3  of  these  make  only 
'occasional'  use  of  the  method.)  In  one  college,  however, 
a  class  of  60  meets  in  one  division  for  lectures  and  in  three 
divisions  for  'quizzes.' 

3.  My  third  conclusion  is  closely  connected  with  what 
precedes.  It  is  absolutely  essential  thai  the  course  in  psychology 
supplement  text-book  study  by  methods  intended  to  secure  the  inde- 
Pendent  work  of  the  student.  To  require  of  the  student  merely 
to  give  back,  in  written  or  in  oral  form,  the  contents  of  a 
text-book  is  to  run  a  heavy  risk  of  missing  the  bull's  eye  of 
the  course;  and  this,  we  have  ever  to  remember,  is  to  teach 
the  student  a  first  hand  study  of  himself  as  conscious.  I  am 
not  recommending  that  the  general  course  in  psychology  be 
conducted  without  a  text-book,  for  I  believe,  on  the  contrary, 
that  precisely  the  beginner  needs  the  aid  of  a  book  in  focus- 
ing and  classifying  the  results  of  his  observation  and  reason- 
ing. But  better  3  thousand  times  no  book  than  a  book  to 
be  memorized.  An  essential  means  to  the  proper  use  of  a 
text-book  is,  in  my  opinion,  to  forbid  or  discourage  its  use — 
and  to  forbear,  also,  to  lecture  on  a  new  topic — until  the 
student  has  dealt  for  himself  with  the  topic  of  study.  Thus, 
before,  entering  on  the  study  of  perception  and  ima^nation 
one  may  direct  the  student  to  'state  in  writing  the  difference 
between  perceiving  a  hat  (or  chair  or  vase)  which  isseenand 
imagining  a  similar  hat  (or  chair  or  vase)  which  is  not  in  the 
room.  Before  lecturing  on  the  individual  sense-types  of 
imagination  the  student  may  be  required  to  answer,  again  in 
writing,  Galton's  questionary  or  some  one  of  those  modelled 
on  it.  Before  reading  or  listening  to  lectures  on  attention,  the 
student  may  answer  questions  such  as  these:  "What  is  the 
difference  between  attending  to  the  demonstration  of  a  geo- 
metrical problem  and  attending  to  the  buzz  of  a  mosquito? 
What  bodily  marks  of  attention  have  you  noticed  in  a  dog?" 
It  is  unnecessary  to  multiply  examples.  The  essential  point 
is  that  the  student  be  led  to  observe  his  own  experience,  to 


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COLLSaSS  WITHODT  LABORATORIES  51 

record  his  observation  accurately — in  a  word  to  psychologize; 
and  to  make  the  observation  before,  not  after,  discovering 
from  book  or  from  lecture  what  answers  are  expected  to  these 
questions.  Individual  experiments  should  so  far  as  possible 
be  performed  in  like  manner  before  the  class  discussion  of 
typical  results.  In  all  cases  the  results  of  these  introspec- 
tions should  be  recorded  in  writing;  representative 
records  should  be  read  and  commented  on  in  class;  and  the 
discussion  based  on  them  should  form  the  starting  point  for 
text  book  study  and  for  lecture. 

The  instructors  who  have  answered  the  questionary  evi- 
dently concur  in  the  view  that  a  text-book  is  necessary:  only 
4  of  the  47  make  no  use  of  one.'  But  23  of  the  40  who  have 
a  text-book  make,  as  I  believe,  a  radically  wrong  use  of  it 
since  they  introduce  each  topic  by  assigned  reading  in  the 
book.  Of  the  remaining,  8  instructors  introduce  each  sub- 
ject by  lecture  and  only  5  by  what  I  hold  to  be  the  right 
method — some  exercise  in  introspection,  whether  simple  or 
experimental. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  almost  all  these  college  courses  text- 
book study  is  supplemented  in  other  ways :  collateral  reading  is 
required  in  28  cases,  review  questions  are  assigned  by  19 
instructors,  experiments  are  performed  or  required  in  25 
cases.*  All  these  methods  have  their  value.  Collateral  read- 
ing is  useful  first  in  that  it  protects  the  student  from  the 
dogmatism  or  one-sidedness  of  his  teacher  or  of  his  author  or 
of  both ;  second,  in  that  it  offers  an  opportunity  to  enlarge  his 
field  of  observation.  The  student  is  no  longer  a  man  of  one 
book,  and  can  not  fall  into  the  error  of  regarding  psychology 
as  a  closed  science.  In  one  introductory  course  known  to 
the  writer  though  not  included  in  this  study — that  at  Iowa 
University — the  student  is  required  to  read  three  psycholc^- 
cal  text-books  besides  reading  and  working  out  the  experi- 
ments of  an  experimental  manual.  Such  a  requirement  ob- 
viously presupposes  great  skill,  on  the  instructor's  part,  in 
the  codrdination  of  different  teachings  on  every  topic  of  psy- 
chology.   Except  in  the  hands  of  a  gifted  and  experienced 

'  Cf.  Sutement  VHI  (p.  44)- 
*  Cf.  Sutemeot  DC  (p.  44). 


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Sa  UARV  WBirOK  CALKIHS 

teacher  the  result  for  the  b^inner  in  psychology  might  well 
result  in  a  confusion  of  several  systems  and  a  clear  knowledge 
of  none.  Fewer  text-books,  with  assignment  of  collateral 
reading  on  selected  topics  will  prove,  in  most  cases,  a  more 
practicable  plan. 

The  discussion  of  experiment  in  first  year  psychology 
belongs  to  Professor  Sanford.  Yet  it  may  here  be  remarked 
that  even  a  semester  course  in  large  divisions  may  advan- 
tageously include  simple  experiments.  These  may  be,  in  the 
first  place,  experiments  to  be  performed  out  of  class  and 
reported.  Such  are  experiments  in  visual  contrast,  in  the 
localization  of  temperature  spots,  in  tactual  localization. 
Or  the  experiments  may  be  class  demonstrations — of  color- 
mixing,  for  example,  or  of  beating  tones.  In  using  these 
demonstration  experiments,  as  in  the  important  demonstra- 
tion of  physiolc^cal  material  (models  and  charts  of  nervous 
system  and  of  sense-organs)  the  important  point  is  to  keep 
always  in  mind  that  the  experiments  are  in  the  service  of  psy- 
chology, that  they  are  of  use  in  teaching  the  student  to  classify 
and  explain  psychic  phenomena,  and  that  they  are  worse  than 
useless  if  they  keep  him  from  seeing  the  psychological  wood 
for  the  physical  and  physiological  trees.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  outcomes  from  the  questionary  is  the  discovery 
that  in  25  of  the  47  cases  studied,  some  use  is  made  of  experi- 
ments.' 

The  third  class  of  subsidiary  methods  is  that  of  the  review 
questions  following  on  lecture  and  reading.  Nineteen  (19) 
instructors  make  use  of  'review  questions'.  Their  value  as 
stimulus  to  introspection  is  akin  to  that  of  the  questions  by 
which  a  subject  should  be  introduced.  They  should  test  the 
student's  ability  to  translate  the  formal  language  of  his  science 
into  concrete  terms,  to  recognize  when  he  meets  them,  experi- 
ences which  he  can  define.  Several  of  the  well-known  manuals 
of  psychology — Titchener's  "Primer,"  Thomdike's  "Ele- 
ments," Whipple's  "Questions  in  General  and  Educational 
Psycholt^y, "  and Witmer's  "Analytic  Psychology" — contain 
excdient  questions  of  this  type.     And  every  good  teacher  can 

'  Cf.  Statement  X.  (p.  70}. 


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COLLSGBS  WITBOVT  LdBORATORIBS  $3 

find  in  his  immediate  surroundings  the  material  for  questions 
which  will  lead  the  student  to  make  constant  applications  of 
his  psychology. 

4,  The  exhortation  to  avoid  mere  text-book  study  must 
not  be  interpreted  as  a  criticism  of  so-called  systematic  psy- 
chology. For  no  science  can  help  being  systematic;  and  my 
final  recommendation,  which  may  be  very  briefly  stated,  is 
accordingly  the  following:  Insist  on  clear  definition,  consistent 
use  of  terms,  and  orderly  classification  of  psychic  facts.  The 
definition  and  classification  should,  of  course,  follow  on  intro- 
spection; should  not  be  accepted  uncritically  from  instructor 
or  from  text-book:  and  should  he  subject  to  constant  revision 
as  fresh  observations  are  made.  The  objection  to  system  in 
psychology  is  based  on  a  curious  misconception.  Definition 
and  classification  are  no  Procrustean  bed ;  they  form  rather  a 
scaffolding  which  changes  constantly  with  the  growing  edifice. 
Faulty  definitions,  inconsistent  conceptions,  loose  enumera- 
tions in  place  of  systematic  groupings,  are  a  sheer  hindrance 
to  progress  in  any  science.  If  the  introductory  course  is  to 
have  a  permanent  value,  if  it  is  to  provide  a  basis  for  further 
observation  and  reflection,  the  student  must  clearly  identify 
the  objects  of  his  study,  must  know  the  precise  meaning  of 
his  terms,  must  apprehend  the  likenesses  and  differences  of 
phenomena. 

The  sum  and  substance  of  these  suggestions  issimply  there- 
fore: Lead  your  student,  by  seme  means  or  other,  to  psy- 
chologize; teach  him  to  observe  and  to  describe  himself  pri- 
marily, and  then  other  selves,  in  their  relations,  to  the  environ- 
ment. To  that  end:  First,  teach  psychology  primarily  as  you 
would  if  it  were  an  end  in  itself.  Second,  eschew  altogether 
the  method  of  recitation;  lecture  In  order  to  sum  up  and  to 
illustrate  different  topics  of  study,  but  lecture  sparingly;  and 
cultivate  constructive  discussion.  Third,  bar  out  the  possi- 
bility of  memorizing  text-books  by  requirii^  students  to 
precede  text-book  study  by  the  experimental  introspection, 
and  to  follow  text-study  by  the  solution  of  concrete  problems. 
Finally,  do  not  tolerate  inexact  thinking,  but  insist  on  clear 
definition,  however  provisional,  and  on  systematic  grouping 
of  facts,  however  incomplete  the  classification. 


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THE  TEACHING  OF  ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY 
IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  WITH  LAB- 
ORATORIES. 

By  E.  C.  Sanford, 

Clark  UnirersUy. 

To  obtain  data  on  the  teaching  of  first  year  classes  in  psy- 
chology in  such  institutions,  the  following  questionary  was 
sent  to  instructors  in  psychology  in  the  leading  institutions 
east  and  west  with  the  request  that  they  would  furnish  the 
information  desired,  making  replies  to  the  questions,  if  so 
minded,  or  adopting  some  other  form  of  presentation,  if  they 
should  prefer. 

FntsT  Yeak  Psychology 

IHPORHATION  IS  DESIRED  ON  THX  FOLLOWING  POINTS 

A.  Purpose  of  the  course  as  new  given: 

Is  it  looked  upon  as  a  means  to  liberal  culture  chiefly,  as  an  iotroduc- 
tioD  to  philosophical  studies  in  general,  as  a  subject  having  useful  a[^- 
cations,  as  a  science  to  be  cultivated  fot  itself? 

If  all  of  these  ideals  enter,  or  several  of  them,  please  indicate  thar 
relative  importance. 

B.  Academic  status  of  the  course: 

Is  it  a  free  elecdve,  a  required  part  of  ceitain  groups,  a  required  pre- 
liminary for  courses  other  than  advanced  psychology,  an  optional  course? 

Does  your  introductory  course  as  now  given  run  thiough  an  entire 
year?  How  many  periods  a  week?  How  much  bboratoty,  how  much 
class  work? 

How  many  usually  register  for  the  course?  Are  they  handled  in  one 
or  several  sections?  About  what  proportion  go  on  to  take  further  work 
in  psychology? 

C.  Content  of  the  course: 

On  what  is  the  chief  emphasis  laid  in  the  course:  psychological  theory, 
physiologica]  and  experimental  matters,  relations  to  daily  life,  pedago- 
gical and  other  applications? 


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COLLBGBS  AND  VNIVBKSITIES  WITH  LABORATORIES  SS 

Do  you  tiy  to  do  anything  with  comparative  psychology  (animals), 
child  psychology,  mental  and  nervous  diseases,  psychologjcal  question; 
of  the  day  such  as  hypnotism,  telepathy,  mental  healing,  psychology 
of  testimony  and  the  like? 

If  all  or  several  of  these  topics  are  treated,  please  give  the  relative  im- 
portance attached  to  them. 

D.    Methods  of  instruction: 

Lectures,  text-book  (one  chiefly,  or  several  at  a  time) ,  collateral  reading, 
reports  by  students,  themes,  discussions,  seminary  work,  individual  con- 
ferences— which  of  these,  or  which  combination  of  them,  do  you  find  most 
satisfactory? 

Do  you  give  the  students  special  pedagogical  assistance  in  the  way  of 
outlines,  reviews  with  or  without  speual  review  questions,  quizzes,  oi 
examinations  other  than  those  for  the  determination  of  academic  stand 
ing? 

Do  you  give  much  oi  little  time  to  class  demonstrations  and  experi- 
ments? 

Is  individual  laboratory  work  required  or  optional?  How  many  hours 
a  week  are  given  to  it?  How  many  laboratory  hours  are  counted  as  equi- 
valent to  one  recitation  hour? 

How  large  laboratoiy  sections  an  handled  at  any  one  time?  Do  you 
work  alone,  or  do  you  have  legular  paid  assistants  or  student  assistants? 

Does  laboiatory  work  run  throughout  the  yeai  or  is  it  begun  after  a 
peiiod  of  class  instruction? 

Do  you  follow  a  systematic  couise  of  experimenL"-  required  of  all  labor- 
atory students — one  of  your  own,  oi  a  text-book? 

Do  you  think  it  well  for  all  students  to  work  at  the  same  time  at  the 
same  experiments  or  each  individually  (or  in  small  groups)  at  a  separate 
problem? 

Do  you  have  the  laboratory  students  toward  the  end  of  the  year  under- 
take anything  like  minor  research  problems  or  the  repetition  of  special 
experiments  from  research  literature? 

Are  you  reqxinsible  for  classes  in  any  other  subject  than  psychology? 

Laboratory  equipment:    Number  of  rooms,  large  or  small. 

Are  you  pretty  well  equipped  or  do  you  have  to  make  use  of  a  good 
many  makeshifts?    Have  you  a  workshop? 

Have  you  a  fairly  adequate  appropriation  for  running  expenses  or  are 
you  cramped? 

£.     Possible  improvements  in  the  first  year's  work  in  psychology: 

In  what  direction  would  you  like  to  see  the  first  year's  work  in  your 
own  institution  develop?  What  would  you  change  if  you  had  a  free 
hand? 

What  do  you  find  the  chief  difficulty  in  giving  such  a  course  as  you 
would  like? 

On  the  instructional  side — ^immaturity  of  the  students,  lack  of  pre- 
liminary training  on  their  part  in  phy^ology,  phydcs  and  other  sciences, 


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56  S.  C.  SAKPOKD 

lack  of  skiU  in  introspectioD,  no  text-book  of  predseiy  the  right  scope, 
insuffideot  time  allowed  in  the  piogrammr  of  studies? 

On  the  material  side — inadequate  equipment,  poor  quarters,  insuf- 
ficient help? 

Do  the  students  fail  to  take  p^chological  experiments  seriously,  fail 
to  get  what  the  experiments  mean,  are  shoit  in  manipulative  skill,  aie 
unwtUing  to  give  the  time  necessary  for  careful  experimentation? 

F.    PkUanthropkal: 

Have  you  a  general  list  of  reading  in  periodicals  and  the  like,  outside 
the  ordinaiy  psychological  tests,  which  you  have  found  useful  in  the  work 
with  first  year  classes  and  which  you  would  be  willing  to  contribute  tc  a 
bibliogiaphy  of  recommended  "  outside  reading,"  if  one  should  be  append- 
ed to  the  report  of  the  committee? 

Have  you  similariy  any  especially  good  demonstrations  or  simfde  ex- 
periments, not  found  in  such  good  fonn  (ot  not  found  at  all)  in  the  man- 
uals, which  you  would  be  wilUng  to  publish  in  the  report,  or  otherwise, 
foi  the  general  good? 

Have  you  any  ^>edal  pie.  es  of  demonst  rational  apparatus  or  apparatus 
for  student  practice  courses  which  you  have  found  especially  convenient 
and  which  have  not  yet  been  described? 

Finally,  have  you  any  suggestion.-  not  extorted  by  the  above  queries 
as  to  wl^t  ought  to  be  done  in  a  first  year's  course  in  psychology 
or  as  to  points  on  which  this  committee  could  obtain  information  that 
would  be  helpful  to  you? 

Most  of  those  who  replied  answered  the  questions  as 
given,  a  few  however  took  advantage  of  the  latitude 
offered  and  gave  the  information  in  other  forms.  In  the 
minds  of  the  sub-committee  such  freedom  of  reply  was  more 
valuable  than  an  enforced  uniformity  which  would  have 
allowed  a  statistical  treatment  of  the  data.  In  what  follows, 
therefore,  we  shall  deal  with  rough  proportions  only  and  not 
attempt  tabular  statements. 

In  presenting  this  report  the  sub-committee  wishes  to  make 
grateful  acknowledgements  to  those  in  chai^  of  the  work  in 
psychology,  in  the  thirty  or  more  institutions  responding,  for 
the  friendly  cooperation  without  which  the  undertaking  would 
have  been  quite  impossible. 

The  following  institutions  responded:  Brown,  Bryn  Mawi,  Califor- 
nia, Cincinnati,  Chicago,  Clark  College,  Columbia,  Cornell,  Harvard, 
Hobart,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Johns  Hopkins,  Michigan,  Miimesota,  Mt.  Hol- 
yoke,  Nebraska,  New  York  University,  Ohio  State  University,  PennsyU 
vania,  Princeton,  Smith,  Teachers  College  (Columbia  Uiuversity),  Texas, 
Toronto,  Vassar,  Washington  (St.  Louis),  George  Washington,  Welles- 
ley,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming,  Yale. 


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COLLBGBS  AND  VKIVSKSITIBS  WITH  LABORATOKIES  57 

The  typical  beginner's  course  in  psychology  is  a  course  in 
"  general  psychology. "  Experimental  psychology  comes  later 
though  in  some  of  the  larger  institutions  parallel  courses  are 
offered  and  the  student,  if  so  inclined,  may  work  from  the 
start  in  the  laboratory.  Our  questions  covered  both  kinds  of 
work  and  a  certain  amount  of  information  has  been  collected 
with  reference  to  introductory  laboratory  courses.  Our 
report  will  therefore  consist  of  two  sections,  the  firstand longer 
dealing  with  the  introductory  "general  course,"  the  second 
with  the  first  work  in  the  laboratory. 

THE   GENERAL   INTRODUCTORY    COURSE. 

The  first  year's  course  in  psychology  is  often  a  popular  one 
in  the  sense  that  it  gathers  in  a  relatively  large  txxly  of  stu- 
dents. In  many  institutions  some  course  in  "philosophy" 
must  be  taken  and  psychology  is  the  one  selected.  In  about 
one  quarter  of  those  reporting,  it  is  a  definitely  required  course 
for  all  arts  students  and  in  nearly  a  third  more  it  is  required  of 
students  in  the  educational  department,  of  pre-medical  stu- 
dents and  of  those  desiring  certification  as  teachers.  In  more 
than  half,  however,  it  competes  on  an  equal  footing  as  a  free- 
elective,  and  the  size  of  the  classes  testifies  to  the  popularity 
of  the  instructor  and  the  subject. 

The  immense  classes  of  the  larger  institutions  200,  300  or 
400,  are  often  handled  in  a  single  body  for  lectures  and  in  a 
number  of  smaller  sections  for  quizzes  or  other  reinforcements 
of  instruction.  Where  the  lecture  method  is  not  used  the 
handling  of  the  class  in  sections  is  of  course  imperative,  and 
these  immense  classes  would  preclude  laboratory  work,  even 
if  no  other  reasons  existed  for  its  postponement. 

The  proportion  of  students  following  psychology  beyond 
this  first  course  varies  greatly,  as  might  be  expected,  but  less 
than  40  per  cent  of  the  students  continue  in  four-fifths  of  the 
institutions  reporting,  and  but  25  per  cent  or  less  in  two- 
thirds  of  them.  The  fact  that  large  classes  are  enrolled  year 
after  year  shows  that  neither  the  subject  nor  the  presentation 
of  it  is  per  se  repellent.     The  small  number  going  further 


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58  S.  C.  SAIIPORD 

shows  rather  that  we  have  to  do  in  these  large  classes  with  a 
student  group  whose  major  interests  are  in  other  directions 
and  who  make  the  course  in  psycholc^y  incidental  to  the  main 
trend  of  their  studies. 

Psychology  is  an  important  branch  of  human  knowledge, 
which  has  interesting  bearings  on  every  day  life  and  vital 
relations  to  the  work  of  certain  professions,  serves  excellently  to 
bring  before  the  student  certain  fundamental  questions  of  phil- 
osophy, and  is  for  these  reasons  an  efHcient  means  of  culture. 
All  these  functions  are  probably  present  in  some  measure  in 
the  minds  of  all  instructors,  but  the  main  purpose  of  the 
course  and  the  relative  importance  of  its  coeffects  are  variously 
conceived.  In  more  than  a  quarter  of  even  this  group  of 
institutions  psychology  is  still  looked  upon  as  first  of  all  the 
gateway  to  philosophy.  In  more  than  half,  however,  the 
science  is  presented  for  its  own  sake  chiefly  and  the  other 
results  of  its  study  (except  perhaps  the  contribution  to  general 
culture,  which  is  regarded  as  a  natural  consequence  of  a  proper 
mastery  of  the  subject)  are  looked  upon  as  quite  secondary. 
In  nearly  half  considerable  importance  is  attached  to  the 
presentation  of  a  certain  useful  subject  matter,  and  concrete- 
ness  and  applications  are  emphasized.  In  some  the  cultural 
purpose  seems  more  directly  in  view,  by  which  is  meant,  we 
infer,  a  somewhat  less  detailed  and  technical  presentation  than 
that  used  when  the  science  is  taught  without  ulterior  con- 
siderations. 

In  about  half  the  cases  "psychological  theory"  (which,  as 
we  infer,  was  taken  by  most  of  those  who  replied  to  mean 
systematic  psychology,  or  psychological  principles  presented 
in  a  coordinated  way)  receives  chief  emphasis.  In  about  a 
third  the  chief  emphasis  is  laid  upon  experimental  and 
physiological  matters;  while  in  a  few  cases  the  relations  to 
daily  life  are  especially  stressed.  Only  two  correspondents 
speak  of  emphasizing  the  facts  of  the  mental  life,  but  this 
may  be  due  to  the  way  in  which  the  question  was  phrased  and 
it  would  perhaps  be  fair  to  count  all  that  do  not  specify  philo- 
sophical tendencies  or  psychological  principles  as  tending  in 
this  direction.    The  central  theme  is  of  course  the  mind  of 


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i    COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  WITB  LABORATORIBS  59 

the  normal  human  adult  and  in  some  cases  there  is  small 
departure  from  it.  The  mental  life  of  animals  and  children 
and  mental  disease  are  referred  to  in  a  merely  incidental  way 
and  for  illustration.  In  a  few  cases,  however,  where  the 
instructor's  interest  and  equipment  are  adequate,  some  atten- 
tion is  given  to  borderland  phenomena,  child  psychology  and 
mental  and  nervous  diseases.  Topics  of  popular  interest  are 
often  taken  up  with  a  view  to  combating  superstition  and 
popular  error. 

In  about  half  the  institutions  reporting  there  is  at  least  one 
instructor  devoting  himself  to  psychology  exclusively.  In 
the  larger  institutions  with  parallel  courses,  the  instructor 
giving  the  general  course  gives  courses  also  in  one  or  more  of 
the  philosophical  branches,  the  work  in  psycholt^y  being  his 
less  important  function.  The  instructor  giving  the  more 
special  (experimental)  course  is  usually  free  from  such 
entanglements.  In  a  few  cases  in  the  less  differentiated 
departments  the  instructor  in  psycholc^y  takes  a  single  class 
for  his  overburdened  philosophical  colleagues,  usually  in  logic, 
ethics  or  esthetics;  or  else  carries  work  in  pedagogy. 

As  regards  method  the  course  is  usually  a  mixed  text  book 
and  lecture  course,  though  in  some  cases  a  text  alone  or  lec- 
tures alone  are  mentioned.  Demonstrations  are  frequent, 
especially  when  the  central  nervous  system  and  sensation  are 
under  consideration,  and  in  a  few  cases  simple  experiments  are 
made  in  the  class  or  by  the  students  individually  at  home,  e.g., 
such  as  are  found  in  Seashore's  manual.  Actual  laboratory 
work  is  not  usually  attempted.  Of  the  other  pedagogical 
devices,  discussions  (probably  the  ordinary  class  discussions  are 
meant)  are  most  frequently  mentioned ;  and  collateral  reading, 
theme  wri  ting,  studentreportsandindividualconferencesfollow 
in  the  order  named.  The  quiz  appears  in  some  form  in  nearly 
every  report.  Sometimes  it  is  written,  sometimes  oral,  some 
times  it  occurs  once  or  twice  a  semester  and  is  an  hour  long, 
sometimes  weekly  or  oftener  and  occupies  5  or  10  minutes. 
In  one  college  all  the  papers  turned  in,  in  a  monthly  test,  are 
corrected  and  returned  to  the  students,  in  another,  where  a 
five  minute  written  quiz  is  employed,  the  plan  calls  for  the 


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6o  S.  C.  SANFOMD 

marking  of  but  one-quarter  of  the  papers  each  time.  In 
about  a  third  of  the  institutions  reporting  something  in  the 
way  of  an  outline  or  syllabus  or  special  set  of  review  questions 
is  furnished  the  student  as  an  aid.  A  happy  variant  of  the 
review  questions  is  that  of  issuing  questions  which  cannot  be 
anstuered  directly  from  the  text  or  lectures  and  which  require  some 
active  response  on  the  part  of  the  student.  In  one  instance  this 
has  gone  even  a  step  further  and  questions  are  g^ven  which 
demand  a  certain  amount  of  simple  introsptection  or  experi- 
mentation or  both.  In  this  way  a  real  acquaintance  with 
mental  facts  is  cultivated. 

With  so  much  in  recall  of  the  generally  familiar  situation, 
let  us  hear  the  instructors  on  their  chief  hindrances  and  what 
they  would  change  if  they  had  a  free  hand. 

Inconveniently  large  classes  or  a  lack  of  assistance  is  men- 
tioned as  a  serious  difficulty  by  about  a  third  of  those  report- 
ing, but  this  is  perhaps  less  an  evil  than  the  dearth  of  students, 
which  is  once  mentioned.  Lack  of  equipment  or  inconven- 
ien<%  in  quarters  is  mentioned  by  about  a  third,  also.  More 
than  half  find  the  students  ill  prepared  for  psychological  work, 
especially  in  being  unable  to  use  the  knowledge  of  physics 
and  physiology  which  they  are  supposed  to  possess,  and  in 
1  heir  inability  to  introspect.  Some  find  themselves  hindered 
by  the  mixed  and  uneven  character  of  the  classes  in  these 
and  other  respects.  One  or  two  mention  the  student's  unwill- 
ingness to  work,  or  his  overinterest  in  the  practical  (pedagogi- 
cal) aspects  of  the  science.  More,  however,  report  no  lack 
of  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  students,  and  one  or  two 
feel  that  immature  students  are  the  teacher's  excuse  for  being, 
or  state  as  their  chief  difficulties  their  own  subjective  limita- 
tions.  The  lack  of  a  first  rate  text  book  is  mentioned  a  number 
of  times  and  insufficient  time  in  the  program  of  studies  per- 
haps as  often.  Only  two  mention  specifically  the  hostility  of 
superior  officers  to  scientific  psycholc^y. 

In  answer  to  the  question  as  to  how  they  would  like  to 
alter  their  courses  if  free  to  do  so,  about  one-half  the  instruc- 
tors in  question  reply  that  they  would  make  the  work  more 
concrete  and  tangible  and  especially  would  add  more  demon- 


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COLLBCBS  AND  UNIVSKSITIES  WITH  LABORATORIES  61 

strational  and  experimental  work;  one  or  two  would  even  like 
to  see  laboratory  work  required  o{  every  student  as  in  chemis- 
try and  physics.  Nearly  a  third  would  be  glad  of  more  assis- 
tants in  order  that  the  classes  might  be  handled  in  smaller 
sections  and  the  students  receive  more  individual  attention. 

Some  of  these  difficulties  and  desires  are  by  no  means  pecul- 
liar  to  psychology,  and  could  be  matched  from  almost  any 
department  in  any  growing  institution.  Too  lai^  classes, 
too  few  assistants  and  unsatisfactory  quarters  are  the  common 
lot  of  nearly  all  instructors  in  nearly  all  sciences.  The  same 
is  true  in  a  measure  of  the  immaturity  and  imperfect  training 
of  the  students.  The  suggestion,  however,  that  their  defi- 
ciency in  these  particulars  is  only  a  sign  that  they  need  a 
teacher  meets  the  matter  in  part  only:  there  seems  to  be  a 
real  difficulty  here  and  one  resting  with  especial  w«ght  on 
psychology.  Inability  to  introspect  means  inability  to  get 
at  the  subject  matter  of  psychological  science  and  points  to 
an  unusual  danger  of  substituting  a  knowledge  of  words  and 
descriptions  of  psychical  phenomena  for  knowledge  of  the 
things  themselves.  This  in  the  committee's  opinion  is  a. 
matter  of  first  class  importance  and  needs  the  attention  of 
every  teacher  of  beginners  in  psychology. 

The  frequent  desire  for  more  demonstrations  and  more 
expjeriments  in  the  beginner's  course  may  possibly  mean  a 
wish  for  a  more  striking  lecture  material  only,  but  it  ought 
to  mean  a  desire  for  a  closer  envisagement  of  the  psychic 
facts  by  the  pupil. 

The  fact  that  many  students  whose  main  interest  lies  else- 
where are  now  drawn  into  the  first  year's  classes  in  psycholf^y 
and  that  introspection  is  a  hard  matter  at  the  best  would 
seem  to  make  the  opening  of  their  inner  eyes  to  the  mental 
world  one  of  the  first  and  most  imperative  duties  of  the  course. 
Practical  bars  of  the  most  insuperable  sort  hinder  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  by  regular  work  in  the  laboratory.  The 
classes  are  almost  everywhere  too  large  and  the  amount  of 
time  which  the  students  can  give  to  psychology  too  small. 
What  is  wanted  is  clearly  some  other  method  of  bringing  the 
student  into  contact  with  the  psychical  facts.     Something  is 


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69  e.  C.  SA.VfORD 

already  being  done,  and  often  a  good  deal,  in  the  way  of 
demonstrations  and  class  experiments  and  this  is  in  every 
way  admirable  when  the  instructor  makes  use  of  the  intro- 
spective possibilities  which  they  offer  and  drives  home  the 
psychological  meaning  of  what  is  presented.  But  the  b^n- 
nings  which  have  been  made  in  the  issuing  of  questions  requir- 
ing simple  introspections  and  experiments,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  simple  experimental  courses  which  can  be  followed  by 
the  student  at  home  as  a  part  of  the  regular  preparation  for 
the  lecture  or  recitation  hour,  are  undoubtedly  still  more 
important  steps  in  the  right  direction  and  worthy  of  all 
encouragemen  ts. 

The  most  interesting  and  valuable  of  the  information 
brought  out  by  our  questions  was  that  which  a  number  of 
our  colleagues  were  kind  enough  to  give  in  reply  to  a  portion 
of  our  last  question  which  read  as  follows: 

"  Finally,  have  you  any  suggestions  not  extorted  by  the  above  queries 
as  to  what  ought  to  be  done  in  a  first  year's  course  io  psychology?" 
Several  of  these  paragraphs  of  suggestion  we  desiie  to  give  In  extettso. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  IHFBOVEHENT  0?  THE  GENERAL  COOKSE. 

I.  "But  seveial  things  are  needed  for  the  improvement  of  courses 
like  A  (a  "geneial  course").     ...    I  might  mention: 

"  (i)  A  good  reliable  list  (a)  of  inexpensive  demonstrational  apparatus 
and  (b)  of  useful  demonstrational  experiments,  whose  use  with  the  class 
would  occupy  a  veiy  small  proportion  of  its  time,  but  would  serve  not 
merely  for  its  entertainment  but  as  a  real  help  in  comprehending  the  facts 
and  prindples  discussed.    I  am  not  fully  satisfied  yet  with  existing  lists. 

"  (a)  A  good  crilicai  bibliography  on  «ch  phase  of  the  subject. 

"(3)  A  standard  set  of  lantern  slides. 

"  (4)  A  larger  agreement  among  the  leading  psychologists  as  to  what 
are  the  fixed  and  permanent  underlying  prindples  of  the  sdence. 

"(5)  An  adequate  text  book  that  will  emphasize  these  fundamental 
prindples  first  of  all,  aiming  to  present  them  soundly  and  (x>nvindngly 
with  only  enough  of  detailed  fact  to  make  these  essential  prindples  dear; 
leaving  to  lectures  and  collateral  reading  the  acquisition  of  further  de- 
tails and  the  application  of  the  fundamental  principles  to  them.  At 
present  to  reach  this  ideal,  I  suppose  each  of  tis  must  write  his  own  text 
book;  for  I  haven't  found  one  yet  that  satisfies  me." 

U.  "I  am  of  the  opinion  that  a  General  Introductory  Course  that  u 
required  should  not  be  a  laboratory  course.  Too  little  can  be  covered  in 
such  a  course  and  to  my  mind  the  advantage  of  the  laboratory  method 
should,  under  the  circumstances,  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  the  greater 


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COLLBGBS  AND  VNIVBKSITIRS  WITB  LABORATORIES  63 

advajitages  of  &  course  of  wider  scope,  and  such  as  can  be  given  in  the  same 
time  in  lectures  supplemented  by  copious  demonstrations. 

"If  the  course  is  not  required  and  if  most  of  the  students  take  further 
work,  in  Psychology  the  force  of  the  above  objection  is  gieatly  reduced. 
Nevertheless,  even  in  this  case,  a  general  lecture  course  with  demon- 
strations and  class  experiments  is  to  be  preferred  by  way  of  introduction 
to  a  strict  laboratory  one. 

"  I  insist  in  my  general  required  course  upon  the  structure,  the  organ- 
ization and  the  function  of  the  nervous  system.  This  seems  to  me  re- 
quisite not  only  for  a  proper  understanding  of  psychology  as  a  science, 
but  also  for  a  modem  understandii^  of  man  and  his  activities.  This 
general  culture  value  of  a  clear  and  not  too  scrappy  understanding  of  the 
organization  and  of  the  function  of  the  nervous  system  is,  to  my  mind, 
of  the  first  importance  in  a  required  course." 

III.  "  I.  Business-like  administration  is  desirable  in  the  interest  of 
the  student,  who  is  likely  to  get  into  slovenly  habits.  Tc  this  end  W —  has 
found  nothing  bettei  up  to  date,  than  dividing  each  half  yeai's  work 
into  5  parts,  each  part  being  a  subject,  such  as  space  perception,  associa- 
tion, memory,  reaction  time;  the  work  on  each  part  is  to  be  completed 
at  a  previously  set  date,  the  laboratory  notes  to  be  handed  in,  and  an 
examination  on  that  part  taken. 

"3.  Instead  of  asdgned  cultural  readings  W — piefeir,  usually,  prob- 
lems to  be  worked  out  by  the  student;  as  for  example  (a)illu£trationsof 
Weber's  law  from  common  life  (usually  not  very  successful);  (b)  records 
of  trains  of  assodaUoQ;  (c)  exercises  in  finding  aveiage,  constant  and 
variable  errors,  etc." 

IV.  "Standardize  by  getting  (and  recommending)  good  sense  organ 
and  central  nervous  system  slides  and  models.  By  suggesting  certain 
sets  of  demonstrations.  .  .  .  (but)  leavmg  time  for  instnictorial 
bent. 

"Arrange  some  exchanges  of  first  year  examination  papers  between 
different  univeisities." 

V.  "I  would  suggest  that  the  committee  prepare  or  further  the  prepa- 
ration of  leaflets  or  pamphlets  containing  directions  for  ^ngle  experi- 
ments or  groups  of  experiments  in  order  that  instructors  may  make  any 
combination  suited  to  their  needs.  Even  the  smaller  manuals  contain 
much  not  suited  to  some  classes." 

VI.  "I  would  suggest  that  a  loosf  leaf  laboratory  book  be  prepared, 
corresponding  to  books  now  used  in  physics,  chemistiy,  etc.,  describing 
a  series  of  simple  experiments  and  containing  all  the  material  necessary 
for  perfomu'ng  the  experiments.  If  the  experiments  were  performed 
undei  constant  conditions,  and  the  records  sent  to  some  central  body,  we 
should  be  in  possession  of  some  psychologic  norms  with  which  we  could 
compare  the  results  given  by  our  own  students.  I  have  a  lot  (A  this 
stuff  worked  out  now  and  should  be  glad  to  cooperate." 

VII.  "The  thing  that  more  than  any  other  keeps  us  to  the  old  lines  is 
the  belief  that  the  beginning  student  should  get  a  firm  grip  on  the  vocab- 
ulary of  psychology,  even  if  that  vocabulary  is  somewhat  archaic,  and 
that  a  study  at  first  limited  to  the  normal,  human,  adult  mind,  is  best 
for  that  purpose." 


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64  B.  C.  SANPORD 

Vni.  "If  my  observations  are  correct  Experimental  Psychology  is 
Qow  taken  (elected)  by  only  a  few  students.  The  way  to  save  this  work 
for  education  is  to  combine  its  essentials  with  the  introductory  course, 
I  sincerely  believe.  Experimental  psychology  has  an  'educative'  value 
in  various  ways  but  now  this  is  almost  entirely  lost.  Combining  the 
essentials  with  the  introductory  course  would  also  assist  in  giving  the 
essentials  of  the  text  book.  I  used  Seashore's  Elementary  Experiments  in 
my  begiiming  classs  this  year  and  found  it  deddedly  helpful." 

IX.  "With  respect  to  ordinary  college  first  year  psychology  my  main 
divergences  from  customary  opinion  are: 

"  (i)  That  this  course  in  psychology  is  not  to  make  philosophers. 

"(a)  That  this  course  in  psychology  is  not  to  make  psychologists. 

"  (3)  That  this  course  in  psychology  is  to  make  men  and  women  better 
fitted  to  understand  all  the  sciences  and  arts  dealing  with  human  natuie. 

"  (4)  That  psychology  is  not  best  taught  to  beginners  as  the  study  of 
human  consciousness  but  as  the  study  of  human  nature  and  behavior. 

"  (s)  That  expeiiment  dealing  with  realities  and  exercises  testing  knowl- 
edge and  power  by  demanding  their  application  to  new  problems  are  a 
sine  qua  non  of  success  in  teaching  psychology  (01  anything  else). 

"  (6)  That  the  function  of  the  teacher  is  not  primarily  to  get  a  great 
amount  of  work  done  by  the  students  but  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of 
knowledge,  skill,  etc.,  fiom  a  given  amount  of  work  b>  them. 

"  {7)  That  the  actual  content  of  the  course  is  more  important  than  most 
teachers  of  psychology  think  and  the  form  01  disdpUne  or  foint  of  view, 
etc.,  less  impoitaot." 

X.  "If  conditions  permitted  it,  I  should  be  in  favor  of  giving  a  whole 
year  to  the  required  course,  in  which  the  only  labotatory  work  would 
be  of  a  practice  character.  In  such  a  care  I  would  like  to  see  the  dynamic, 
rather  than  the  static,  aspects  of  mind  emphasized.  I  would  begin  the 
course,  not  with  a  detailed  analysis  of  sensation  but  with  a  consideration 
of  the  biological  functions  and  place  of  the  human  mind.  Then  I  would 
proceed  to  more  careful  analysis  with  experimental  illustration.  I  would 
spend  a  good  deal  of  time  on  the  psychology  of  conduct,  thinking,  feeling, 
bringing  out  the  connection  between  ethics,  logic,  esthetics,  etc.,  and 
psydiological  analysis.  I  would  give  some  attention  to  abnormalities 
of  consciousness  and  action  and  point  out  the  practical,  social,  moral  and 
educational  bearing  of  psychology. 

"Whatever  may  be  said  in  favor  of  a  structure  psychology  that  is 
rigorously  atomistic,  as  a  legitimate  scientific  proceeding.  .  .  .  my 
experience  as  a  teacher  leads  me  to  say  that  emphasis  on  the  stiuctural, 
static,  and  atomistic  points  of  view  is  not  desirable  in  a  first  year  course. 

"  Whatever  the  value  or  interest  of  these  very  vague  remarks,  they  are 
to  be  taken  as  the  expression  of  a  teachei  who,  while  lecognizing  the  inde- 
pendent rights  of  psychology,  does  not  deem  it  wise,  from  the  standpoint 
of  undergraduate  instruction  and  of  philosophical  culture,  to  divorce 
if  from  philosophy.  In  fact,  as  one  whose  interests  are  predominently 
epistemological,  ethical  and  metaphysical,  I  am  not  at  present  able  to 
draw  any  ^larp  dividing  Une  between  functional  psychology  and  philos- 
ophy." 


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COLLSCBS  AND  VNIVEgSlTlES  WITB  LABOKATORIBS  6$ 

XI.  "  A  satisfactory  consensus  of  opinion,  today,  I  think  is  impossible 
to  obtain;  and  such  as  you  will  get  I  consider  more  likely  to  do  haim  than 
good,  except  possibly  in  the  smaller  colleges.  ...  I  consider  the 
attempt  to  standardize  courses  premature;  let  the  men  in  the  field  expeii- 
meat  with  couises,  the  best  will  survive;  but  your  made  to  ordei  course 
or  your  average  cou.s.e  will  never  be  as  good  as  tbe  best ." 

XII.  "I  do  not  think  that  it  is  possible  to  teach  a  science  in  any  other 
way  than  as  a  "science  to  be  cultivated  for  itself."  That  is  to  say,  I 
should  give  precisely  the  same  introductory  course,  whatever  the  aims 
and  needs  of  the  students  who  took  it.  I  doubt  whether  it  is  advisable 
to  cut  a  science  to  suit  the  requirements  even  of  a  distinct  professional 
course;  I  doubt,  that  is,  if  it  is  advisable  to  teach  English  Literature  for 
Engineers  or  Physiology  for  Medical  Students;  I  believe  that  the  best 
results  are  gained,  in  such  cases,  by  teaching  English  literature  and  phyd- 
ology.  But  'general  culture'  or  'hberal  education' — the  supposed  main 
object  of  college  courses  in  arts  and  sciences — is  not  a  profession,  is  not 
at  all  strictly  definable;  and  I  do  not  see  bow  it  is  possible,  not  to  say 
desirable,  to  cut  psychology  to  fit  that  requirement. 

"I  teach  psychology,  at  the  beginning,  in  an  elementary  maimer.  I 
make  things  as  simple  as  possible;  I  omit  phases  of  problems,  even  whole 
problems,  where  simplification  to  the  necessary  degree  is  impossible;  I 
am  dogmatic  on  points  where  dogmatism  is  strictly  out  of  place,  although 
the  dogmatic  statements  are  always  qualified  for  those  who  have  ears  to 
hear.  But  I  am  all  the  while  teacliing  psychology,  as  best  I  can,  without 
ulterior  motive  or  ideal.  I  get  a  good  many  men  from  engineering, 
medicine  and  law;  the  number  of  these  outside  students  is  steadily  in- 
creasing; but  I  make  no  conces^ons  to  them. 

"  If  any  other  ideal  is  followed,  it  seems  to  me  that  one  of  two  things 
must  happen.  Either  the  teacher  lapses  into  dilettantism;  and  for  this 
there  is  no  defence.  Or  the  teacher  substitutes  his  personal  and  private 
judgment  for  the  objective  judgment  embodied  in  the  actual  course  and 
growth  of  the  sdence;  he  forces  on  the  students  his  own  notion  of  cul- 
tural or  philosophical  or  practical  application,  instead  of  showing  what 
has  been  accomplished  and  allowing  that  accomplishment  to  sp^k  for 
itself.    In  general,  this  alternative  must  lead  to  bad  results. 

"  I  graat,  of  course,  that  a  teacher,  a  man  who  is  in  love  with  his  sub- 
ject, mil  do  well  with  students  whatever  method  he  follows  and  whatever 
choice  he  make.  That  is  axiomatic.  But  I  suppose  that  the  aim  oi 
this  questionary  is  to  help  the  weaker  brethren,  and  not  to  legislate  for 
those  who  already  know.  And  I  should  accordingly  counsel  the  weaker 
brother,  if  he  is  a  professor  of  psychology,  to  teach  psychology.  If  he 
does  this,  up  to  his  honest  limit  of  achievement,  he  will  find  that  psych<d- 
ogy  will  show  its  own  bearing  upon  culture,  its  own  philosophical  rele- 
vance, its  own  applicability.  These  references  may  then  be  followed  up, 
as  needs  arise  and  as  the  size  of  the  staff  allows,  by  later  couises,  given 
either  by  the  department  of  psychology  or  by  those  of  philosophy  and  edu- 
cation, etc.  To  interject  them  at  the  b^mning  is  to  warp  the  mind  of 
tbe  student.     .     .     . 

"  My  ideal  is  the  local  separation  of  the  college  from  the  university. 


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66  B.  C.  SAirPORD 

With  this  ideal  realized,  I  sliould  offer  (i)  an  introductoiy  course,  mudi 
as  I  do  DOW,  for  graduates  in  other  departments,  and  (a)  research  and 
training  courses  in  the  laboratory.  I  should  not,  by  dioice,  be  a  'college' 
professor.  Being  this,  however,  I  have  rigorously  pushed  my  univeruty 
ideals  into  the  college  work.  The  success  is  patent;  my  370  elective 
students — if  thdr  number  is  compared  with  the  number  of  the  sophomore 
students  in  the  collie — are  sufficient  witness.  To  say  that  hard  wotIi 
cannot  be  got  out  of  the  students,  or  to  say  that  scientific  psychology 
is  uninteresting,  is  simply  to  covei  up  one's  own  laziness  or  incompe- 
tence. 

"I  must  here  interject  my  ideas  on  the  lecture  system.  The  lecture 
has  a  twofold  advantage  over  the  recitation.  (1)  It  is  economical,  ^ce 
one  man  handles  a  large  number  of  students;  the  method  of  recitation 
is  extravagant.  This  fact  alone  will  mean  the  retention  of  the  lecture 
system,  wherever  it  can  posfibly  be  employed  with  success.  (2)  It  is 
educationally  the  better  method,  for  the  average  student  and  the  aver- 
age teacher.  For  the  reconstruction  of  a  lectme  from  notes  means  an 
essay  in  original  work,  in  original  thinking;  while  the  redtation  lapses 
all  too  readily  into  text-book  rote  and  verbal  repetition. 

"It  is, nevertheless,  true  that  sophomore  students  are  on  the  whtde 
inadequate  to  a  lecture  course.  They  cannot  take  notm;  they  cannot 
tear  the  heait  out  of  a  lecture.  (They  are  also,  I  may  add,  inadequate 
to  the  reading  of  textbooks  or  general  liteiature,  in  much  the  same  way.) 
Hence  one  has  to  supplement  the  lecture  by  syllabi,  by  lists  of  questions 
(indexes,  so  to  speak,  to  the  lectures),  and  by  personal  interviews.  I 
spend,  on  the  aveiage,  8  hours  of  time  on  every  one  of  my  sophomore 
lectures;  I  give  34  hours  a  week  to  a  3  houis'  course.  But,  doing  this,  I 
secure  a  fail-percentage  of  2  or  under. 

"  Evidently,  this  method  is  wasteful  of  good  mateiial.  While  it  costs 
less  than  it  would  cost  to  add  half  a  dozen  assistants  for  recitations;  and 
while  it  is  also,  educationally,  a  better  method  than  that,  it  still  wastes 
good  professoiial  time.  The  remedy,  is,  to  accustom  students  to  note- 
taking  in  the  high  school.  In  the  Engl^  public  schools,  a  part  of  the 
work  in  the  upper  forms  is  lecture-work,  for  which  the  boys  are  hdd 
responsible;  they  therefore  go  to  the  um'veisity  in  some  measuie  prepared 
for  the  lecture  courses.  Now  lectures  are  frequently  given,  by  outsiders, 
to  the  students  in  American  high  schools;  but  they  are  looked  upon  as  a 
recreation  or  a  bore.  I  suggest  that  these  iectuies,  given  once  or  twice 
a  term  through  the  four  years,  might  be  utilized  for  teaching  the  students 
to  take  notes.  The  students  might,  in  a  minor  way,  be  held  responsible 
for  the  reproduction  of  their  contents.  Then,  in  the  fieshman  year,  the 
student  might  take,  say  a  single  lecture  course  of  3  hours  a  week;  so  that, 
in  the  sophomore  yeai ,  he  would  come  to  the  psychologist  with  some  train- 
ing. 

"I  speak  of  averages  all  the  way  through.  A  man  may  be  a  bora  lec^ 
turer,  or  a  bom  usei  of  the  Socratic  method;  he  will  succeed  anywhere. 
But  we  do  not  get  congenital  ability  i^hroughout  our  faculties.  I  betiere 
in  the  lecture  system,  for  the  average  student  and  the  average  instructor 
of  our  subject,  but  I  suggest  that  the  present  state  of  affairs  might  be  im- 


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COLLBGBS  AND  VNIVBXSITIBS  WITB  LABORATORIES  67 

proved,  on  the  side  of  the  student,  by  better  high  school  pteporation.  As 
for  the  instructor,  he  must  be  taught,  as  sharply  as  necessary,  that  a  lec- 
ture is  a  work  of  art,  and  not  a  perfunctory  delivery  of  information. 
Murh  of  the  failure  to  interest,  in  psycholr^,  is  due  to  the  instructor's 
lack  of  educati<Hi  in  hi;  art:  he  cannot  manage  his  voice,  he  has  nol  learned 
what  he  wants  to  say,  he  does  not  propeily  enunciate,  he  cannot  vary 
from  narrative  to  exposition,  to  argument;  bis  anecdotes  are  purfde 
patches  and  not  relevant  lightenings  of  the  material  Time  and  again 
Ihave listened to'lectures  in  psychology'  that  made  me  wish  I  had  the 
lecturer  alone,  with  nothing  but  the  moral  law  in  my  heart  and  the  uni- 
verse of  stars  above  me.    .     .    . 

"  So — to  return — my  chief  difficulty  is  immaturity  of  training  (not  of 
mind)  on  the  part  of  the  students.  Physiology  and  physics  they  have 
tasted,  or  can  get  concomitantly;  introspection  it  is  my  business  to  teach 
them;  text-books  I  can  write  myself;  and  I  have  my  share  of  theii  time. 
I  want  tbem  only  to  know  how  to  deal  with  spoken  oi  printed  material. 

"  Our  equipment  I  have  already  described.  Students  who  lack  serious- 
ness, or  understanding,  or  manipulative  skill,  or  time  to  devote  to  the 
subject,  are  bowed  out  of  the  laboratory  in  the  course  of  the  first  fort- 
night. Why  shoidd  we  bother  with  themP  They  are  not  obliged  to 
come  in,  and  we  are  assuredly  not  obliged  to  hold  them  if  they  do  come 
io.  We  take  all  imaginable  pains  with  the  real  student,  whatever  he  may 
at  first  be  lacking  in;  but  the  unfit  are  eliminated.  And  if  one  has  had 
rxperience,  the  spotting  of  the  unfit  is  not  a  very  difficult  thing. 

"  I  should  deprecate  the  publication  of  any  list  of  first  yeai 's  collateral 
reading.  The  science  is  growing  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  the  collateral 
reading  shifts  and  changes  from  year  to  yeai.  To  publish  a  list  would 
be  to  relieve  the  instructor,  for  some  years  to  come,  of  what  should  be 
an  integral  and  an  interesting  part  of  his  own  work  and  growth.  The  list 
would  remain,  fossilized,  and  students  would  suffer.  No  conixssions 
should  be  made,  I  think,  to  the  weakness  of  the  instructor;  every  allow- 
anoe  should  be  made  for  the  poor  training  of  the  student.     .    .    . 

"The  sum  and  substance  ot  my  lecommendations  is  that  you  provide 
a  competently  trained  instructor,  and  let  him  teach  psychology  as  he  best 
can.  What  the  student  needs  is  the  effect  of  an  imUviduality,  a  person- 
ality; and  the  lecture  system  provides  admirably  for  such  eSect.  I 
shoiUd  strcHigly  deprecate  the  issuance  of  any  general  plan  of  organiza- 
tion, or  the  authoritative  lecommendation  of  any  special  t(^ics  or  pro- 
cedure, which  should  tend  to  mechanise  instruction  in  the  colleges.  We 
are  overorganized,  ovet-businesslike  already.  I  venture  to  suggest  that 
a  great  dangei  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  lies  ptedsdy  in  this  point. 
If  its  recommendations  are  over-stringent,  if  the  fieest  play  is  not  allowed 
to  the  instructor's  personal  tiainii^  and  individual  capacity,  we  shall  be 
out  of  the  frying  pan  into  the  fiie.'" 

>  Seven!  comspoadaxts  would  like  to  have  iufomutiQn  u  to  particuUr  questions 
with  reference  to  the  &rat  year's  course — as,  for  example,  the  prefeired  order  of  presen- 
atioB  of  the  vaiious  topici  in  the  conne,  whether  mtioducbHy  ezperimental  woik 
bouM  b^in  with  bore  sense-ezperiments,  how  fu  psychologists  fed  an  unaaUsfactoir 


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68  E.  C.  SANFOltD 

RecommendtUions. .  The  Committee  has  no  such  idea  of  its 
function  as  that  implied  in  the  warning  of  our  colleagues  who 
penned  extracts  XI  and  XII  above.  It  does  not  desire  to  be 
responsible  for  an  average  course  or  to  standardize  the  courses 
now  given.  It  agrees  unreservedly  with  the  writer  of  extract 
XII  that  the  best  way  in  which  to  secure  good  courses  in  psy- 
chology is  to  select  well  trained  men  and  give  them  a  free 
hand.  Good  teaching  is  an  art  and  the  teacher  must  be 
assured  the  artist's  freedom.  The  Committee's  function,  as 
we  conceive  it,  is  not  to  establish  norms  of  any  sort,  but  to 
formulate  more  clearly  certain  ideals  on  which  many  or  all  of 
those  teaching  psychology  are  already  agreed,  to  point  out 
means  by  which  these  can  in  some  measure  be  realized,  and 
finally  to  recommend  to  the  Association  such  action  as  will 
assist  those  who  care  to  work  in  the  direction  suggested. 

The  ideal  which  the  Committee  desires  to  formulate  and 
for  which  it  hopes  the  endorsement  of  the  Association  is  that 
of  the  fullest  possible  acquaintance  on  the  part  of  the  student 
with  the  concrete  facts  of  consciousness  as  the  rational  basis 
for  a  knowledge  of  psychology — an  ideal  which  has  been 
frequently  mentioned  by  our  correspondents  and  which  is 
shared  we  believe  by  all  or  almost  all  of  our  colleagues.  As 
means  to  this  end  the  Committee  urges,  as  indicated  above, 
the  fullest  use  of  demonstrations  and  class  experiments,  given 
always  in  such  a  way  that  the  student  shall  not  fail  to  grasp 
their  psychological  meaning,  and  the  development  of  the 
scheme  of  simple  home  experiments  and  introspections  already 
in  tentative  use  by  at  least  two  of  our  colleagues. 

In  furtherance  of  these  ends  it  recommends  to  the  Associa- 
tion the  formation  of  two  permanent  committees,  one  on 
Demonstrations  and  Class  Experiments  and  another  on  Psy- 
chological Experiments  Outside  the  Laboratory.  The  func- 
tions of  the  first  should  be  to  publish  from  time  to  time  in 
some  one  of  the  psychological  journals,  first  a  classified  bibli- 
ography of  such  good  demonstrations  and  class  experiments 

tendency  toward  practicality  in  the  students  which  come  to  them  from  pedagogy,  and 
how  far  they  still  suffer  from  a  tendency  of  philosophers  to  dominate  the  departmoiti 
to  which  the  psychological  courses  belong. 


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COLLEGES  AND  UHIVERSITIES  WITB  LABORATORIES  69 

as  already  exist  in  readily  accessible  literature,  second  to 
collect  and  publish  in  full  in  the  same  way  directions  for  mak- 
ing such  demonstrations  and  class  experiments  as  are  found 
only  in  relatively  inaccessible  literature,  and  third  to  collect 
and  publish  in  the  same  way  similar  demonstrations,  experi- 
ments and  descriptions  of  demonstrational  apparatus  as 
are  now  in  use  in  American  laboratories  and  as  yet  unpub- 
lished. (Several  of  our  correspondents  have  already  signified 
their  willingness  to  contribute  to  such  a  collection.')  The 
Committee  on  Experiments  Outside  the  Laboratory  should 
undertake  the  same  functions  with  reference  to  their  particular 
topic.  Our  purpose  in  suggesting  that  these  committees  be 
made  permanent  is  that  they  may  be  given  time  to  work 
slowly  at  the  material  to  be  gathered  and  publish  from  time 
to  time  as  it  is  collected  without  producing  at  once,  or  waiting 
for,  anything  approaching  a  complete  exploitation  of  the 
field;  and  that  the  experiments  and  demonstrations  which 
they  publish  may  be  kept  up  to  date. 

THE  FIRST  YEAR  IN  THE  LABORATORY. 

In  the  half  dozen  or  more  institutions  tn  which  parallel 
introductory  courses  are  offered,  it  is  possible  for  the  student 
to  begin  the  subject  of  psychology  with  its  exfierimental 
aspect.  But  even  in  these  cases  it  is  exceptional  that  a  student 
enters  the  laboratory  before  he  has  taken  the  general  intro- 
ductory course,  though  the  two  courses  are  sometimes  carried 
at  the  same  time.  In  all  other  institutions  where  laboratory 
work  is  given  at  all,  it  follows  an  introductory  course.  The 
first  laboratory  course  usually  runs  through  a  full  year  though 
in  some  instances  it  is  given  in  a  single  semester. 

The  preferred  size  of  laboratory  sections  is  ten  or  under, 
though  in  some  institutions,  where  the  work  has  been  thor- 
oughly systematized  larger  sections  (up  to  30)  are  handled 
by  the  instructor  with  one  or  more  assistants.     Practical 

'  We  would  suggest  for  membenhip  on  this  latter  committee  our  colleagues  Pfofetsor 
J.  E.  Lough  of  New  Voric  University  uid  Professor  Margaret  Floy  Washburn  of  Vasau 
Colhc*  who  have  already  used  with  success  the  methods  in  questioo. 


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TO  E.  C.  SAHFOJtD 

reasons,  especially  the  cost  of  much  duplicating  of  apparatus, 
make  it  necessary  in  most  cases  where  the  laboratory  sections 
are  at  all  numerous,  for  different  groups  to  work  at  different 
problems,  but  some  instructors  in  beginning  the  laboratory 
course  have  all  the  students  work  at  the  same  problem  at  the 
same  time  until  several  problems  have  been  covered;  and  in 
exceptional  circumstances  it  has  been  found  best  to  carry  this 
method  through  the  major  part  or  even  the  whole  of  the 
beginner's  course. 

After  a  year  or  so  of  laboratory  practice  several  teachers 
set  students  at  repeating  experiments  from  research  literature 
or  assign  them  minor  research  problems  under  supervision. 
It  is  rare,  however,  that  this  can  be  done  within  the  first  year. 

In  the  institutions  in  question  the  number  of  rooms  used 
for  laboratory  purposes  ranges  from  i  to  32,  but  in  the  latter 
case  of  course  many  rooms  are  included  which  arenot  used  for 
the  first  year's  laboratory  courses.  The  most  frequent  num- 
ber mentioned  is  5,  and  half  of  all  reporting  give  numbers 
from  2  to  7.  In  two  institutions  the  laboratory  consists  of 
one  room  only  though  in  one  of  these  cases  other  rooms  may 
be  used  in  time  of  need. 

In  equipment  most  of  the  laboratories  supplying  informa- 
tion (about  two  dozen)  are  at  least  fairly  equipped  for  the 
sort  of  work  required.  Only  three  speak  of  their  equipment 
as  inadequate,  and  one  of  liiese  is  just  starting. 

Appropriations  are  felt  to  be  inadequate  and  cramping  in 
but  four  of  twenty  eight;  and  some  small  laboratories  are 
able,  by  economy  and  by  concentrating  research  upon  a 
single  topic  at  a  time,  to  do  work  of  excellent  quality,  both 
practice  work  and  research,  with  the  expenditure  of  rela- 
tively small  sums. 

With  reference  to  the  constitution  of  the  first  year's  labora- 
tory course  there  is  a  wide  spread  diversity.  Eclectic  courses 
are  common  and  it  is  once  or  twice  remarked  that  the  course 
is  varied  from  year  to  year  or  should  be  adaptable  to  the  needs 
of  the  students  taking  it.  It  must  often  be  limited  also  by 
the  equipment,  or  even  the  physical  situation,  of  the  labora- 
tory. 


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COLLEGES  AND  aiflVEXSITIES  WITH  LABOKATORIBS  JI 

The  data  collected  with  reference  to  the  first  year's  work 
in  the  laboratory,  while  it  shows  that  most  of  the  laboratories 
reporting  are  in  a  fairly  prosperous  condition  is  sufficient  to 
to  justify  the  Committee  in  but  a  single  recommendation. 

Recommendation.  In  view  of  the  diversity  of  interest, 
requirement  and  possibility  the  Committee  looks  with  favor 
upon  the  suggestion  of  one  of  its  correspondents  that  a  labora- 
tory course  should  be  prepared  on  the  principle  of  the  "  loose 
leaf"  courses  now  used  for  elementary  laboratory  work  in 
other  sciences,  by  means  of  which  an  instructor  can  vary  his 
course  with  ease  and  within  wide  limits.  The  preparation  of 
such  a  course  is  not  the  work  of  the  Association  nor  of  a  com- 
mittee working  under  its  authority,  but  we  suggest  that,  if 
so  moved,  the  Association  might  further  such  an  undertaking 
by  expressing  its  official  approval  of  the  plan. 


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LABORATORY  COURSES  AND  EQUIPMENT  IN  PSY- 
CHOLOGY FOR  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES. 

By  Jaues  R.  Angell. 

University  of  Chicago. 

The  two  points  in  our  educational  system  at  which  advice 
is  most  often  sought  concerning  the  equipment  of  a  labora- 
tory for  psychology  are  the  normal  school  and  the  small 
college  each  with  a  modest  appropriation  at  disposal  for  the 
purchase  of  apparatus.  The  normal  schools  are  treated  in 
another  part  of  this  general  report.  The  comments  which 
follow  are  directed  to  the  consideration  of  collegiate  institu- 
tions which  pwssess  no  equipment  in  psychology  or  to  those 
whose  equipment  is  small  and  who  may  contemplate  either 
systematic  or  occasional  enlai^ment.  What  is  said  of 
research  pertains  primarily  to  the  larger  universities,  but  it 
is  included  with  brevity  for  completeness  sake.  Such  insti- 
tutions ordinarily  require  little  advice  and  would  be  slow  to 
accept  it,  even  if  it  were  needed. 

MEANS  AND  ENDS  OF  LABORATORY  WORK. 

Laboratory  work  in  psychology  may  be  designed  to  meet 
any  one  of  several  distinct  aims  of  which  three  may  be  men- 
tioned, (i)  It  may  be  desired  to  offer  students  laboratory 
methods  primarily  as  a  means  of  aiding  them  to  attain  direct, 
personal  contact  with  psychological  materials,  to  assist  them 
in  introspective  observation  and  in  general  to  supply  them 
with  a  technique  for  discovering  facts  about  mental  processes 
and  for  arranging  and  presenting  these  facts  when  obtained. 
(2)  Another  proper  aim  of  laboratory  work,  which  includes 
but  goes  beyond  the  one  first  described,  is  that  of  furnishing 
students  immediate  acquaintance  with  the  apparatus  and 
methods  by  which  important  facts  have  been  determined  and 


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LABORATORIBS  AND  BQUIPUBNT  73 

significant  principles  established.  When  the  opportunities 
of  a  well-equipped  laboratory  are  improved  to  the  utmost 
in  this  direction,  students  not  only  secure  an  excellent  drill 
in  general  scientific  method,  but  they  also  gain  the  ability 
to  estimate  with  confidence  and  independence  the  relative 
reliability  and  certainty  of  specific  types  of  procedure.  In 
other  words  they  begin  to  achieve  scientific  judgment.  (3) 
A  third  aim  is  that  of  research,  together  with  the  giving  of  a 
thorough  training  in  experimental  technique  as  a  preliminary 
for  it.  Many  other  purposes  may  be  involved  from  time  to 
time,  but  these  three  alone  afford  grounds  for  very  consider- 
able diversity  in  the  equipment  required  for  their  realization 
the  first  differing  much  more  from  the  latter  two  than  they 
differ  from  one  another. 

The  first  aim  demands  much  the  least  pretentious  outfit  of 
materials  and  may  be  attained  with  large  success  on  the  basis 
of  a  very  slender  equipment,  such  as  can  be  secured  at  trivia! 
expense.  The  exercises  in  introspection  which  certain  of 
our  texts  now  contain  and  the  ground  covered  in  one  or  two 
manuals  at  present  on  the  market  well  supply  the  need  for 
work  of  this  kind.  To  be  sure  many  of  these  exercises  could 
not  be  called  strictly  experimental  in  character  inasmuch  as 
they  simply  invite  attention  to  certain  facts  open  to  casual 
observation.  But  they  shade  over  into  a  more  genuinely 
experimental  procedure  by  indiscernible  gradations  and  for 
our  present  purposes  they  may  well  be  ranked  as  experi- 
mental. 

So  far  as  our  reports  enable  us  to  judge,  the  results  gained 
by  this  type  of  work  have  been  most  salutary  both  in  convey- 
ing a  just  impression  of  experimental  method  and  in  stimulat- 
ing appreciation  for  direct  psychological  information.  Teach- 
ing institutions  of  all  kinds  in  which  psychology  is  repre- 
sented may  well  be  ui^ed  to  make  use  of  the  possibilities  of 
work  of  this  sort.  It  must  not  be  ex^^erated  in  importance 
as  in  any  way  taking  the  place  of  the  varieties  of  work  still 
to  be  described.  It  is  in  no  sense  justly  to  be  considered  as  in 
competition  with  them.  It  supplies  a  different  need  for  a 
different  constituency.    But  it  can  hardly  be  neglected  by 


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74  JAUBS  R.  ANGSLL 

any  instructor  who  desires  his  students  to  secure  vital  ideas 
of  the  character  of  psychological  facts.  Every  good  teacher 
has  used  it  more  or  less  since  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
mental movement.  It  deserves,  however,  to  be  employed  in 
the  most  effective  manner  possible  and  for  this  result  much 
intelligent  planning  is  necessary.  Formal  apparatus  although 
distinctly  useful  is  altogether  secondary.  In  any  case,  whether 
with  or  without  apparatus,  the  procedure  is  designed  to  bring 
out  the  rudimentary  mental  phenomena,  such  as  those  of  the 
various  sense  experiences,  attention,  memory,  imagery,  feeling 
and  the  like. 

In  this  connection  should  be  mentioned  also  the  class  experi- 
ment which  shares  with  this  form  of  procedure  just  mentioned 
the  essential  aims  designated  but  attempts  to  reach  its  ends 
by  methods  that  permit  the  class  to  work  as  a  group,  thus 
economizing  the  time  of  the  instructor  and  the  expense  of  pro- 
viding  assistants  such  as  are  usually  required  for  the  super- 
vision of  laboratory  exercises.  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss 
the  merits  and  defects  of  this  method.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
experience  has  shown  conclusively  that  much  can  be  done  in 
this  way  to  give  accurate  impressions  of  experimental  method 
and  not  a  little  can  be  accomplished  in  the  actual  disclosure 
of  unfamiliar  psychological  fact.  The  manipulation  of  psy- 
chological data  can  also  be  effectively  taught  or  at  least  illus- 
trated in  this  way. 

The  use  of  demonstrational  materials  of  all  sorts  may  well 
be  mentioned  here.  Of  the  value  of  such  devices  when 
properly  employed  there  can  be  no  question  whatever.  The 
verdict  of  experience  is  unequivocal  on  the  matter.  They 
add  to  the  interest  of  the  class,  increase  the  breadth  of  out- 
look and  linger  firmly  in  the  memory  by  virtue  of  the  vivid- 
ness of  the  experience  which  generally  attends  their  use. 
They  suffer  from  the  danger  of  incompetent  use  as  do  other 
meritorious  means  of  instruction.  If  they  are  not  used  so 
as  definitely  to  assist  the  mastery  of  the  matters  immediately 
in  hand,  if  they  are  introduced  so  as  to  constitute  a  diversion, 
if  they  are  used  with  so  much  frequency  that  the  main  impres- 
sion conveyed  by  the  course  is  one  of  a  vaudeville  character. 


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LABORATORIES  AND  EQUIPMEST  75 

they  are  not  likely  to  prove  anything  but  disintegrating  to 
the  final  result. 

The  second  main  aim  above  mentioned,  «.«.,  systematic 
training  with  classical  forms  of  apparatus,  requires  for  its 
complete  realization  a  lai^e  and  relatively  expensive  equip- 
ment of  apparatus.  Such  a  collection  must  keep  abreast  of 
the  time  and  must  be  well  supplied  with  the  classical  pieces 
of  apparatus  many  of  which  are  inevitably  costly.  But  the 
expense  brings  a  fine  return  to  the  student  fortunate  enough 
to  be  trained  in  such  a  laboratory  by  a  man  conversant  with 
his  field  and  enthusiastic  in  its  cultivation.  No  other  means 
can  afford  so  firm  a  grip  upon  psycholt^cal  science.  For  a 
laboratory  established  with  this  second  aim  in  view  a  realty 
good  shop  is  of  the  very  highest  value  and  some  sort  of  place 
for  minor  tinkering  is  absolutely  indispensable. 

The  most  perplexing  problem  which  institutions  have  to 
face  in  the  matter  of  equipping  for  work  in  psychology  is 
found  in  cases,  which  come  fairly  under  the  second  main 
heading,  where  funds  enough  are  available  to  permit  some 
measure  of  freedom  in  purchasing  apparatus,  but  where  not 
enough  is  at  hand  to  allow  any  completeness  in  outfitting. 
The  question  at  once  arises  what  to  secure.  It  may  be  a  part 
of  the  later  work  of  this  committee  or  its  successor  to  make 
explicit  suggestions  toward  combinations  of  apparatus  where 
such  conditions  prevail.  If  so,  no  doubt  such  suggestion 
will  be  forthcoming.  At  present  only  a  few  comments  on 
alternative  courses  will  be  offered. 

One  possible  line  of  action  involves  a  selection  from  among 
the  various  pieces  of  apparatus  of  such  as  may  be  thought  best 
fitted  to  convey  a  generally  accurate  impression  of  the  scope 
and  character  of  experimental  work.  In  this  case  personal 
preference  as  to  lines  of  work  to  be  emphasized  will  naturally 
differ.  The  private  interests  of  the  instructor  will  inevitably, 
and  perhaps  properly,  dominate  the  choices.  Such  a  collec* 
tion  will  be  frankly  imperfect,  but  it  will  not  be  wholly  one- 
sided. 

Anoth^  line  of  procedure  contemplates  the  selection  of  one 
special  field  of  work,  such  for  instance  as  that  of  vision,  and 


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76  JAMES  R.  ASGELL 

the  making  of  the  most  perfect  possible  collection  of  appara- 
tus designed  to  permit  thorough  exploration  and  demonstra- 
tion of  all  the  features  of  that  field.  This  course  will  inevit- 
ably leave  one  with  a  collection  quite  unrepresentative  of  the 
general  experimental  situation,  but  it  will  enable  the  giving 
of  thorough  training  in  some  one  direction,  it  will  ordinarily 
permit  the  undertaking  of  stimulating  research  and,  inasmuch 
as  the  technique  of  scientific  method  is  highly  similar  in  many 
fields  of  endeavor,  it  will  render  possible  a  very  satisfactory 
training  in  experimentation.  Certainly  the  advant^es  of 
this  choice  for  the  expenditure  of  funds  in  cases  where  the 
amount  at  disposal  is  quite  limited,  deserve  much  more  atten- 
tion than  has  commonly  been  given  them.  In  combination 
with  the  possibilities  of  the  firat  general  type  of  procedure 
described  above  where  Httle  or  no  apparatus  is  required,  it 
offers  opportunity  for  most  striking  results. 

When  we  come  to  speak  of  our  third  aim,  ».e.,  research  we, 
find  ourselves  confronted  by  divergencies  similar  to  those 
which  we  have  just  discussed.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a 
general  axiom  that  an  ideal  research  laboratory  should  be 
equipped  to  afford  the  best  and  most  symmetrical  training 
of  a  disciplinary  kind  such  as  has  been  considered  under  the 
immediately  preceding  heading.  In  point  of  fact,  however, 
much  good  work  has  come  from  laboratories  where  very 
different  conditions  prevail.  Successful  investigation  is  of 
course  partly  a  matter  of  resources,  but  it  is  much  more 
lai^ely  a  matter  of  the  man  conducting  it:  it  has  at  its  best 
the  spark  of  genius  in  it  and  all  attempts  to  reduce  it  to  rules 
or  restrictions  are  futile  and  fatuous.  Nevertheless,  we  may 
certainly  recognize  those  conditions  under  which  it  is  most 
likely  to  flourish  and  attempt  to  secure  them  where  possible. 

In  America  the  general  tendency  has  been  to  precede  research 
work  by  a  course  affording  not  only  a  general  survey  of  the 
field  of  experimentation,  but  also  actual  drill  in  the  execution 
of  experiments  in  the  several  principal  fields  of  scientific 
interest  and  accomplishment.  Elsewhere  a  different  pro- 
cedure has  often  been  followed.  Research  has  been  attempted 
on  the  basis  of  a  very  narrow  acquaintance  at  first  hand  with 


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LABORATORIES  AND  EQUIPUEHT  ^^ 

the  general  experimental  field.  A  period  of  service  as  reagent 
for  some  other  student's  research,  tc^ether  with  a  preliminary 
training  of  a  theoretical  kind  in  lecture  or  recitation  room, 
has  been  the  only  introduction  required  for  the  beginning  of 
original  investigation.  It  must  be  admitted  tiiat  not  a  little 
excellent  work  has  been  achieved  on  this  latter  basis,  but  it  is 
certainly  safe  to  say  that  the  first  method  is  the  only  one  to 
be  encour^ed  where  means  are  at  hand  to  permit  its  estab- 
lishment. 

The  laboratory  adequate  both  for  general  training  and  for 
original  investigation  is  extremely  expensive  and  is  not  to  be 
thought  of  save  by  a  few  of  the  stronger  and  wealthier  insti- 
tutions. When  its  advant^es  are,well  used  it  represents  the 
most  effective  organization  for  our  work.  But  every  one  who 
has  lived  in  one  of  these  large  laboratories  knows  full  well 
the  dangers  which  always  lurk  to  ensnare  the  unwary.  The 
very  riches  of  the  place  may  contribute  to  lassitude  and  to  a 
dangerous  sense  of  competency  which  is  justified  by  no  real 
attainments.  The  equipment  too  is  likely  to  suffer  from 
failure  to  clean  it  out  often  enough.  A  good  bonfire  should 
be  an  attachment  of  every  lai^  laboratory  and  on  it  should 
be  offered  up  each  year  the  rubbish  which  gradually  accumu- 
lates, which  has  no  historic  value  and  which  often  misleads 
the  tyro  into  cherishing  respect  for  that  which  should  only  be 
forgotten.  Fortunate  the  laboratory  where  only  those  things 
are  cherished  which  are  really  used  and  which  really  deserve 
preservation. 

In  connection  with  a  research  laboratory  a  good  shop  with  a 
comp>etent  mechanic  in  charge  is  one  of  the  most  important 
assets.  The  efficiency  of  such  an  establishment  is  increased 
many  fold  by  this  feature.  Some  of  our  laboratory  directors 
have  appreciated  this  fact  and  invested  what  might  seem  to 
the  uninitiated  a  disproportionate  part  of  their  funds  in  this 
direction.  But  while  it  is  no  doubt  possible  to  equip  a  shop 
too  luxuriously,  the  lack  of  an  effective  shop  is  one  of  the 
most  serious  handicapts  which  a  laboratory  for  research  can 
labor  under. 


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78  JAMBS  K.  AirCBLL 

PLACE  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  COURSES  IN  THE  CURRICULUU. 

Experimental  training  under  our  first  heading  evidently 
finds  its  place  in  connection  with  the  beginner's  course  and 
the  location  of  this  in  the  college  work  is  discussed  elsewhere 
in  this  report.  The  case  of  experimental  courses  differen- 
tiated from  theelementary  workoffersamoredifficultproblem. 
It  is  the  almost  universal  practice,  where  such  courses  are 
given,  to  insist  upon  the  taking  of  the  elementary  course  in 
general  psycholc^y  before  entering  on  this  work.  If  this 
prerequisite  is  enforced,  the  place  of  the  experimental  courses 
is  forthwith  settled.  In  most  institutions  this  would  in  effect 
limit  the  patron^e  of  the  experimental  work  to  the  junior 
and  senior  years.  Experience  su^ests  one  conclusion  about 
the  matter  which  seems  worthy  of  formulation.  If  the  patron- 
age is  open  to  very  young  students,  it  is  difficult  for  alabora- 
tory  course  in  psychol<^y  to  compete  with  other  college 
courses  of  an  attractive  kind  without  lowering  the  scientific 
severity  and  rigor  of  the  work  to  a  point  where  its  solidity 
and  worth  must  suffer  in  the  eyes  of  the  better  students. 
Many  instructors  prefer  the  most  mature  students  possible 
in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  thus  cheapening  the  work 
to  carry  the  full  interest  of  the  class.  Whether  this  situation 
arises  from  incompetent  teaching,  from  failure  as  yet  to 
develop  satisfactory  methods  of  presenting  the  subject  matter, 
or  from  the  intrinsic  character  of  the  material,  whose  appre- 
ciation requires  a  certain  sobriety  of  interest  and  a  certain 
maturity  of  intelligence,  in  any  case  the  conclusion  just  indi- 
cated is  an  expression  of  the  experience  of  many  instructors. 
A  course  can  be  given  which  shall  be  entertaining  and  moder- 
ately informing  without  str^ning  the  student's  tenacity 
unduly.  But  if  the  work  is  made  to  contribute  in  a  sub- 
stantial way  to  the  mastery  of  adequate  technique  and  to 
the  achievement  of  accuracy  and  thoroughness,  the  tax  on 
student  patience  is  greater  than  most  young  undei^aduates 
will  endure.  In  general  it  may  be  said,  then,  that  experi- 
mental courses  beyond  the  elementary  course  which  may  well 
contain  some  experimental  material,  should  come  late  in  the 


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LABORATOfUBS  AND  EQUIPMENT  79 

college  curriculum.  For  students  who  plan  to  go  at  once  into 
graduate  work  of  a  psychological  kind,  this  arrangement  is 
apparently  a  disadvantage.  But  for  the  rank  and  file  this 
disposition  of  the  case  is  undoubtedly  best  and,  even  in  the 
case  of  the  would-be  specialist,  it  may  well  be  urged  that  his 
time  as  an  undergraduate  can  be  better  employed  in  lines 
contributory  to  his  general  training  than  in  a  too  early  and 
narrow  specializing. 


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GENERAL  REPORT  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  THE 
ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  PSYCHOLOGY: 
RECOMMENDATIONS. 

By  C.  E.  Seashore. 

Vnitersily  of  Iowa. 

Be  it  said  once  for  all  that  this  committee  regards  it  neither 
feasible  nor  desirable  to  recommend  any  one  system  ofpsy- 
chology,  any  fixed  mode  of  treatment,  or  any  exclusive  set 
of  aids  to  instruction.  The  content,  the  method,  and  the 
means  of  instruction  must  vary  with  the  preparation  of  the 
teacher,  the  type  of  student,  the  place  of  the  course  in  the 
curriculum,  etc.;  and  the  growth  of  science,  the  invention  of 
methods  and  instruments,  the  appearance  of  new  text  books, 
etc.,  make  it  necessary  to  change  the  course  from  year  to 
year. 

Nor  does  it  seem  desirable  to  make  this  general  report  a 
summary  of  the  subcommittee  reports.  The  reports  of  the 
subcommittees  have  been  worked  out  independently  and  no 
effort  has  been  made  to  harmonize  them.  We  propose  that 
all  the  reports  shall  stand  together  and  each  supplement  the 
other.  Although  this  one  is  the  general  report,  it  does  not 
represent  the  unanimous  opinion  of  themembers  of  the  com- 
mittee in  all  respects.  It  was  drawn  by  the  chairman  as  an 
expression  of  his  personal  views  after  careful  study  of  the  sub- 
committee reports;  it  was  then  submitted  to  each  member  of 
the  committee  for  criticism  and  thereupon  revised  by  the 
writer  so  as  to  represent  the  conviction  of  a  majority  of  the 
committee  on  each  point.  The  committee  has  thus  made  no 
effort  to  si>eak  with  authority  for  itself  or  for  the  Associa- 
tion. Although  based  upon  the  data  collected,  the  four 
reports  are  largely  personal. 


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GEITBKAL  RSPORT  8l 

Yet  psychology  has  now  found  itself  in  American  institu- 
tions sufKciently  for  us  to  take  a  provisional  inventory.  These 
reports  are  an  attempt  at  such  an  inventory  of  aims,  inter- 
relations, conditions,  methods,  equipment,  etc.  The  com- 
mittee hopes  that  they  may  stimulate  interchange  of  ideas 
on  the  subject  and  prove  a  starting  point  for  further  coopera- 
tion toward  the  development  of  the  teaching  of  that  subject 
which  is  the  foundation  for  all  the  science  and  art  of  teaching. 

A  word  of  apology  must  be  made  for  the  terse,  brusk,  and 
hortatory  style.  It  has  been  followed  in  the  interest  of 
brevity  and  clearness,  and  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  dis- 
cussion. There  is  hardly  a  statement  that  should  not  be 
qualified  to  meet  special  circumstances,  and  much  is  contro- 
versial; but  an  explanation  of  this  at  every  point  would  leave 
the  report  unnecessarily  cumbersome.  The  generalscope  and 
form  of  this  report  was  determined  by  the  purpose  of  setting 
forth  a  series  of  propostions,  or  tenets,  for  discussion  In  the 
Association.  The  aim  has  been  to  set  out  a  few  fundamental 
principles  in  systematic  relief. 


{A)  Teach  Psychology. 

Strange  to  say,  this  is  the  one  exhortation  most  needed  today.  While 
only  a  few  schools  lag  in  the  old  rut  and  teach  antiquated  systems  of 
philosophy  in  the  name  of  psychology,  the  conunoD  error  today  is  to 
ramble  from  the  study  of  mental  processes  as  such  into  sense  physiology, 
moralizing,  loose  pedagogy,  or  logical  quibble. 

The  first  course  in  psychology  should  be  essentially  the  same 
in  content  and  method  whether  it  is  taken  merely  for  general 
culture,  as  a  foundation  for  philosophical  studies,  or  in  prep- 
aration for  specific  vocations;  such  as,  education,  theology, 
art,  law,  or  medicine. 

I.  Teaching  psychology  strictiy  as  a  science  in  itself  lays 
the  best  foundation  for  the  final  mastery  of  the  relationships 
and  applications  of  psychology. 

The  laying  of  such  a  broad  foundation  for  philosophy  and  the  numerous 
applications  of  psychology  frees  the  teachers  of  ak  those  subjects  from 
the  wasteful  drudgery  of  having  to  improvise  psychological  foundations 
at  each  step  as  needed. 


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83  C.  E.  SEASBOKS 

Nothing  has  been  more  potent  for  the  improvement  of  the  teaching  of 
philosophy  and  psychology  than  the  recognition  of  this  separation  for 
teaching  purposes.  The  same  will  be  seen  in  medicine  when  normal 
psychology  is  required  as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  psychiatty,  and 
ha!s  been  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  recent  development  in  the  t^arhing 
of  educational  psychology. 

Supplementary  instruction  on  the  relation  of  physiology,  logic,  ethics, 
philosophy,  etc.,  to  psychology  may,  and  usually  should,  be  put  into  the 
course,  but  only  when  it  is  made  clear  Uiat  it  is  not  psychology. 

2.  In  the  first  course  the  applications  should  be  incidental 
and  should  be  distributed  among  different  aspects  of  daily 
life  with  a  view  to  the  broadening  of  the  mental  perspective 
of  the  student;  as,  in  education,  medicine,  science,  art,  law, 
literature,  philosophy,  religion,  business,  play,  labor,  etc. 

In  a  sustained  iUustration  of  the  formation  of  associations  in  Q'pe- 
writing,  e.  g.,  the  aim  is  not  the  pedagogy  of  typewriting,  but  the  psy- 
chology of  associations  which  enter  into  a  thousand  similar  processes;  to 
an  illustration  of  suggestion,  by  a  realistic  case  of  mental  hedu%,  the  aim 
is  not  to  teach  the  art  of  mental  healing,  but  the  laws  of  suggestion  which 
operate  in  countless  similar  situations,  and  to  vitalize  and  give  relief  to 
a  set  of  psychological  facts  in  one  coherent  iUustration. 

(B)   Yet  not  psychology  but  to  psychologize. 

This  does  not  mean  that  we  should  aim  to  make  psychologists  any 
more  than  that  a  good  &rst  course  in  rhetoric  should  make  a  literary 
artist  or  the  first  course  in  chemistry  a  chemist,  nor  does  it  mean  that 
the  elementary  student  should  be  taught  by  the  research  method. 

The  primary  aim  is  to  train  the  student  in  the  observation 
and  explanation  of  mental  facts.  Other  aims  are  secondary, 
such  as: 

1.  Systematic  knowledge  of  mental  facts. 

In  some  respects  this  may  be  coordinate  with  the  primary  aim  but 
there  is  great  danger  of  mere  nominal  knowledge. 

2.  Culture:  the  ability  to  interpret  life. 

Ability  in  interpretation  is  the  most  fundamental  element  in  culture; 
with  the  knowledge  of  fact  there  must  be  the  ability  to  judge  for  one's 
self. 

3.  Efficiency:  the  ability  to  act  effectively. 

Efficiency  and  culture  may  be  one ;  the  distinction  is  here  made  for  the 
purpose  of  emphasizing  the  two  aspects. 


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GENBRAL  REPORT  S3 

4.  Appreciation  of  mental  life  for  itself,  which  is  the  basis 
for  the  recc^nttion  of  its  worth  and  manifold  bearings. 

"The  world  is  different  to  me  since  I  studied  psychology, "  is  a  charac- 
teristic and  proper  remark  of  students. 

5.  A  foundation  for  the  philosophical  studies. 

The  science  of  psychology  furnishes  the  observable  facts  which  con- 
stitute a  starting  point  for  philosophy,  logic,  ethics,  esthetics,  etc. 

6.  A  supplement  to  the  material  sciences. 

Psychology  is  a  study  of  tfae  nature  of  the  knower  and  the  knowing 
process — the  mental  half  of  animate  life. 

7.  Applications. 

The  key  to  applied  psychology  b  psychology. 

The  student  does  not  really  understand  the  mental  process  until  he 
comprehends  it  in  some  of  its  actual  settings  and  uses. 

(c)  A  little  from  each  of  all  aspects  of  psychology  and  muck  from 
a  few. 

1.  Give  a  balanced  general  survey  of  the  fundamentals, 
i.e.,  give  a  comprehensive  bird's  eye  viewof  the  whole  subject 
with  reference  to  content,  point  of  view,  relations,  etc. 

2.  Give  intensive  illustrations  of  representative  facts — 
often  choosing  insignificant  objects  in  order  that  the  grasp 
may  be  the  more  complete. 

II.      UETHOD. 

(A)  Secure  action. 

I.  Keep  the  student  doing  things,  instead  of  merely  listen- 
ing, reading,  or  seeing  them  done. 

Fit  the  course  to  his  capacity. 

Make  Mm  feel  responsible  for  every  step  that  he  takes. 
Keep  him  working  under  pressure  for  accuracy  and  detail. 
Make  sure  that  he  has  the  means  for  complying  with  every  request. 
Recognize  results. 

Even  if  he  is  to  be  entertained  in  the  course,  let  it  be  most  frequently 
by  his  own  activity. 


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84  C.  S.  SEASBOKS 

2.  Let  there  be  dramatic  action  in  the  progressive  realiza- 
tion of  st^es  in  the  course. 

Use  concrete  tUustiations  from  the  living  present. 

Show  the  meaning  of  each  new  process  with  reference  to  the  whole. 

Make  sure  that  the  student  can  follow  the  development 

(B)  Be  systematic. 

1.  Keep  a  definite  and  detailed  outline  (printed  or  mimeo- 
graphed)— of  the  whole  course  in  the  hands  of  each  student. 

This  will  aid  in:  (a)  logical  develc^ment,  economy,  and  proper  distri- 
bution of  empha^;  (6)  preparation  and  following,  economically  and 
efifectively,  a  specific  set  of  references;  (c)  the  orientation  of  the  student 
so  that  he  may  see  each  day  the  relation  of  each  new  process  to  what  has 
gone  before  and  what  is  to  follow;  {d)  establishing  confidence  of  the 
student  in  the  teacher  and  in  himself;  and  (e),  in  short,  bu^ess  method 
and  mental  economy. 

2.  Be  reasonable  and  specific  in  all  assignments  and  de- 
mand results. 

Set  your  task  so  that  it  may  be  performed  when  the  assignment  is  made, 
and  so  that  you  may  have  constant  information  about  fidelity  in  work 
and  the  que^ty  of  results.  The  sophomore  is  an  elementary  student 
and  psychology  is  necessarily  somewhat  abstract.  Nearly  every  young 
teacher  makes  the  mistake  of  treating  this  elementary  class  by  the 
method  of  which  he  has  become  enamored  as  a  graduate  student.  There 
should  be  a  radical  difference  in  the  methods  of  the  elementary  course 
and  following  courses  in  psychology.  It  is  absurd  to  treat  the  sophomore 
in  psychology  as  a  research  student. 

Insist  upon  the  mastering  of  difficulties.  One  of  the  greatest  wastes 
in  college  teaching  is  that  we  allow  the  student  to  shift  when  he  encoun- 
ters difficulty.  Show  him  where  the  difficulty  lies,  spur  him  on,  and 
hold  him  to  the  task. 

Place  responsibihty. 

3.  Follow  as  far  as  possible  the  following  order : 

(a)  From  the  simple  to  the  complex;  e.  g.,  sensation,  per- 
ception, memory,  thinking. 

The  principle,  "  from  whole  to  part "  is  recognized  only  for  the  purpose 
of  orientation  (see  II.  {A)  2,  second  note  above)  not  for  determiniag  the 
order  of  topics. 

(&)  From  the  known  to  the  unknown;  e.  g.,  from  the 
common  act  of  seeing,  lead  up  to  the  attributes  of  sensation. 


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GESRRAL  XSPOST  85 

(c)  The  course  in  the  stream  of  thought;  e.  g.,  impression, 
elaboration,  expression. 

(C)   Use    methods    which    develop  efficiency  in    introspection, 
observation,  thinking  and  action. 

Methods  must,  of  course,  be  adapted  to  the  instructor,  the 
equipment,  the  student,  etc.;  and  all  methods  chosen  must 
be  pursued  with  sufficient  continuity  to  secure  solid  work. 
Method  without  personal  power  is  worthless.  Among  the 
methods  available  for  our  purpose  are  the  following: 

1.  The  text  book.  Text  books  should  be  the  source  of 
information  and  should  be  used  very  freely. 

In  the  first  yeai  course  of  three  hours,  the  student  cannot  afEord  to 
get  along  with  less  than  three  or  four  ordinary  text  books  for  his  private 
use,  in  addition  to  library  sets  to  which  he  has  access. 

(It  is  veiy  doubtful  economy  for  a  student  to  spend  a  year  on  one  or 
at  most  two  text  books,  or  to  go  on  aimless  himt  in  original  sources  before 
he  knows  what  he  wants.  Those  "lecturers,"  who  redte  the  contents  of 
the  book  to  the  students  in  order  to  save  them  the  price  of  the  book,  are 
too  extravagant.) 

The  student  can  get  more  good  in  a  course  from  extensive  use  of  text 
books  than  from  more  sped^zed  reference  work,  because  the  text  is  pre- 
pared specifically  as  an  aid  to  the  beginner.  Limited  reference  work 
should  however,  be  encouraged. 

(All  teachers  who  cannot  find  good  text  books  should  at  once  publish 
their  own!) 

We  need  a  source-book  to  use  as  one  of  the  texts. 

The  texts  in  a  course  should  represent  different  points  of  view;  e.  g.,  the 
functional,  the  structural,  the  experimental,  the  physiological,  and  the 
genetic ;  and  the  student  should  live  in  the  atmosphere  of  different  authors. 

Ordinarily,  the  text  books  should  not  be  used  as  a  basis  for  oral  recita- 
tion; some  other  means  of  testing  work  must  be  found. 

Nor  should  they  be  a  constant  object  to  be  explained;  let  them  be  so 
used  that  they  help  to  explain  the  object  under  examination — perhai» 
in  the  way  we  use  an  encyclopedia. 

No  matter  what  other  means,  such  as  lectures,  experiments,  discus- 
sion, etc.,  are  used  in  the  class  hour,  we  need  text  books  with  all  of  them; 
the  text  book  is  or  ought  to  be  a  most  serviceable  outline  form  of  present- 
ing the  subject  as  a  whole. 

2.  The  lecture. 

The  lecture  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  personalizing  the  instruction, 
yet  it  is  one  of  the  most  .bused  methods. 


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86  C.  S.  SBASBOXB 

(Hiere  are  three  common  sources  of  eirorio  a  teacher's  evaluation  of 
the  lecture  method :  (i)  the  warmth  which  the  lecturer  feels  over  having 
made  things  dear:  (3)  the  pleasure  in  freedom  of  expression  and  in  hearing 
himself,  and  (3)  the  failure  to  note  that  he  has  done  the  thinking  so  well 
that  the  student  gladly  accepts  his  ready  made  portion  without  tUnking.) 

In  the  elementary  course  in  psychology  the  mere  information  lecture 
should  be  tabooed. 

Among  the  legitimate  forms  of  lecture,  for  our  purpose,  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

\a)    Hie  organizing  lecture. 

This  may  occupy  all  or  part  of  the  hour  and  may  answer  the  following 
purposes:  arousing  in  the  student  a  point  of  view,  interest,  and  ambition, 
by  setting  up  specific  objects  for  search;  outlining  relations  within  the 
work  of  the  course;  presenting  supplementary  ideas  and  concrete  illus- 
trations; and,  first  and  last,  to  put  Ufe  into  the  course. 

(b)  The  demonstration  lecture. 

The  class  demonstration  is  an  economic  method,  when  brief,  to  the 
point,  and  systematically  planned. 

Do  not  make  it  an  object  in  itself,  but  let  the  demonstration  of  a  general 
principle  in  a  specific  case  be  such  that  the  student  may  see  the  general 
principle  and  be  able  to  make  application  of  it  in  related  cases. 

(c)  The  special  topic  lecture. 

This  is  the  true  "lecture"  form;  it  may  be  set,  finished  and  artistic. 
These  lectures  give  vital  touch  to  the  study  by  focusing  attention  upoa 
some  single  aspect  of  mental  life  in  the  concrete;  e.  g.,  &e  psydudogy  (rf 
piay,  the  formation  of  a  habit,  the  psychology  of  writing,  automatism, 
the  evolution  of  consciousness,  the  evolution  of  a  moral  instinct,  the 
meaning  of  infancy,  fear,  a  case  of  alteration  in  personality,  the  psy- 
dioiogy  of  Helen  Keller,  law  in  illusion,  vantage  groimds  in  the  develc^ 
ment  of  i»ychology,  etc.  Such  lectures  illuminate  the  study  of  psy- 
chology, arouse  interest  and  give  the  student  the  genuine  feeling  that 
there  is  more  of  it,  and  that  it  is  all  worth  while. 

3.    Experiment. 

(u)  The  individual  experiment  without  a  laboratory.  (See  Recom- 
mendation (6)  in  Sec.  VI  of  this  report.) 

This  type  of  experiment  enables  the  instructor  to  conduct  work  with 
classes  of  any  size,  without  expensive  equipment,  without  laboratory 
rooms,  or  much  help.  It  saves  the  manifolding  of  equipment;  frees  the 
student  from  technicalities  incidental  to  the  manipulation  of  apparatus 
at  a  time  when  bis  energies  need  to  be  conserved  for  the  grasping  of  the 
psychological  problem;  and  saves  time  for  the  class  periwi. 

Secure  the  following  conditions:  (1)  make  the  experiment  intensive, — 
"One  thing  well;"  (2)  use  only  such  apparatus  as  may  be  at  the  disposal 
of  the  student,  or  can  be  supplied  freely  .by  the  instructor;  e.  g.,  paper, 
pins,  cards,  corks,  watches,  etc.;  (3)  supply  full  and  specific  directions 
with  the  necessary  preliminary  statements  for  orientation ;  and  (4)  follow 
each  set  in  the  experiment  with  printed  explanation,  interpretation, 
further  suggestions,  etc. 


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GEJtERAl  XBfOXT  8? 

These  experiments  may  be  conducted  both  as  class  exercises  and  home 
assignments;  preferably,  both  combined. 

They  may  be  performed  in  the  ordinary  class  room,  provided  the  room 
is  equi[q)ed  mtit  movable  desk  chairs.  It  is  good  economy  for  the 
instructor  to  provide  for  the  whole  class  such  material  as  may  be  needed. 

{b)  The  class  expenment.  (See  Recommendation  a  in  Section  VI) 
of  this  report. 

The  d^  experiment  should  comply  with  the  following  three  principles : 
(i)  every  individual  student  shall  take  an  active  and  responsible  p^  in 
the  experiment;  (a)  the  experiment  shall  be  sufficiently  intensive  to  make 
it  vital;  and  (3)  each  step  m  the  experiment  shall  be  explained  and  inter- 
preted in  print. 

This  is  by  far  the  most  economical  form  of  experiment,  and  psychology 
lends  itself  peculiarly  well  to  this  mode  of  treatment. 

(c)    The  laboratory  experiment. 

The  laboratory  experiment  should  be  employed  very  conservatively, 
if  at  all,  in  the  elementary  course,  for  the  following  reasons: 

(i)  The  student  is  not  ready  for  it.  (We  can  begin  physics  with  the 
technical  experiment,  because  in  physics  the  apparatus  is  the  one  object 
of  experiment;  but  in  the  technical  laboratory  psychology,  a  student  has 
two  objects,  namely,  the  mental  process  and  the  apparatus  to  be  manipu- 
lated. He  cannot  do  justice  to  both  and  is  likely  to  lose  himself  in  the 
apparatus.) 

(3)  The  tecbntcal  laboratory  experiment  is  worth  while  only  to  those 
who  are  both  amiable  and  willing  to  take  psychology  seriously.  (Most 
of  the  elementary  students  lack  one  or  both  of  these  qualifications.) 

(3)  Few,  if  any  institutions,  can  supply  adequate  laboratory  facili- 
ties for  elementary  classes 

4.    Written  exercises. 

(o)    The  written  review. 

Spend  about  one-fourth  of  the  study  time  in  preparation  for  reviews. 
Cramming  is  bad  only  when  it  is  not  done  often  enough. 

One  good  plan  is  to  give  three  or  four  questions  a  week  in  advance  and 
require  the  student  to  prepare  an  outline  of  what  he  proposes  to  write  on 
each  of  the  topics.  Make  the  tc^cs  such  that  it  will  be  necessary  to 
review  all  the  work  covered  since  the  last  review,  and  so  as  to  make  it 
necessary  for  the  student  to  organize  the  material  for  himself  in  some  form 
in  which  it  has  not  been  presented.  On  the  review  day,  let  each  student 
write  one  hour  on  one  of  the  three  questions,  following  his  outline,  and 
hand  in  all  of  the  outlines  with  the  paper. 

i_b)    The  written  recitation. 

The  advantagesof  the  written  recitation  are:  it  encourages  and  secures 
systematic  analysis  of  the  test  by  the  student  when  he  is  at  ease  in  his 
room;  it  leaves  the  class-hour  for  lectures,  demonstrations,  experiments, 
and  (Uscussion;  it  secures  full  and  specific  recitation  from  every  student 
every  day;  it  develops  logical  presentation. 

It  is  erroneous  to  think  that  the  outline  written  recitation  requires 
much  writing.  The  best  written  redtatton  requires  much  thinking  and 
very  little  writing. 


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88  C.  E.  SEASEOKB 

(c)    Themes. 

Let  the  theme  be  clearly  distinguished  from  a  report  on  some  author 
or  book.  Assign  such  topics  as  will  favor  a  strictly  psychological  treat- 
meat  in  terms  of  the  student's  own  observation  and  thinking,  and  pre- 
suppose assigned  readings. 

{a)    Ten-minute  tests. 

These  are  an  excellent  substitute  for  the  oral  recitation  if  conducted 
with  rigidity. 

5.    Special  exercises. 

(a)  Problems  in  introspection. 

Introduce  new  topics  by  assigning,  as  a  preliminary  ezerdse,  some 
salient  feature  of  the  topic  for  introspection  and  report.  Use  the  same 
means  to  verify  general  statements. 

These  exercises  may  be  small  experiments,  or  they  may  be  simple 
unaided  observations  under  specific  instructions. 

(b)  Objective  observation. 

Set  problems  frequently  in  the  objective  observation  of  specific  exprcs- 
sions  of  mental  life,  mental  laws,  conditions,  causal  relations,  etc 

(c)  Topical  questions. 

Prepare  systematic  and  exhaustive  questions  as  a  basis  for  use  as 
references  in  daUy  work,  reviews,  or  even  as  a  general  skeleton  or  full  sys- 
tem of  assignment  of  work  in  the  course, 

id)    The  topical  outline. 

This  may  be  effective  in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  purposes  as 
the  topical  questions,  and  has  the  advantage  of  brevity. 

(e)  Discussion. 

With  the  teacher  who  has  the  genius  to  handle  it,  this  is  one  of  the 
most  eSective  methods  of  teaching  in  classes  of  not  more  than  twenty-five; 
but  with  the  average  teacher  and  the  average  class,  it  often  becomes  a 
waste  of  time — an  abuse  of  privilege.  An  undeserved  approbrium  rests 
upon  this  method,  because  teachers  who  lack  resourcefulness  usually 
fall  back  upon  it.    Incidental  discussion  should  be  strongly  encouraged. 

(J)    The  conference  section. 

Here  is  where  discussion  has  its  most  valuable  place;  small  sections 
of  the  class  meet  with  the  instructor  at  regular  intervals  for  that  purpose. 
All  sorts  of  supplementary  demonstrations  and  reports  may  be  intro- 
duced. 

(f)  Many  other  devices  might  be  enumerated;  such  as  reports  on 
supplementary  reading,  weekly  "communications"  on  psychological 
facts  observed  during  tibe  week,  acting  as  observers  in  research  under  the 
instructor  or  an  advanced  student,  taking  part  in  statistical  tests,  indi- 
vidual conferences,  etc. 

111.      PLACE  m  THE  CURRICULUlf. 

I.  In  the  averse  American  college  or  university,  the  ele- 
mentary course  in  psycholc^y  should  be  taken  in  the  sopho- 
more year. 


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CESRXAL  KRPORT  Sg 

2.  In  the  normal  school  it  should  be  taken  in  the  first  year 
after  the  high  school. 

3.  The  elementary  course  should  run  three  hours  through- 
out the  year,  or  five  hours  for  one  semester.  (Or  an  equiva- 
lent.) 

AmoDK  the  reasons  for  this  are  the  following: 

(a)  Psychology  is  a  very  laige  subject.  It  is  at  least  as  large  as 
physics,  chemistry,  or  mathematics.  Yet,  if  a  professor  in  a  first  class 
institution  should  offer  a  one-semester  three-hour  course  as  the  first 
course  in  any  of  those  subjects,  it  would  be  regarded  with  profound  sus- 
picion by  an  academic  faculty.  Psycholt^,  when  once  established,  will 
come  to  the  basis  of  a  solid  first  course. 

(b)  Short  couiaes  are  necessarily  schematic,  in  rapid  outline  form, 
and  lacking  in  concrete  illustrations  and  thorough  experiments.  The 
difference  between  the  long  and  the  short  course  is  not  only  in  quantity, 
but  very  essentially  in  quality. 

Ordinarily,  both  professors  and  students  apologize  for  the  short  course. 

(c)  Granted  that  the  student  should  have  a  certain  amount  of  psy- 
chology, the  instructor  can  plan  that  much  better  in  one  course  than  the 
student  can  plan  his  work  by  choosing  from  elective  semester  courses. 

(£)  The  short  course  represents  an  erroneous  conception  of  the  magni- 
tude and  worth  of  the  subject. 

(e)  If  the  year  is  divided  into  two  independent  courses,  students 
seldom  elect  the  second  i  whereas,  if  it  is  all  in  one,  they  are  generally 
pleased  with  it. 

(/)  AU  courses  after  the  elementary  should  be  specialized;  e.g.  com- 
parative psychology,  technical  laboratory  course,  social  psychology,  etc, 
and  the  student  needs  a  thorough  foundation  for  these. 

Wthin  the  coU^e  course,  there  is  no  excuse  for  giving  first  a  general 
elementary  course  and  later  a  general  advanced  course. 

(The  principal  underlying  the  above  arguments  applies  to  the  first 
course  in  philosophy  with  equal  force.) 

4.  The  course  should,  if  possible,  be  preceded  by  a  course 
in  animal  biology. 

5.  When  the  course  is  to  be  followed  by  some  form  of 
applied  psychology,  it  is  all  important  that  the  applied  psy- 
chology, e.  g.,  education  or  psychiatry,  shall  be  built  actually, 
consistently,  and  unmistakably  upon  the  elementary  course 
of  psycholc^y  as  given. 

To  the  disgrace  of  both  the  theoretical  and  the  appUed  courses  it  is 
often  said  by  students  that  they  see  no  relation  between  them.  This 
correlation  is  a  large  problem  in  economy  and  efficiency. 


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C.  E.  SEASHORE 


IV.      EQUIPMENT. 


1.  We  must  distinguish  between  the  equipment  for  the 
elementary  course  and  the  technical  laboratory  equipment; 
the  former  may,  however,  often  be  drawn  from  the  latter. 
It  should  consist  of: 

(a)  Apparatus  for  the  demonstration  experiments. 

This  should  be  large  and  portable,  suitable  for  exhibition  rather  than 
for  fine  work. 

(b)  Apparatus  for  the  class  e:q>eriment5. 

This  should  be  accurate,  adequate,  and  under  perfect  control.  Ibe 
projection  lantern  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  several  ei^riments  of 
this  class, 

(c)  Supplies  for  distribution  among  the  students  in  experiments  which 
require  improvised  material. 

(d)  Equipment  for  a  few  "q>edal  topic"  lectures  which  may  be 
experimental. 

This  is  usually  drawn  from  the  technical  laboratory  course  or  the 
research  equipment. 

(e)  A  full  set  of  illustration  material,  such  as  physiological  models, 
charts,  pictures,  etc. 

All  the  illustration  material  that  can  be  reduced  to  charts  should  be 
used  in  that  way.  Lantern  slides  should  not  be  used  when  charts  may 
answer  the  purpose. 

2.  The  elementary  lecture  room  should  be  a  well  venti- 
lated and  well  lighted  hall  furnished  with  movable  desk 
chairs,  blackboards,  chart  cases,  projection  lantern,  gas, 
electric  power,  etc. 

Students  should  be  encouraged  to  work  in  this  room  when  carrying 
on  experiments  as  outside  assignments  in  order  that  they  may  get 
inddental  aid  and  supervision. 

3.  A  smalt  shop  with  simple  equipment  is  essential. 

4.  The  library  should  be  equipped  with  sets  of  books  to 
which  the  whole  class  may  be  referred  for  certain  chapters. 

V.      THE  TEACHER. 

I.  The  teacher  of  psychology,  as  compared  with  the 
teachers  of  other  college  subjects,  needs  an  exceptionally 
thorough  preparation. 

The  subject  is  usually  taken  up  comparatively  late.  It  is  so  large  and 
its  interrelations  are  so  coiiq>hcated  that  it  takes  a  long  time  to  acquire 


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GENERAL  KSPOKT 


that  knowledge  about  meatal  facts,  that  ability  in  introspection,  and 
that  technique  in  experimentatioD  which  is  essential  to  the  effective 


Comparatively  few,  even  of  those  who  have  completed  three  years  of 
specialized  graduate  study  in  psychology,  are  successful  with  the  elemen- 
tary class  in  psychology  when  they  b^in.  The  elementary  class  seems 
to  demand  a  certain  amount  of  apprenticeship.  Institutions  can  well 
afford  to  pay  for  the  years  of  experience  of  a  well  trained  psychologist. 

2.  Psychology  is  perhaps  unequalled  by  other  college 
subjects  in  its  power  to  influence  the  life  of  the  student; 
the  introduction  to  this  subject  should,  therefore,  be  taught 
by  mature  members  of  the  department. 

Young  instructors  can  handle  advanced  work  better  than  the 
elementary. 

3.  Pyschology  perhaps  su^ests  more  unsolved  problems 
than  any  other  science;  there  is,  therefore,  a  special  demand 
upon  practical  ingenuity  and  philosophical  insight. 

4.  "The  teacher  is  everything." 

Id  this  there  is  a  great  truth.  As  we  have  learned  to  respect  the  indi> 
viduatity  of  the  pupil,  we  must  learn  to  regard  the  individuality  of  the 
teacher. 

Aids,  in  the  form  of  equipment,  favorable  support  from  the  instituti<m, 
knowl^lge  about  methods,  etc.,  are  always  of  minor  importance 

VI.      SPECIAL    RECOMUENDATIONS. 

For  furthering  the  advancement  of  the  teaching  of  elemen- 
tary psychology,  the  committee  respectfully  recommends  the 
following : 

(a)  Conferences  of  teachers  with  a  common  interest;  e.g.,  state  con- 
ferences of  teachers  of  psychology;  east,  south,  central,  and  west  con- 
ferences on  a  larger  scale;  conferences  of  teachers  of  psychology  in  the 
normal  schools;  conferences  of  the  teachers  of  educational  psychology 
etc.     Several  such  organizations  exist. 

(6)  The  appointment  of  a  committee  on  the  "Class  Eqwriment." 
(See  n.  C,  3,  b,  above.) 

(c)  The  appcnntment  of  a  conunittee  on  elementary  experiments 
without  laboratory  apparatus.     (See  U.  C,  5,  a,  above.) 


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NOTES  ON  THE  DISCUSSION  WHICH  FOLLOWED 
THE  PRESENTATION  OF  THE  REPORT. 

By  Helen  D.  Cook. 

WilkiUy  CoUtt*. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Professor  Pillsbury  held 
that  the  chief  aim  of  the  course  should  be  not  so  much  to 
teach  the  student  to  psychologize  as  to  teach  him  a  body  of 
facts.  (And  Professor  Seashore  rejoined  that  without  team- 
ing to  psychologize  the  student  could  never  know  the  psychic 
fact.)  Professor  Pillsbury  dwelt  also  on  the  necessity  of  a 
physiolc^ical  basis  for  psychology.  Professor  Kirkpatrick 
added  that  psychology  should  be  a  study  not  of  consciousness 
but  of  behavior. 

Professor  Thomdike  reinforced  the  Committee's  emphasis 
on  the  necessity  of  assigning  to  the  student  questions  for 
preliminary  study  and  concrete  problems  for  solution,  as 
means  by  which  to  avoid  a  psycholc^y  "which  uses  words 
which  nobody  knows  in  order  to  state  facts  which  everybody 
knows. " 

Professor  Warren  was  unequivocally  of  the  opinion  that 
psychology  is  not  advantageously  studied  before  the  junior 
year,  whereas  Professor  Witmer  recommended  the  teaching 
of  psychology  even  to  freshmen  and  to  high  school  classes. 
Professor  Witmer  strongly  ui^ed,  also,  a  course  extending 
over  at  least  two  years. 

With  reference  to  normal  school  psychology,  Professor 
Monroe  emphasized  the  importance  in  educational  psychol- 
ogy of  biological  material,  urged  the  value  of  teachers'  con- 
ferences; and  claimed  that  it  is  too  early  to  attempt  to  stand- 
ardize the  normal  school  course.  Dr.  Rowe  set  forth  the 
difficulty  of  combining  in  one  course  the  study  of  psychology 


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NOTBS  ON  DISCUSSION  „ 

with  that  of  education.  (Professor  Seashore  held  that  the 
psychology  in  such  a  course  should  be  taught  from  the  point 
of  view  of  education.) 

On  the  whole,  all  who  took  part  in  the  discussion  expressed 
a  very  hearty  approval  of  the  report. 


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THE 


Psychological  Monographs 


EDITED  BY 
JAUE5  R.  ANGELL,  Ukiversitv  or  Chicago 
HOWARD  C.  WARREN,  Princeton  Univsrsitv  {Jndtxi 

JOHN  B,  WATSON,  Johns  Hopkins  UinvERSiry  {Rmae)  and 
ARTHUR  H.  PIERCE,  Smith  College  (BuUelin) 


Some  Mental  Processes  of  the 
Rhesus  Monkey 

BY 

William  Shepherd,  Ph.D. 

From  the  Pifchological  Laboratory  of  the  Geoige  Wathiogton  Ui 


THE  REVIEW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

41  NORTH  QUEEN  ST.,  LANCASTER,  PA- 

AND  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


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Cover         Read  William  T.  Shepherd  instead  of  William  Shepherd. 
Title  page     "  "  "  "        of        "  " 

Page  headings     Read  William  T.  Shepherd  instead  of  William  Shepherd. 
Page  III  line  5      "  11  "      of     i. . 

13  line  25      "     not  been  "      of    been  not. 

37    "    28      "     discriminate  "      of    discrimination. 

53   "      6  from  bottom     read  experimenters  instead  of  experiments. 

46  "    16    read  animal  instead  of  animals. 

50  "    34       "     unanalyzed  instead  of  analyzed. 

53   "    >9       "    page  41  "      of  page  42- 

58  "    36       "     p.  45  5.  "      of  p.  40  f!. 


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Introduction* 

Though  one  of  the  newest  of  the  sciences,  comparative 
psychology,  or,  speaking  more  strictly,  animal  psychology, 
may  properiy  claim  as  its  father  that  acute  observer  and  many- 
sided  Greek  scientist  and  philosopher,  Aristotle.  The  works 
of  this  pioneer  in  science  show  him  to  have  been  an  interested 
and  critical  student  of  the  mental,  as  well  as  the  more  strictly 
zodlogical  (morphological  and  physiological)  side  of  animal 
life,  of  which  latter  sciences  (morphology  and  physiology) 
he  is  the  acknowledged  father.  His  observations  on  the 
comparative  mental  and  moral  traits  of  man  and  the  lower 
animals,  so  striking  when  we  consider  the  data  he  had  at 
hand,  may  well  entitle  him  to  the  credit  of  being  the  founder 
of  comparative  psychology. 

Within  the  past  century,  the  evolution  and  anecdote 
schools,  represented  preeminently  by  Darwin,  Huxley,  Rom- 
anes, Lubbock  and  their  co-laborers,  have  contributed  largely 
to  this  work  and  their  observations  and  critical  consid- 
erations have  thrown  much  light  on  the  mental  capabilities 
of  animals.  These  men,  however,  depended  too  much  on  a 
method  we  now  believe  to  be  of  little  value  in  comparative 
psycholc^y,  viz.,  observation  uncontrolled  by  experiment, 
and  their  critical  considerations  have  been  colored  because 
they  were  interested  chiefly  in  the  theoretical,  evolutionary 
interpretation  of  their  observations.  This  work,  however, 
has  been  invaluable  in  that  the  broader  questions  have  been 
set,  and  especially  in  that  it  has  given  great  stimulus  to  the 
study  of  the  animal  mind. 

It  has  remained  for  the  new,  the  conservative,  experi- 
mental, school  of  comparative  psychology,  to  define  more 

>  The  animals  used  in  this  research  were  supplied  by  Prof.  Shepherd  Ivory  Franz, 
of  the  George  Washington  University,  through  a  graDt  to  him  from  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington.  Acknowledgment  is,  therefore,  made  to  the  Carnegie 
Institution,  without  whose  aid  the  work  would  not  have  been  possible. 


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2  WILLI  A  Af  SHEPHERD. 

accurately  the  problems  of  the  science,  and  by  more  accur- 
ate observations  and  by  carefully  controlled  experiments  to 
solve  those  problems.  To  this  more  scientific  and  growing 
body  of  workers,  to  Morgan  and  Hobhouse  in  England,  to 
Forel,  Bethe  and  Hatchet-Suplet  on  the  Continent,  and  to 
Mills,  Thomdike,  Yerkes  and  Watson  in  America,  must  be 
paid  the  highest  tribute. 

As  results  of  the  first  part  of  the  work  of  this  newer  school 
distinct  problems  have  been  more  precisely  formulated  by  the 
investigators.  These  problems  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes,  each  of  which  may  be  resolved  into  a  number 
of  concrete  special  problems.  The  first  general  problem  is: 
Do  animals  possess  the  lower  mental  powers  that  man  pos- 
sesses? Do  they  have  the  same  fundamental  psychic  states 
that  man  has;  and,  if  so,  how  do  these  states  differ  qualita- 
tively and  quantitatively  from  those  of  man?  To  be  more 
concrete,  we  may  ask:  Do  the  lower  animals  discriminate 
sensory  qualities,  do  they  discriminate  brightness  of  lights, 
do  they  discriminate  colors  or  hues,  noises,  smells,  and  tactile 
stimuli?  Do  they  form  and  inhibit  habits,  do  they  retain 
impressions  and  have  the  elements  of  memory?  In  what 
way,  if  at  all,  do  these  differ  from  similar  mental  powers  of 
man?  The  second  general  problem  is:  Do  the  lower  animals 
have  the  so-called  higher  powers?  Have  they  ideas,  have 
they  the  ability  to  learn  by  imitation,  have  they  general 
notions  and  reason?  From  any  psychological  considera- 
tion we  may  omit  the  question  of  the  presence  of  moral 
judgments,  a  subject  which  is  chiefly  of  ethical  and  religious 
interest. 

Despite  both  the  newness  and  the  difficulties  of  the  prob- 
lems and  the  imperfections  of  many  of  the  present  experi- 
mental methods  of  study  in  this  field,  much  work  has  been 
accomplished  and  many  valuable  results  have  been  obtained. 
The  results  are,  however,  yet  too  few,  and  some  of  those  of 
more  general  interest  have  led  to  unsettled  controversies. 
Some  of  the  results  which  at  present  may  be  considered 
established  are  as  follows:  Some  animals,  the  higher  forms 
at  least,  discriminate  brightness  values.     Some  classes  of 


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IKTRODUCTIOff.  3 

animals  discriminate  pitch.  All  vertebrates  and  some  in- 
vertebrates show  an  ability  to  form  habits  of  reaction  to 
stimuli,  and  they  form  at  least  simple  associations.  Animals 
retain  impressions  and  have  a  memory  of  some  sort.  Even 
the  most  conservative  and  hypercritical  have  found  this  to 
be  the  only  satisfactory  interpretation  of  the  results  of  ex- 
periments, and  it  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  the  adherents 
of  the  so-called  anecdote  school  admit  a  high  degree  of  mem- 
ory in  all  mammalia. 

The  question  on  which  comparative  psychologists  are 
divided  are  as  numerous  as  may  be  expected  in  a  growing 
science.  Those  of  most  interest  in  connection  with  the 
present  study  may  be  briefly  mentioned.  Have  animals 
the  same  sensory  equipment  as  man?  Have  animals  <x>lor 
vision?  Or,  do  they  merely  appear  to  discriminate  colors 
because  of  differences  in  the  brightness  values  of  the  stimuli 
that  are  used?  Do  animals  learn  by  inferential  imitation? 
Have  the  lower  animals  ideas  or  mental  images? 

In  answer  to  these  questions  animal  psychologists  have 
arrived  at  directly  opposite  conclusions,  although  alt  the 
recent  investigators  believe  they  follow  the  law  of  parsimony 
enunciated  by  Lloyd  Morgan.  In  regard  to  the  so-called 
higher  mental  powers,  recent  experimenters  have  taken  a 
less  decided  stand  than  formerly.  They  cease  to  deny  to 
animals  reason,  imitation  and  other  similarly  complex  proc- 
esses, but  they  say  the  case  is  not  proven  and  demand 
additional  experiments  and  observations. 

Among  experimenters  on  animals  Hobhouse  is  almost 
alone  in  claiming  that  animals  have  true  general  notions. 
It  is  true  he  does  this  after  having  made  rather  important 
qualifications  of  the  term  'idea.'  The  latter  topic  has,  how- 
ever, not  been  the  subject  of  many  experiments  or,  rather, 
it  has  not  been  the  subject  of  many  reported  experiments 
and  observations  other  than  a  few  illy-controlled  ones.  The 
question  of  the  ability  of  animals  to  reason  has  been  the 
subject  of  numerous  tests;  but  the  casual  observations  of 
the  anecdote  psychologists  are  the  mainstay  of  those  who 
support  the  view  that  animals  show  ability  to  reason.     Hob- 


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4  WILLIAM  SHEPHERD. 

house  has  made  some  experiments  which  he  believes  indicate 
some  power  or  inference  in  monkeys  and  apes,  but  the  obser- 
vations that  have  been  made  by  others  of  the  group  of 
experimental  animal  psychologists  are  in  the  main  of  a  de- 
cidedly negative  character.  With  the  exception  of  Hob- 
house,  it  may  be  said  that  the  consensus  of  opinion  is  that 
the  presence  in  animals  of  this  so-called  higher  faculty  is  not 
proven. 

These  points  we  may  summarize  by  saying  that  at  present 
comparative  psychologists  admit  the  possession  by  animals 
of  most  of  the  lower  powers  of  intelligence  that  man  possesses. 
Such  powers  of  animals  may,  however,  differ  from  those  of 
man  quantitatively  and  in  a  qualitative  manner.  Possession 
by  animals  of  the  so-called  higher  powers  is  an  open  question, 
or  set  of  questions,  which  have  not  been  so  widely  studied,  nor 
so  clearly  determined ;  and,  respecting  which  the  available 
evidence  points  toward  a  negative  answer  in  the  form  of  a 
verdict  of  'Not  proven." 

On  account  of  the  ease  of  obtaining  the  domesticated 
animals  a  large  amount  of  the  experimental  work  on  animal 
behavior  has  been  performed  upon  cats,  dogs  and  chicks. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  lower  forms  (invertebrates  and  non- 
mammalian  vertebrates)  have  been  extensively  studied  in 
respect  to  the  simplest  powers,  such  as  tropisms.  On  account 
of  expense,  difficulties  of  care  and  the  apparent  complexity 
and  variety  of  behavior,  the  higher  mammalian  types,  especi- 
ally anthropoids,  have  not  been  studied  so  consistently. 

However,  for  studies  in  comparative  psychology  the  value 
of  using  primates  instead  of  the  lower  vertebrates  and  inverte- 
brates is  almost  self-evident.  On  the  one  hand,  the  anatomi- 
cal similarities  between  man  and  the  monkey  are  apparent. 
Thereisthewell-known  similarity  between  both  their  peripheral 
and  central  nervous  systems;  and  the  similarity  of  arrange- 
ment of  muscles  and  bones,  especially  of  the  extremities, 
must  not  be  forgotten.  Observations  have  made  it  evident 
that  there  are  also  similarities  in  a  physiological  way.  Move- 
ments and  reactions  of  an  apparently  human  type  are  known 
to  be  present  in  these  higher  forms,  which  are  difficult  if  not 


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INTRODUCTIOtr.  J 

impossible  to  observe  in  the  lower  forms.  We  may  there- 
fore expect  from  the  careful  studies  of  the  mental  states  of 
those  animals,  admitted  to  be  immediately  inferior  to  that 
of  man,  more  light  on  certain  problems  in  the  psychology 
of  human  consciousness  than  from  similar  studies  of  others. 
In  making  such  a  comparison  of  values  it  is  not  intended  in 
any  way  to  detract  from  or  to  belittle  the  studies  on  the  lower 
forms.  The  value  of  experiments  with  the  lower  orders  is 
everywhere  admitted.  But  at  present  it  must  also  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  latter  have  received  the  attention  of  many 
more  writers,  and  their  reactions  have  been  subjected  to  a 
much  finer  analysis. 


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Experimental 

The  brief  historical  summary  of  comparative  psychology 
which  we  have  given  will,  perhaps,  appear  as  a  sufBcient 
justification  for  undertaking  further  study  in  the  field;  both 
in  regard  to  the  lower  and  to  the  higher  faculties  in  the  animal 
mind.  This  study  of  the  psychology  of  monkeys  was  under- 
taken, therefore,  with  a  view  to  add  to  the  knowledge  we 
now  possess  of  the  lower  faculties  in  the  animal  mind,  and  if 
possible,  to  throw  some  light  upon  the  question  of  whether 
or  not  monkeys  possess  some  of  the  higher  mental  powers, 
and  also  to  limit  or  characterize  any  such  higher  powers,  if 
they  should  be  found.  The  experiments  have  been  much  too 
incomplete  to  be  entirely  satisfactory  to  me,  and,  in  many 
cases,  the  results  are  naturally  lacking  in  definite  conclusions, 
though  they  yielded,  to  me  at  least,  some  valuable  indica- 
tions in  the  field.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  the  unsatis- 
factoriness  and  the  indefiniteness  are  not  peculiar  to  this 
particular  study,  but  that  they  apply  to  any  work  that  is 
performed  in  such  a  complex  science.  In  certain  of  the  later 
experiments,  it  will  be  noted,  definite  conclusions  have  been 
arrived  at,  and,  had  time  permitted  the  carrying  out  of 
further  experiments,  it  seems  probable  that  other  tests  might 
have  been  concluded  in  as  definite  a  way. 

As  tests  of  some  of  the  so-called  lower  faculties  of  the 
monkey's  intelligence,  experiments  were  made  on  brightness 
discrimination,  color  discrimination,  auditory  discrimination, 
the  formation  and  inhibition  of  habits,  and  retentive  power 
(memory).  In  regard  to  the  higher  powers,  observations 
and  experiments  were  made  on  learning  by  imitation,  on 
ideation,  on  reasoning,  on  adaptive  intelligence  and  on 
general  notions.  In  brief,  the  chief  aim  of  the  study  has 
been,  while  profiting  by  the  work  of  preceding  investigators, 
and  with  a  steady  adherence  to  the  law  of  parsimony,  to  study 
some  of  the  lower  powers  of  the  animal  mind,  but  especially 


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EXPERIMENTAL.  7 

by  a  modest  study  of  the  higher  powers  to  seek  for  some 
light,  however  little,  on  the  subject  of  mental  evolution. 

Eleven  monkeys  were  used  in  this  work.  All  were  Rhesus 
(Macacus)  obtained  soon  after  their  importation  from  India. 
So  far  as  we  could  ascertain  .they  were  eight  to  nine  months 
old  when  received  and,  with  the  possible  exception  of  monkey 
2,  they  appeared  to  be  without  training  of  any  kind.  Monkey 
I  was  a  rather  large,  spare  male,  moderately  active  and  bright 
looking;  in  his  work  he  showed  only  medium  capacity; 
when  he  could  not  perform  an  act  and  thus  get  food  he  showed 
signs  of  anger,  by  jumping  about  and  by  shaking  the  wire 
sides  of  the  cage;  he  would  sometimes  jump  at  the  experi- 
menter and  visitors  who  happened  to  be  in  the  room,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  he  was  in  a  cage  and  could  not  get  at 
anyone;  the  movements  he  made  were  those  of  intimidation, 
so  often  noticed  in  the  Rhesus  and  other  Macacque  monkeys; 
towards  the  end  of  the  series  of  experiments  he  became 
cross.  Monkey  2  was  a  medium-sized  male;  moderately 
active  and  of  only  ordinarily  intelligent  appearance;  he 
showed  a  mediocre  capacity  in  work;  not  friendly;  he  wore 
a  collar  about  his  neck  when  received  and  this  would  indicate 
that  he  may  have  been  accustomed  to  handling  by  sailors 
or  by  others  who  previously  owned  him.  Monkey  3  was  a 
small  female,  apparently  the  youngest  of  the  eleven,  very 
active,  alert;  good-natured  and  friendly  for  a  Rhesus;  formed 
associations  the  quickest  of  all  the  animals.  Monkey  4 
was  a  medium-sized  male,  not  very  active,  but  bright  and 
cunning  looking;  good-natured ;  jumped  at  experimenter 
half  playfully;  of  medium  capability  in  his  work.     Monkey 

5  was  a  lai^e  male,  dull  looking,  not  active;  slow  in  learning 
as  compared  with  all  theothers;  he  had  a  way  of  whining  when 
left  alone;  was  rather  ill-natured;  would  get  angry  when  he 
failed  to  do  a  required  act,  and  thus  fail  to  get  food.     Monkey 

6  was  a  small  female;  bright  and  active;  good-natured;  very 
cautious  in  all  her  work  and  actions.  Monkey  7  was  a  Iar:ge 
female;  inactive,  not  very  bright  looking,  but  the  most 
friendly  of  the  eleven  animals;  proved  to  be  quick  in  forming 
habits;  very  quiet.     Monkey  8  was  a  lat^e  male;  he  was  the 


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8  WILLIAM  SREPBERD. 

master  of  the  band ;  of  gruff  appearance,  domineering,  active; 
of  not  especially  intelligent  appearance;  but  was  extremely 
cautious,  appeared  to  like  to  go  through  the  tests.     Monkey 

9  was  a  medium  large  female;  rather  friendly;  quick  to  form 
habits.  Monkey  lo  was  a  large  female;  not  active;  quite 
friendly;  fairly  capable  as  indicated  in  the  tests.  Monkey 
II  was  a  large  male;  wise  looking;  quiet  and  friendly;  some- 
what timid;  of  medium  capability. 

Formation  of  habits. 

Releasing  fastenings:  Since  the  appearance  of  Thomdike's 
Animal  Intelligence  in  1898  the  puzzle  box  method  has  been 
a  favorite  one  for  comparative  psychologists  in  studying  the 
formation  of  associations'  by  the  mammalia.  Partly  as  pre- 
liminary to  succeeding  work  on  visual  discrimination,  an 
experiment  similar  to  those  of  Thorndike  was  made  with 
monkeys  1 ,  2  and  3. 

A  box  2  feet  long,  7  inches  wide  and  8  inches  deep  was  made 
with  wooden  slats  and  attached  to  one  end  of  the  cage  in 
which  the  three  animals  were  kept.  A  solid  wooden  door, 
6  by  4  inches,  was  arranged  on  each  side  of  the  inner  or  parti- 
tion part  of  this  box  nearest  to  the  cage.  These  doors  had 
vertical  hinges  and  were  kept  shut  by  a  turn  button  on  the 
side  away  from  the  animals.  The  hinged  portions  were  16 
inches,  the  opening  or  button  portions  8  inches  apart.  A 
space  was  left  on  the  sides  of  the  doors  next  to  the  button 
sufficiently  wide  to  enable  a  monkey  to  put  his  hand  through. 
The  doors  opened  inward  into  the  feed  box,  i.e.,  outward 
from  the  monkey  cage.  The  food  was  usually  so  placed  on 
the  floor  of  the  food  box  that  the  animal  could  not  see  it, 
except  by  going  to  the  extreme  right  or  left,  depending  upon 


'  The  term  'association'  as  applied  to  the  intelligence  of  animals  has  been  loosely 
used.  Two  principal  usages  are;  (o)  the  animal's  simple  cerebraJ  (or  mental)  processes 
(merely  anatomical,  or  it  may  be,  physiological)  such  as  is  shown  in  a  simple  adjust- 
ment to  a  stimulus,  e.g,,  in  its  learning  to  turn  a  button  to  open  a  door;  {b)  as  eiplaio- 
ing  what  are  thought  by  some  psychologists  to  be  higher  mental  processes,  «.{.,  idea- 
tion or  reasoning.  When  used  in  thb  paper  the  word  is  to  be  understood  to  have  a 
connotation  similar  to  the  first  meaning  given  above. 


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RELEASING  FASTENINGS.  9 

the  box  into  which  the  food  was  placed.  In  all  experiments, 
even  in  those  in  which  no  time  is  recorded  in  the  paper,  the 
times  for  the  performance  of  acts  were  taken  by  a  stop  watch 
and  recorded. 

By  reaching  through  the  space  or  crack  at  the  side  of  the 
door  and  turning  the  button,  the  monkey  could  open  the  door 
and  secure  the  food  which  was  placed  in  the  food  box  behind 
one  of  the  doors.  In  the  beginning  of  the  work  only  one  of 
the  doors  was  used ;  when  the  association  of  turning  the 
button,  i.e.,  of  opening  one  door,  was  formed,  both  doors  were 
used.  In  the  latter  (two-door)  preliminary  experiments  the 
food  was  placed  in  a  chance  order  behind  one  of  the  doors, 
the  animal  not  knowing  which  door  that  might  be. 

The  records  of  the  three  animals  used  in  this  first  experi- 
ment are  as  follows:  On  the  fourth  day,  after  32  trials, 
monkey  i  gave  evidence  of  the  formation  of  the  habit  of 
opening  the  door.  Previous  to  this  trial  he  had  shown 
many  random  movements,  going  from  one  part  of  the  cage 
to  another,  getting  upon  a  bench  in  the  cage,  stopping  all 
work  for  a  time,  etc.  On  the  fourth  day,  however,  the  habit 
of  going  to  the  door  directly  was  apparently  formed,  and  the 
method  of  opening  was  that  of  vigorously  shaking  the  door 
so  that  the  button  was  gradually  moved  to  permit  the  open- 
ing of  the  door.  On  the  fifth  day,  after  53  trials  in  all,  he 
began  to  fumble  with  the  button  in  addition  to  shaking  the 
door.  He  continued  to  use  both  of  these  means  with  an 
increasing  tendency  to  rely  on  the  button  alone.  On  the 
sixth  day,  after  95  trials  in  all,  he  had  formed  the  association 
of  opening  the  doors  by  turning  the  buttons  alone.  His 
average  time  for  lo  succeeding  trials  on  this  day  was  3  seconds. 
Monkey  2  formed  the  association  of  opening  the  door  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  Monkey  i.  He  pulled  and  shook  it, 
and  on  the  third  day,  after  21  trials  in  all,  manned  to  get 
the  trick  of  always  opening  it  in  this  manner.  On  the  fourth 
day,  after  51  trials  in  all,  he  began  to  turn  the  button  in 
addition  to  pulling  and  shaking  the  door.  Also  similarly 
to  the  actions  of  Number  l,  he  continued  to  use  one  or  both 
of  the  means,  with  an  increasing  tendency  to  turn  the  button 


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10  WILLIAM  SBEPBERD. 

alone.  On  the  sixth  day,  after  102  trials,  he  always  used  the 
button  alone  as  the  means  of  opening  the  door.  His  average 
time  for  ten  successive  trials  was  1.5  seconds.  Number  3 
on  the  second  day,  and  after  1 1  trials  in  all,  formed  the  asso- 
ciation of  0F>ening  the  door  by  pulling  and  pressing  it.  On 
the  third  day,  after  34  trials  in  all,  she  began  to  turn  the 
button.  On  the  fourth  day,  after  64  trials  in  all, she  appeared 
to  have  perfected  the  latter  association  and  had  inhibited 
all  tendency  to  use  other  means  (e.g.,  shaking)  for  opening 
the  door.  Her  average  time  in  the  last  10  successive  trials 
on  this  day  was  approximtaely  1.5  seconds. 

The  method  of  learning  in  this  experiment  appeared  to  be 
of  the  'trial  and  error'  type.  As  has  been  mentioned,  the 
animals  scrambled  about  in  a  general  way  at  first;  they  pulled 
and  bit  at  the  door  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  partition ; 
shook  the  door  violently;  but,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  after  the 
first  few  experiments  the  attention  of  the  animal  was  always 
directed  to  the  door.  Even  after  an  accidental  success  in 
turning  the  button,  the  association  was  not  at  once. set,  but 
only  after  a  number  of  trials,  with  accidental  successes  many 
times  repeated,  alternating,  or  rather  interspersed,  with  many 
errors.  All  the  animals  used  in  this  work  appeared,  however, 
to  recognize  a  chance  success  and  profited  by  it  more  quickly 
than  did  raccoons  under  similar  conditions.  Another  thing 
of  particular  notice  in  their  work,  in  which  respect  also  they 
differed  from  the  raccoons,  was  their  tendency  to  show  signs 
of  anger  when  they  could  not  open  the  door  and  get  the 
desired  food.     This  was  especially  noticeable  with  Monkey  i. 

It  is  also  of  interest  to  note  that  when,  preparatory  to  an- 
other trial,  I  attempted  to  close  the  door  after  an  animal 
had  opened  the  door  and  obtained  food,  the  animal  would 
repeatedly  attempt  to  hold  the  door  open,  as  if  the  idea  was 
present  that  'door- being-open'  meant  food.  This  reaction 
is  somewhat  similar,  I  judge,  to  one  observed  by  Thomdike 
in  his  experiments  with  cats.  It  will  be  remembered  this 
author  found  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  animals  to  walk 
into  the  opened  c^e  from  which  they  had  just  previously 
escaped  to  obtain  food.  The  action,  on  the  other  hand,  may 
be  merely  of  the  nature  of  a  reflex. 


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VISUAL  DISCRIMISATION.  II 

Visual  discrimination.  It  was  formerly  supposed,  or  rather 
taken  for  granted,  that  animals  possess  the  power  of  dis- 
crimination of  visual  qualities,  hues,  and  saturations.  This 
assumption  was  based  upon  observations  of  general  be- 
havior, of  reactions  to  objects  of  different  color,  etc.,  but 
in  the  past  few  years,  however,  comparative  psychologists 
have  concluded  that  such  power  of  discrimination  could  not 
be  assumed  and  they  have  sought  by  carefully  controlled 
experiments  to  test  the  truth  of  the  matter.  While  the 
experiments  already  made  have  yielded  many  valuable  and 
apparently  positive  results,  several  investigators,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Yerkes  (4)  and  Watson  {2), 
await  more  proof  of  such  discrimination  ability.  The  prob- 
lem has  been  resolved  into  two  questions.  Is  there  a  dis- 
crimination by  animals  of  brightnesses  or  intensities?  Do 
animals  discriminate  objects  by  their  color  or  hue  qualities? 
In  the  work  on  visual  discrimination  to  be  recorded  in  this 
paper  nine  monkeys  were  tested  for  color  discrimination  and 
six  for  brightness  (or  intensity)  discrimination. 

Brightness  Discrimination — Simultaneous  Expos- 
ures: Some  ^tperiments  on  monkeys  I,  2,  and  3  were  made 
with  the  same  apparatus  that  was  employed  in  the  prelimin- 
ary experiments  on  the  releasing  of  fastenings,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  two  cards,  respectively  black  and  white,  which  were 
placed  above  the  doors.  The  cards  were  5  inches  square, 
and  were  placed  above  the  doors.  They  were,  therefore,  8 
inches  apart.  A  piece  of  food,  usually  a  half  or  a  whole  pea- 
nut was  dropped  in  the  food  box;  the  black  card  was  placed 
above  the  door  behind  which  the  food  had  been  placed,  and 
the  white  card  above  the  other  door.  The  monkey  was  to 
open  the  door  under  the  black  card  and  obtain  the  food. 
The  food  was  placed  in  the  compartments  in  an  irregular 
order,  and  the  cards  were  correspondingly  placed.  At  times 
the  food  was  not  placed  in  the  box  until  the  door  had  been 
opened  by  the  animal,  but  often  it  was  dropped  in  the  box 
immediately  before  or  after  the  buttons  were  adjusted.  In 
this  way  it  was  possible  to  prevent  the  animal  knowing  whicii 
door  to  open  from  the  sight  of  food,  and  since  raw  peanuts 


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12  WILUAU  SHEPHERD. 

were  used,  the  smell  component,  judging  at  least  from  human 
ability  to  smell  such  food  was  at  a  minimum. 

These  experiments  were  begun  December  4th  and  con- 
tinued for  eleven  weeks.  E^ch  animal  was  given  from  10 
to  25  trials  every  second  or  third  day.  In  some  cases  there 
were  longer  intervals  between  the  work  periods.  Each 
animal  was  given  a  total  of  1000  trials.  At  the  end  of  the  work 
all  were  substantially  perfect  in  opening  the  door  under  the 
black  card  first.  No  animal  was  ever  able  to  inhibit  alto- 
gether the  tendency  to  open  the  door'  under  the  white  card 
after  the  door  under  the  black  card  had  been  opened  and  the 
food  had  been  secured.  The  average  time  for  opening  the 
door  under  the  black  card  in  the  last  25  trials  for  these  three 
monkeys  was  approximately  one  second.  The  curves  of 
learning,  i.e.,  the  time-experiment  curves,  correspond  to 
those  found  by  almost  all  experimenters,  but  on  account  of 
mistakes  in  opening  the  second  door  they  cannot  have  much 
value  in  this  connection. 

The  fact  that  the  animals  formed  the  habit  of  opening  the 
door  under  black  first  would  indicate  that  they  discriminated 
the  cards.  The  quickness  with  which  they  finally  performed 
the  act  would  also  confirm  this  conclusion.  Moreover  their 
looks  and  actions  at  the  time  appeared  to  indicate  a  knowledge 
that  the  opened  door  meant  food.  When,  for  example,  food 
had  been  not  placed  in  the  box,  after  opening  the  door  they 
would  look  at  me  as  if  they  expected  their  reward.  The 
closeness  of  the  door  buttons,  and  the  great  activity  and 
ready  use  of  the  hands,  explain,  I  believe,  the  opening  of  the 
second  door  so  often.  Furthermore,  it  was  noted  that  while 
after  they  had  opened  the  door  under  the  black  card,  they 
appeared  to  expect  food,  when  the  door  under  white  was 
opened,  their  actions  did  not  indicate  that  they  expected  to 
be  fed. 

Brightness — Successive  Exposures.  For  the  tests  with 
monkeys  4,  5,  and  6,  I  used  a  card  displayer  similar  to  that 
used  by  Professor  Cole  and  myself  in  brightness  and  color 
tests  made  on  raccoons.  This  was  placed  outside  and  about 
6  inches  from  the  animal  cage.     The  accompanying  figure 


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VISUAL  DISCRIMINATtOS.  13 

is  a  diagram  of  the  experimenter's  view  of  this  piece  of  ap- 
paratus.   (See  Figure  i.) 

The  front  of  the  displayer  was  formed  by  a  board  12  inches 
high.  A  pin,  'P',  on  which  two  levers  could  be  turned,  was 
inserted  in  a  hole  at  the  back  and  near  the  lower  edge.  On 
this  pin  two  displayers,  'W  and  'B',  were  arranged  so  as  to 
be  freely  movable  in  the  plane  of  the  board.  The  two  cards, 
black  and  white,  were  placed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  dis- 
players so  that  the  raising  of  the  displayers  showed  the  black 
and  white  cards  respectively.  The  card  displayers  were 
i-inch  thick  so  that  there  was  a  difference  of  i  inch  in  the 
distances  of  the  cards  from  the  animal  box.     On  alternate 


days,  however,  the  cards  were  changed  from  the  front  to 
the  back  lever,  so  the  animals  should  not  react  merely  to  the 
distance  p>osition  of  a  card.  When  the  black  was  exhibited 
the  animal  was  to  go  upon  a  platform  arranged  inside  the 
cage  and  was  fed,  while  he  was  not  to  go  up  at  white  and  was 
not  fed.  Usually  and  except  at  the  stimulus,  the  animal  sat 
on  a  bench  12  inches  from  the  floor  and  inside  the  cage. 
He  was,  therefore,  in  a  position  to  look  down  at  the  card 
apparatus,  for  the  upper  portion  of  the  card  was  about  5 
inches  below  the  horizontal  level  of  his  eyes.  When  the 
black  card  was  displayed  and  the  monkey  had  climbed  to  the 
food  platform  the  experimenter  rose  from  his  seat  and  pre- 
sented a  piece  of  food  to  the  animal.  It  is  of  interest  to  note, 
therefore,  that  there  was  no  possibility  of  the  formation  of 
an  association  between  the  smell  of  food  and  food,  rather 


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14  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

than  between  the  appearance  of  the  card  and  food.  Since 
the  food  was  not  placed  near  the  cage  or  near  the  food  plat- 
form until  the  appropriate  response  was  obtained  the  animal 
had  no  smell  stimulus  for  its  guidance  to  an  appropriate 
reaction.  , 

These  experiments  were  begun  February  5th  and  con- 
tinued for  a  period  of  seven  weeks.  Each  animal  was  given 
from  10  to  25  trials  daily,  with  intervals  of  two  days,  in  some 
cases  of  three  or  four  days,  during  which  intervals  no  work 
was  done  with  them  on  brightness.  In  all,  each  was  given 
700  trials.  At  the  close  of  this  work  monkeys  4  and  6  ap- 
peared to  have  the  association  perfected.  The  average  times 
for  responding  by  going  upon  the  platform  when  black  was 
displayed  in  the  last  25  trials  were  1.5  seconds  for  monkey  4 
and  1.25  seconds  for  monkey  6.  The  tendency  to  climb  to 
the  food  platform  when  white  was  displayed  appeared  to  be 
entirely  inhibited.  Monkey  4  was,  in  this  regard,  perfect 
in  the  last  25  trials,  and  monkey  6  responded  to  white  only 
once  in  the  same  number  of  trials.  Moreover,  at  the  time 
of  this  mistake  it  was  noted  that  in  the  trial  (the  7th)  in  which 
she  responded  to  white,  monkey  6  immediately  came  down 
from  the  food  platform  with  all  the  appearance  of  having 
knowledge  that  she  had  made  a  mistake;  she  did  not  appear 
to  expect  food  and  did  not  remain  upon  the  platform  for  a 
sufficient  time  to  have  food  presented  to  her. 

Monkey  5,  at  the  end  of  the  700  tests,  appeared  to  be 
almost  periect.  In  responding  to  black  he  made  only  one 
error  in  the  last  25  trials.  His  inhibition  of  the  tendency  to 
respond  to  white  was  not  quite  periect,  for  during  the  same 
series  he  responded  to  the  white  card  three  times.  His 
errors  in  this  latter  regard,  however,  were  rather  of  the  type 
shown  by  monkey  6.  He  showed  by  his  actions  that  he  knew 
he  had  made  a  mistake,  for  without  waiting  to  be  fed  he 
immediately  returned  from  the  food  platform  to  the  bench. 

In  the  later  experiments,  and  probably  for  some  time 
previous  to  the  ones  just  mentioned,  the  movement  of  the 
card  displayer  appeared  to  set  up  in  the  animals  a  tendency 
to  react,  and  the  mistakes  that  were  made  on  the  last  day 


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VISUAL  DISCRIMINATION.  1$ 

are,  in  my  opinion,  undoubtedly  due  to  the  lack  of  inhibition 
of  this  reflex  tendency  to  movement  rather  than  to  mistakes 
in  ability  to  discriminate. 

For  the  next  tests  in  this  series  small  pieces  (about  one- 
half  inch  cube)  of  white  and  rye  bread  were  presented  simul- 
taneously on  a  board  placed  outside  the  cage  but  within  reach 
of  the  animal.  The  breads  were  prepared  so  that  the  taking 
of  one  resulted  in  a  punishment  and  in  this  way  an 
attempt  was  made  to  have  the  association  formed  quickly. 
The  rye  bread  was  soaked  in  a  solution  of  quinine  bisulphate 
(about  I  per  cent,  although  no  attempt  was  made  to  keep 
the  bitterness  a  constant  factor).  The  white  bread  con- 
tained no  quinine  and  was  presented  in  a  comparatively 
moist,  fresh  state,  but  much  dryer  than  the  rye  bread  that 
had  been  soaked  in  the  solution  of  quinine  immediately  before 
the  experiments.  By  taking  the  white  bread  and  avoiding 
the  rye  bread  the  animals  were  to  show  their  ability  to  dis- 
criminate these  brightnesses.'  In  these  experiments  and  in 
later  ones  to  be  reported  it  was  assumed  that  monkeys  dis- 
liked bitter  tastes;  this  assumption,  it  will  be  noted,  proved 
to  be  true. 

To  obviate  the  objection  that  the  smell  of  the  quinine  or 
the  rye  bread  might  enable  the  animal  to  differentiate  the 
white  from  the  rye  bread,  the  two  pieces  of  bread  were  placed 
in  varying  positions  on  the  board.  At  times  they  were  placed 
at  equal  distances  from  the  front  of  the  cage  and  within  an 
inch  of  each  other.  In  other  tests  one  was  placed  directly 
in  front  of  the  other,  and  in  other  tests  the  positions  were 
irr^iularly  varied,  one  being  nearer,  the  other  farther  from 
the  cage.  It  might  still  be  objected  that  the  rye  bread  which 
was  wet  from  having  been  soaked  in  the  solution  of  quinine 
would  give  them  a  clue.  That  this  objection  was  not  met  in 
the  conduct  of  the  experiments  must  be  admitted,  but  the 
formation  of  the  association,  i.e.,  the  positive  reaction  would 
give  evidence  of  sharp  visual  discrimination. 

I  In  addition  to  its  darfcer  appeaiance,  there  was  a  hue  differeace  ia  the  lye  bread. 
Tbe  latter,  however,  is  the  less  prominent  (actor. 


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i6  WILLIAM  SBBPSERD. 

Nine  animals  were  tested  by  this  method,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6 
7>  8  and  9.  This  plan  of  tests  was  very  gratifying  in  its 
results.  It  showed,  apparently,  complete  discrimination 
of  the  two  pieces  of  bread.  The  rapidity  with  which  the 
habit  of  taking  only  the  white  bread  was  formed  was  striking. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  when  we  compare  the  records 
of  the  same  monkeys  in  this  and  in  the  preceding  brightness 
tests.  As  table  I  shows,  only  from  i  to  14  trials  were  required 
for  each  of  the  eight  monkeys  to  establish  the  association. 
This  is  excluding  the  work  of  monkey  9,  which  also  dis- 
criminated the  white  and  rye  bread,  but  which,  being  in  the 
same  cage  with  monkey  8,  could  have  seen  the  latter  select 
the  white  and  reject  the  rye,  and  might  be  said  to  have  learned 
from  or  to  have  imitated  monkey  8. 


TABLE  I. 

™„„. 

U^^n.T^ 

ToUlMiHiko. 

Pint  Day. 

^.„. 

9 

1,1.1,40,5.6,8 

1,  M.  3,  4*,  66.  8i.  12a 

i.ib,30,4a 

13c                           8 

1              \ 

aTookrycbieadftCter  having  taken  white,  smelted  or  tasted,  or  both,  and  dropped 
without  eating. 

b  Took  rye  bread  after  having  taken  white,  and  ate  both. 

e  first  trial  at  second  day;  took  rye  bread  but  dropped  it  immediately  without 
smelling  or  tasting. 

if  Second  trial  of  second  day;  without  smelling  or  tasting. 

It  is  of  some  interest  to  note  the  individual  reactions  to 
the  two  stimuli  that  were  presented.  At  the  first  trial  each 
animal  took  both  pieces  of  bread,  placed  them  in  the  mouth 
and  began  to  eat.  In  many  cases  the  bitterness  had  a  retard- 
ing or  inhibiting  effect,  for  the  animal  would  take  the  rye 


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VISUAL  DISCRIMINATION.  17 

bread  from  the  mouth,  look  at  it,  smell  it,  and  then  either 
reject  or  reinsert  it  in  the  mouth. 

Monkey  I ,  in  addition  to  eating  the  rye  bread  on  the  first 
trial,  took  the  piece  of  rye  bread  in  the  second  trial,  smelled, 
tasted  and  dropped  it.  The  bitter  bread  was  not  taken  on 
the  third  trial,  but  on  the  fourth  the  animal  took  first  the  white 
which  it  ate,  then  the  rye,  which  it  also  ate.  The  rye  bread 
was  not  taken  on  the  next  seven  trials  on  that  day.  On  the 
twelfth  test  (the  first  test  on  the  second  day)  the  animal  first 
took  the  white  bread  and  ate  it,  then  took  the  rye  bread  and, 
without  smelling  or  tasting,  dropped  it  immediately.  On 
this  and  on  the  following  days  all  other  tests  were  perfect  in 
that  only  the  white  bread  was  taken  and  the  rye  bread  not 
even  handled,  although,  as  has  previously  been  noted,  at 
times  the  rye  bread  was  placed  closer  to  the  cage  than  the 
white  bread. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  with  animals  2  and  3  as  is 
indicated  in  the  table.  The  rapidity  of  learning  is  remark- 
able in  all  animals,  but  particularly  so  in  4,  5,  6,  8  and  9. 
In  each  of  these  animals  two  tests  were  sufficient  to  inhibit 
altogether  the  tendency  to  take  the  darker  bread.  This  find- 
ing is  so  at  variance  with  the  results  of  comparable  tests  on 
other  animals  that  there  would  be  ample  opportunity  to  use 
the  results  as  an  indication  in  monkeys  of  some  form  of 
reasoning  or  of  a  marked  activity  to  form  pracdcal  judgments. 

Color  discrimination — white  and  red.  The  same 
general  plan  was  followed  as  in  the  white  and  rye  bread  tests. 
Rice,  cooked  to  such  a  consistency  as  to  be  stiff,  was,  however, 
used  instead  of  bread.  It  was  cut  into  small  pieces  of  approxi- 
mately the  same  size.  Some  of  these  pieces  were  used  for  the 
white  stimulus,  and  others  when  colored  with  Congo  red  for 
the  red.  The  red  pieces  were  soaked  in  a  quinine  solution 
and  used  while  wet.  The  white  contained  no  quinine  and 
was  in  a  comparatively  dry  state.  The  precautions  noted  in 
the  previous  test  were  taken  to  prevent  an  animal  obtaining 
a  clue  from  either  the  relative  positions  or  the  smell  of  the 
pieces  of  food. 

The  nine  monkeys  which  had  been  used  in  the  white  and 


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i8  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

rye  bread  experiments  were  tested  in  this  experiment.  The 
rapid  learning  to  take  the  white  rice  and  to  reject  the  red  rice, 
as  in  the  white  and  rye  bread  test,  was  notable.  From  i  to 
3  trials  were  sufficient  for  the  different  animals  to  form  the 
association.  Animal  i  took  the  red  rice  only  the  first  trial, 
and  a  similar  result  was  obtained  with  monkeys  2,  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8  and  9,  Monkey  3  took  the  red  rice  only  three  times,  on 
the  first,  second  and  fifth  trials.  Not  only  is  the  rapidity 
of  the  formation  as  striking  here  as  in  the  case  of  the  white 
and  rye  bread,  but  the  fact  that  all  but  one  of  the  animals 
formed  the  association,  or,  rather,  inhibited  the  tendency  to 
take  the  red  rice,  after  having  experienced  its  effect  only  once, 
may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  some  form  of  reasoning. 

Color  discrimination — pink  and  green.  A  plan  was 
followed  in  the  next  test  similar  to  that  employed  in  the 
white  and  red  experiment.  A  smaller  amount  of  coloring 
matter  was  used  and  some  of  the  rice  was  colored  a  light  pink. 
The  pink  rice  also  contained  quinine.  Another  portion  of 
rice  was  colored  green,  and  this  portion  containednoquinine. 
The  pink  coloring  was  obtained,  as  has  been  said,  by  using 
a  weak  solution  of  Congo  red,  the  green  was  made  by  using 
a  solution  of  Malachite  green.  Both  kinds  of  rice  were  used 
while  wet,  and  in  this  experiment,  it  is  not  probable  that 
discrimination  could  take  place  on  account  of  difference  in 
the  light  reflecting  qualities  of  the  two  kinds  of  rice.  Care 
was  taken  to  have  the  two  colors  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the 
same  approximate  brightness.  To  this  end  the  two  colors 
were  mixed  and  compared  to  the  colors  pink  and  green  of  the 
same  approximate  brightnesss  on  a  color  scale  and  the  mixed 
colors  as  well  as  those  of  the  color  scale  were  also  tested  by 
the  minimal  perception  method  in  a  dark  room  to  insure 
their  being  of  approximately  the  same  relative  brightness 
{i.e.,  to  the  human  eye). 

In  mixing  the  rice  the  coloring  materials  were  not  meas- 
ured, nor  was  the  relative  amount  in  proportion  to  the  water 
of  the  solutions  kept  constant,  nor  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  two  colors  to  each  other,  nor  to  the  amount  of  rice. 
The  color  solutions  were  usually  made  up  anew  each  day 


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VISUAL  DISCRIMINATION.  I9 

and  there  was  inevitably  a  greater  or  less  variation  in  satura- 
tion and  in  brightness  of  the  colors  in  different  tests.  These 
remarks  hold  true  in  all  the  color  tests.  While  criticism 
may  be  made  on  any  apparent  discrimination  on  the  basis 
of  hue  under  such  conditions,  to  the  writer  discrimination 
of  color  would  be  indicated  by  proper  reaction  from  the  very 
fact  of  the  variation  of  intensities.  This  will  be  pointed 
out  again  in  the  discussion  of  the  color  experiments.  As  in 
the  preceding  tests  the  same  control  precautions  were  taken 
to  prevent  the  animals  from  taking  a  cue  either  from  the 
position  or  from  the  smell  of  the  rice, 

In  this  test  the  monkeys  formed  the  habit  of  taking  the 
green  and  rejecting  the  pink  with  even  greater  rapidity  than 
in  the  white-red  test.  Table  II  gives  the  records  of  nine 
animals  which  were  tested. 

Color  discrimination — pink  and  yellow.  In  this  test 
the  same  plan  was  followed  as  in  the  preceding  experiments. 
The  pieces  of  pink  rice  contained  quinine,  while  the  yellow 
contained  no  quinine.  As  in  the  preceding  tests,  both  the 
pink  pieces  and  the  yellow  pieces  were  used  while  wet.  The 
pink  coloring  was  produced  by  the  same  means  as  in  the  last 
mentioned  experiment,  while  the  coloring  of  the  yellow  pieces 
of  rice  was  produced  by  the  addition  of  lead  chromate.  The 
test  was  controlled  by  the  same  means  as  in  the  pink-green 
experiment  to  secure  the  same  approximate  degree  of  bright- 
ness in  the  colors  pink  and  yellow,  and  to  prevent  the  animal 
from  receiving  any  cue  from  either  the  smell  of  the  two 
pieces  of  rice,  or  from  their  relative  positions  or  relative  dis- 
tances. The  same  animals  were  used  as  in  the  preceding 
tests,  monkeys  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8  and  9. 


'  The  colors  were  mixed  and  compared  to  the  colors  pink,  yellow,  green  of  the  same 
approximate  brightness  on  a  color  scale,  and  the  mixed  cobrs  on  the  color  scale  tested 
in  a  dark  room  tor  quality  o(  brightness.  Id  the  difFerent  experiments,  the  pieces  of 
rice  were  also  placed  at  varying  distances  from  the  animal  to  prevent  his  takinc  a  cut 
dther  from  the  smell  or  the  positions  of  the  two  pieces. 


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D  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

The  following  is  the  record  for  the  animals  for  25  trials  each : 
No.  I  took  yellow  in  each  triftl;  took  pink  trial  I 


Color  discrimination — pink,  yellow  and  green.  The 
same  method  was  employed  in  this  experiment  as  in  the 
preceding  ones.  In  this  case  the  three  colored  pieces  of 
rice  were  simultaneously  exposed.  The  pink  and  yellow 
contained  quinine,   the  green  contained  no  quinine.     The 

TABLE  n. 
Discrimitutlioit  of  pink  and  iretn  rice.     T\oeiiSy  experimentt  o*  tack  animal. 


»>«ns. 

m.rArun.niAL.. 

»>».«»»«. 

; 

3 
'                                     3 

; 

3 

1 

1 

4 

0 

0 

5 

6 

0 

0 

7 

1,  a.  3.  4.  S 
8,  9,   10,   > 

6,7. 

14 

13.   14,   I 

S.   16. 

8 

" 

" 

coloring  for  the  pink,  yellow  and  green  was  the  same  as  used 
in  the  preceding  tests,  each  was  used  while  wet.  Exactly 
the  same  means  to  control  the  tests  were  employed  as  above. 
The  same  monkeys  were  tested  as  in  the  white  and  rye  bread 
test,  the  white-red,  the  pink-green,  and  the  pink-yellow  experi- 
ments. Here  again  the  rapidity  of  the  rise  of  the  habit  of 
response  is  striking.  Table  III  gives  the  record  of  each 
monkey  for  25  trials. 


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VISUAL  DISCRIMINATION. 


DiseritiUnaUoH  of  pint,  yellev  and  green  rice.     Twtnty-Jm  experiments  tack  animal. 
Tern  experiments  first  day,  fifteen  on  second  day.    y,  took  yMm;  p,  took  pink. 


>on>il. 

^^^r,^ 

lOTALIC^O. 

ly. 

1 

'y. 

I 

ly,lly 

» 

ly 

1 

ly,  «y.3y.4y,"yp,"y 

6 

»y.  jy-  3y.  4y.  sy.  6y. 

II  y.  13  y,  lay.  14 y. 

10 

7 

I  y.  a  y.  3  y.  ■«  y.  s  y,  6  y.  7  y. 

16 

8y.  9y.  'oy.  "y.  "y. 

13  y,   16  y,   17  y,   18  y. 

8 

»y-  1y.3y.4y,  sy.  6y. 
7y  11  y,  liy,  13  y. 

10 

We  see  from  the  records  and  tables  that  the  nine  animals 
quickly  learned  to  select  the  rice  that  contained  no  quinine 
and  to  leave  the  quinine  rice  alone.  The  learning  to  respond 
quickly  was  much  more  rapid  than,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
that  of  any  other  monkeys  which  have  been  studied  for 
visual  discrimination.  In  many  cases,  one  trial  was  sufficient 
to  inhibit  any  tendency  to  take  the  quinine  rice,  and  the 
rapidity  in  inhibition  of  the  wrong  response  was  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  use  of  a  punishment  or  to  the  association  of  a 
disagreeable  sensation,  i.e.,  to  the  quinine  in  the  rice. 

Another  factor  in  the  rapid  formation  of  the  habit  of 
avoiding  the  quinine  rice,  in  the  case  of  pink  in  the  pink- 
green  rest,  was  probably  the  knowledge  or  memory  of  dis- 
agreeableness  in  red  rice  in  the  white-red  test  immediately 
preceding.  In  the  pink-yellow  test  and  in  the  pink-yellow- 
green  test,  knowledge  of  quinine  in  pink  in  the  preceding 
tests,  was  also  probably  a  factor  in  their  rapid  discrimina- 
tion. In  the  pink-yellow-green  test  the  experience  of  the 
preceding  tests  of  pink-bitter,  yellow-good,  green-good  helps 
to  explain  the  number  of  mistakes  in  yellow  rice.  But,  with 
all  these  allowances,  we  still  have  evidence  of  rapid  formation 
of  the  habits  of  selecting  one  color  and  of  rejecting  another, 
and  thereby  apparently  discriminating  the  colors  red,  pink. 


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22  WILLIAU  SHEPHERD. 

yellow  and  green.  That  discrimination  has  taken  place 
cannot  be  doubted,  but  the  question  arises:  did  the  animals 
discriminate  the  colors  as  hues,  or  as  merely  brightness 
values? 

Watson  (2),  in  very  carefully  controlled  tests  made  on 
three  monkeys  in  1908,  failed  to  find  evidence  satisfactory 
to  him  that  his  animals  discriminated  colors  as  hues.  From 
later  tests  (3)  also,  on  monkeys,  he  is  still  not  prepared  to 
affirm  whether  such  discrimination  is  of  color  or  of  mere 
brightness.  Yerkes  (4) ,  from  the  results  of  his  well-controlled 
experiments  on  the  dancing-mouse,  takes  a  view  of  the  matter 
similar  to  that  of  Watson.  Both  condemn  the  use  of  cards, 
filters,  etc.,  in  experimenting  on  color  discrimination.  They 
believe  such  methods  are  too  loose  to  have  much  value 
and  they  urge  the  use  of  more  exact  methods  of  determining 
the  matter. 

In  the  experiments  on  cplor  discrimination  reported  in 
this  paper,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the  criticism  that  the 
method  used  is  a  loose  one  may  be  urged.  The  exact  propor- 
tion of  the  different  coloring  materials  to  the  bread  or  rice 
and  to  the  amount  of  water  in  making  the  solutions  was  not 
determined.  Furthermore,  it  may  be  said  that  as  the  color- 
ing solutions  were  mixed  anew  almost  daily,  it  would  hardly 
be  possible  not  to  have  some  variation  in  the  intensities  of 
the  colors  at  different  times.  This  is  true,  notwithstanding 
that  means  were  taken  to  control  the  experiments,  viz.,  com- 
parison with  certain  color  standards.  Shall  we  infer  that  the 
experiments  were  thereby  so  vitiated  as  to  have  little  or  no 
value  as  a  test  of  color  discrimination?  Such  will  doubtless 
be  the  view  of  some,  at  least  on  first  thought,  but,  to  the 
writer,  these  inaccuracies  in  method  point  to  a  different 
conclusion. 

It  is  admitted  that  the  method  and  apparatus  used  in  the 
experiments  herein  reported  appear  loose  and  crude  when 
compared  to  the  ingenious  methods  and  complicated  appara- 
tus used  in  the  experiments  of  Watson  and  others.  It  may 
also  be  urged  that  my  experiments  take  no  adequate  account 
of  the  question  of  'monochromatic  bands'  in  the  problem 


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VISUAL  DISCRJMINATWN.  23 

of  color  vision.  To  this  we  may  reply  that  in  the  ver>'  loose- 
ness and  naturalness  of  the  tests  is  to  be  found  perhaps  the 
strongest  evidence  of  the  discrimination  of  color  by  the 
animals  which  I  tested.  On  the  other  hand  I  would  point  to 
the  highly  artificial  character  of  the  methods  used  by  some 
experimenters.  The  complication  of  apparatus  with  its 
reflectors,  electric  shocks  and  other  appendages  is  artificial 
in  the  extreme  and  and  must  result  in  an  artificial  attitude  on 
the  part  of  the  animal.  The  tests,  with  complicated  appara- 
tus, conducted  in  a  dark  room,  bring  about  another  artificial 
and  unusual  situation,  viz.,  the  necessity  for  dark  adaptation 
by  the  animal.  The  method  employed  in  these  experiments 
leaves  to  the  animal  a  large  amount  of  freedom  and  places 
the  animal  in  a  position  as  natural  as  is  possible  in  such  work. 
If,  as  has  been  urged  by  some,  the  experiments  with  colored 
cards  and  filters  may  only  mean  that  the  animals  react  to 
brightness  or  intensity,  and  not  to  hue  relations,  we  should 
expect  an  animal  to  react  to  a  definite  relation  of  brightness 
unless  we  admit  in  animals  some  complex  form  of  the  feel- 
ing of  relation  or  a  certain  amount  of  inferential  reasoning. 
Such  an  explanation  (t.e.,  brightness  discrimination)  may  be 
justified  when  the  red-white  test  be  considered  alone.  But 
how  may  we  explain  the  results  in  the  pink-green  test?  Half 
of  the  animals  used  in  the  latter  test  made  no  mistakes. 
From  the  beginning  of  this  experiment  pink  rice  was  avoided, 
although  it  is  not  possible  that  the  animals  had  any  experi- 
ence with  red  or  pink  rice  previous  to  the  time  of  these 
experiments.  Four  of  the  animals,  therefore,  reacted  prop- 
erly to  a  hue  of  an  intensity  or  brightness,  considered 
from  the  human  standpoint,  very  different  from  that  to  which 
the  animals  had  learned  to  react.  Do  not  these  positive 
reactions  indicate  rather  clearly  that  somehow  or  in  some  way 
the  pink  rice  has  been  taken  to  be  equivalent  to  or  mean  some 
thing  similar  to  red  rice?  Do  not  these  results  rather  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  not  a  difference  in  brightness  or 
in  intensity  which  has  led  to  the  appropriate  adjustment, 
but  rather  a  difference  in  hue?  Furthermore,  the  fact  that 
in  the  pink-green  test  the  animals  took  the  green  and  avoided 


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24  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

the  pink  regardless  of  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  color 
is  evidence  that  color  as  such  was  an  important,  and  probably 
the  only,  factor  in  the  discrimination.  This  view  receives 
added  weight  from  the  similar  results  under  similar  condi- 
tions (of  approximate  brightness  and  color)  in  the  pink- 
green-yellow    tests. 

It  may,  however,  be  urged  that  the  carrying  over  of  a 
habit  from  a  red  to  a  pink  indicates  merely  a  dullness  in  dis- 
crimination, that  the  red  and  pink  may  have  been  sensed  or 
perceived  as  approximate  equivalents.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  this  may  be  so,  but  the  wide  differences  in  the  intensity 
of  the  red  and  pink  would  indicate  rather  clearly  that  the 
discrimination  (or,  compEirison,  if  you  will)  has  been  due  not 
to  simple  intensity  relations  but  to  hue  or  color  similarities. 
For  the  discussion  of  the  results  in  the  pink-green  tests,  we 
may  make  two  assumptions,  that  the  two  kinds  of  rice  were 
of  equal  or  unequal  brightness.  If  we  assume  an  equal 
brightness,  the  experiments  must,  it  seems  to  me,  be  con- 
sidered to  show  that  discrimination  has  taken  place  because 
of  difference  in  hue.  If  we  assume  the  two  kinds  of  colored 
rice  to  have  been  of  unequal  brightnesses,  we  must,  remember- 
ing the  variations  in  the  experiments  on  different  days,  con- 
sider that  the  discrimination  has  taken  place  in  spite  of  this 
variation.  The  results  then  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
discrimination  has  been  due  to  a  factor  different  to  that  of 
intensity  on  the  physical  side,  or  that  of  brightness  on  the 
mental.  The  only  other  factor  which,  in  man,  would  pro- 
duce such  a  reaction,  is  that  of  color. 

A  comparison  of  the  results  obtained  in  the  different  color 
tests  strengthens  this  view.  The  consideration  of  the  results 
in  the  white-red,  pink-green  and  pink-yellow  tests  is  instruc- 
tive. Monkeys  4,  5  and  8  which  had  one  experience  in  tast- 
ing bitter  red  rice  did  not  take  the  pink  rice  in  the  succeed- 
ing tests.  Now,  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  monkeys 
had  no  previous  experience  with  pink  rice,  and  their  avoid- 
ance of  it  can  be  accounted  for  only  on  the  assumption  that 
something  in  the  pink  rice  gave  a  clue  to  the  animal. 

The  differences  (to  us  humans,  of  course)  between  the  red 


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VISUAL  DISCRIUINATION  2$ 

and  the  white  rice  are  three-fold:  color,  intensity,  and,  akin 
to  the  latter,  reflecting  quality  or  sheen.  The  last  named 
was  due  to  the  differences  in  moisture,  the  red  rice  having 
been  soaked  in  the  quinine  solution  only  a  few  minutes  before 
the  tests  were  begun.  The  sheen  of  the  pink,  green  andyel- 
low  rice  was  the  same,  for  all  were  equally  moist  at  the  time 
of  the  experiments.  There  were,  therefore,  only  two  possible 
differences  between  these  colors,  viz.,  hue  and  intensity. 

If  the  avoidance  of  pink  is  to  be  explained,  we  must  admit 
that  it  was  due  either  to  hue  or  to  intensity.  If  it  were  due 
to  a  feeling  of  intensity  difference,  to  an  inference  (taJfing  the 
human  standpoint,  of  course)  that  darkness  means  bitter 
and  lightness  means  sweet  we  must  account  for  a  transfer 
from  the  red  (very  dark)  to  the  pink  (slightly  dark).  We 
must  also  account  for  the  transfer  in  connection  with  the 
other  stimuli  (green)  which  from  tests  was  found  to  have  an 
approximate  intensity  equal  to  that  of  pink.  So  far  as  I 
can  see  at  present,  the  only  possible  intensity  explanation 
of  this  transfer  is  that  red  has  a  low  brightness  effect  in  com- 
parison with  other  colors.  However,  we  know  that  the  inten- 
sities of  the  red  and  the  pink  rice  varied  greatly  from  each 
other,  and  we  are  forced  to  account  for  the  phenomenon  of 
transfer  on  the  basis  of  some  quality  not  so  markedly  changed. 
This,  I  believe,  is  the  hue, 

To  sum  up  we  may  say  that  the  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the 
conclusion  that  monkeys  have  the  ability  to  discriminate 
colors  as  such.  So  far  as  is  known  of  the  structure  of  the 
retina  and  of  the  remainder  of  the  visual  apparatus  there  is 
nothing  to  indicate  any  difference  to  the  human  mechanism, 
and,  from  this  point  of  view,  no  reason  exists  why  the  monkey 
family  may  not  be  able  to  differentiate  the  four  colors  red, 
green,  yellow  and  blue.  The  rapidity  of  formation  of  the 
association  between  the  light  bread  and  ^reeableness  and 
that  between  the  dark  bread  (rye)  and  disagreeableness,  as 
evidenced  by  their  selection  of  the  former  and  their  avoidance 
of  the  latter,  is  indicative  of  sharp  visual  (brightness  or 
intensity)  discrimination.  The  selection  of  one  color  and 
the  rejection  of  another  in  spite  of  differences  in  intensities 


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26  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

speaks  strongly  for  the  discrimination  of  hue.  The  transfer 
of  the  habit  from  red  to  pink  is  indicative  that  the  animals 
had  some  form  of  feeling  of  relation  or  of  similarity  between 
the  colors  as  such,  or  that  the  hue  (in  itself  and  independent 
of  intensity)  acted  as  the  appropriate  stimulus  to  inhibit  the 
tendency  to  take  the  particular  food. 

Auditory  Discrimination — Noise.  The  apparatus  used  was 
a  wooden  box  22  x  18  x  10  inches  and  a  small  board  or  slat 
18  X  3}  X  f  inches  arranged  to  strike  the  box  and  thus  make  a 
noise.  One  end  of  the  board  or  slat  was  fastened  to  the  top 
of  the  box  by  a  leather  hinge.  By  raising  the  free  epd  of  the 
slat  and  suddenly  letting  it  go,  it  struck  the  top  of  the  box 
and  made  a  sound  varying  in  loudness  with  the  force  with 
which  it  struck.  To  give  two  sounds  of  different  degrees 
of  intensity  or  loudness  two  small  sticks,  one  3  inches  in 
length,  the  other  5  inches  in  length,  were  separately  used  to 
be  placed  perpendicular  to  the  box  and  under  the  free  end 
of  the  board.  By  pressing  slightly  on  the  slat  near  the  hinge, 
and  suddenly  removing  the  shorter  stick,  the  board  would 
strike  the  box  and  produce  a  noise  of  a  noticeable  intensity, 
and  by  pressing  on  the  board  as  before,  and  withdrawing  the 
larger  stick  that  had  been  placed  at  the  free  end,  the  board 
would  strike  the  box  and  produce  a  much  louder  noise.  The 
same  pressure,  as  nearly  as  possible,  was  exerted  by  the 
experimenter  on  the  board  in  both  cases.  By  going  upon 
a  platform  arranged  inside  the  cage  when  the  louder  noise 
was  made,  the  animals  were  to  show  their  discrimination  of 
the  louder  and  lesser  noises.  They  were  fed  on  the  platform 
when  the  louder  noise  was  made,  and  were  not  fed  when  the 
lesser  noise  was  made.  The  noise  apparatus  was  manipu- 
lated near  the  closed  side  of  the  cage  in  which  the  monkeys 
were  kept.  It  was  out  of  sight  and  it  was  not  possible  that 
the  reactions  were  made  to  stimuli  other  than  the  sounds. 
The  louder  and  lesser  noises  were  made  in  an  irr^ular  order. 
Three  animals,  4,  5  and  6,  were  tested  by  this  method. 

Monkey  4  formed  the  habit  of  responding  to  the  louder 
sound  and  not  to  the  lesser  in  eight  days  of  10  trials  each, 
i.e.,  10  trials  with  each  sound)  or  in  80  trials  in  all.     In  the 


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AUDITORy  DISCmUINATION.  J? 

first  day's  trials  he  responded  to  the  louder  sound  once  in  the 
ID  trials  given  him,  and  to  the  lesser  sound  twice  in  the  same 
number  of  trials.  In  lo  trials  on  the  eighth  day  he  always 
responded  to  the  louder  noise  correctly  and  to  the  lesser 
noise  only  once  in  the  same  number  of  trials.  On  the  ninth 
day  he  made  no  errors  in  the  lo  trials  given  him.  Monkey 
6  formed  the  association  in  eleven  days  of  lo  trials  each. 
On  the  first  day  she  responded  to  the  louder  sound  three  times 
and  to  the  lesser  four  times.  On  the  eleventh  day  she  re- 
sponded to  the  louder  sound  nine  times  and  to  the  lesser 
sound  once.  She  made  no  erroi^  in  the  lo  trials  for  each 
sound  on  the  twelfth  day.  In  the  time  devoted  to  this  work 
with  number  5,  he  did  not  form  a  perfect  association.  In 
thirteen  days'  experiments  of  lO  trials  each  he  finally  came 
to  respond  to  the  loud  sound  in  about  75  F>er  cent  of  the  trials. 
His  inhibition  of  response  to  the  lesser  sound  was  less  perfect, 
or  about  50  per  cent.  Had  the  tests  been  continued  it  seems 
likely  he  would  have  become  perfect  in  discriminating  the 
two  sounds.  It  is  of  some  interest  to  note  the  apparent 
inferior  ability  of  5  in  comparison  with  4  and  6  in  this  exjjeri- 
ment.  The  work  of  5  appeared  typical  of  all  his  work  re- 
ported in  this  paper.  Inhibition  was  apparently  his  weak 
point,  for  he  responded  to  no  matter  what  form  of  stimulus. 
The  difference  illustrates  the  individual  variations  in  mental 
capacity  of  the  different  animals. 

Sound  discrimination,  Pitch.  Kalischer  (5,  p.  204  ff.)  has 
reported  experiments  on  sound  discrimination  with  dogs, 
which  animals  show  an  ability  to  discrimination  pitch.  Al- 
though interested  in  the  matter  more  from  a  physiological 
than  a  psychological  standpoint,  he  incidentally  obtained 
satisfactory  evidence  of  discrimination  of  pitch  by  his  animals. 
His  method  was  to  sound  a  certain  note  on  an  organ  or  har- 
monium as  a  sign  that  the  animal  should  react  in  a  certain 
way,  such  as  snapping  at  a  piece  of  meat.  When  a  different 
note  was  sounded  the  dog  was  not  to  react  and  was  not  fed. 
Selionyi  using  a  form  of  the  'Pawlow  method'  on  dogs  has 
also  lately  obtained  evidence  of  discrimination  by  them  of 
the  tones  of  an  organ,  organ  pipes  and  of  two  whistles.     He 


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28  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

also  was  chiefly  interested  in  sound  discrimination  from  a 
physiological  standpoint. 

In  experiments  on  auditory  discrimination  in  raccoons 
made  by  the  present  writer  in  1906,  reported  by  Cole  (16, 
p.  230)  evidence  of  pitch  discrimination  by  those  animals 
was  obtained.  In  the  experiments  on  pitch  to  be  reported 
in  this  paper  I  used  the  same  plan  that  I  had  employed  with 
the  raccoons,  and  which  is  similar  to  the  method  Kalischer 
has  used.  An  ordinary  German  mouth  harp  or  harmonica 
A  was  used.  When  I  sounded  the  higher  note,  A  3,  the 
monkey  was  to  go  upon  the  platform  used  in  the  preceding 
noise  tests,  and  was  fed  there  when  the  note  was  sounded. 
When  the  lowest  note,  A  i  (two  octaves  lower),  was  sounded 
he  was  not  to  go  up  and  was  not  fed.  The  notes  were  sounded 
in  an  irr^:ular  order  so  the  animal  might  not  react  in  a  rhythm 
to  the  sounds.  Care  was  taken  to  sound  the  notes  with  the 
same  degree  of  intensity,  as  nearly  as  possible.  I  took  the 
usual  precautions  that  the  animal  should  not  obtain  a  cue 
from  my  looks,  motions  or  in  any  other  manner,  and  react 
to  these  stimuli  rather  than  the  tones. 

The  records  for  the  different  animals  are  as  follows: 

Monkey  4  formed  the  habit  of  responding  to  the  high  note, 
A  3,  and  not  responding  to  the  low  note,  A  i ,  in  three  days 
tests  of  10  trials  each.'  On  the  first  day  monkey  4  responded 
to  the  high  note  six  times  in  10  trials,  and  not  at  all  to  the 
low  note.  On  the  third  day  he  responded  to  the  high  note 
ten  times  and  to  the  low  note  three  times.  On  the  fourth 
day  of  the  experiment  (three  days  after  the  experiments  just 
noted)  he  responded  to  the  high  note  ten  times  in  10  trials 
and  to  the  low  note  not  at  all  in  the  same  number  of  trials. 
When  tested  on  the  fifth  day,  two  days  later,  he  was  perfect 
in  10  trials. 

Monkey  6  formed  the  association  in  four  days,  in  40  trials 
in  all.  On  the  first  day  she  responded  to  the  high  note  twice 
in  ten  trials  and  to  the  low  note  not  at  all.  On  the  fourth 
day  she  responded  to  the  high  note  nine  times  and  to  the 

'  i.e.,  ten  trials  of  the  high  note  and  ten  trials  of  the  low  DOtC. 


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INHIBITION  OF  HABIT.  ag 

low  note  once  in  lo  trials  of  each  note.  In  the  lo  trials  on 
the  fifth  day  she  was  perfect. 

Monkey  5  did  not  form  the  habit  of  correct  response  in 
six  days'  tests  of  10  trials  each.  In  the  10  trials  of  high  and 
low  pitch  on  the  sixth  day  he  responded  to  the  high  note  six 
times  and  to  the  low  note  only  once. 

If  we  may  generalize  from  the  work  of  the  animals  tested 
in  the  above  experiments  we  may  conclude  that  Rhesus 
monkeys  discriminate  quantitative  differences  in  noises.  They 
also  discriminate  musical  notes  of  widely  different  pitch. 
These  experiments  also  indicate  that  monkeys  learn  to  dis- 
criminate pitch  with  considerably  more  facility  than  do 
raccoons  in  similar  tests. 

Inhibition  of  habit. 

The  activities  or  modes  of  behavior  of  animals,  including 
man,  are  of  five  kinds :  (a)  reflex  actions;  (b)  instinctive  actions ; 
(c)  habitual  actions;  (d)  intelligent  actions;  (e)  rational 
actions.  These  different  actions,  in  varying  degrees, charac- 
terize the  different  orders  of  animals.  Generally  speaking, 
the  lower  the  order  of  the  animal  the  more  the  a  form  of 
action  is  present,  and  the  higher  the  order  of  the  animal  the 
more  the  d  and  e  forms  of  action  are  present.  The  lower 
forms  are,  however,  basal  for  man  as  well  as  for  the  amoeba. 

Habitual  actions  are  seen  not  only  in  the  behavior  of 
animals  of  the  higher  orders  but  also  in  the  activities  of  man. 
Many  apparently  intelligent  actions  of  man  are  of  the  nature 
of  habit.  To  say  that  habit  dominates  man's  actions  to  a 
very  large  degree,  and  reason  to  a  very  small  degree  is  only 
to  state  the  simple  truth. 

Previous  observations  have  indicated  to  comparative  psy- 
chologists that  monkeys  and  other  mammals  have  a  marked 
tendency  to  form  habits  of  action.  This  was  well  shown 
by  Lloyd  Mot^an  and  many  others.  A  certain  perceived 
stimulus  is  followed  by  an  agreeable  or  by  a  disagreeable 
result,  and  an  animal  soon  forms  the  habit  of  reacting  in  the 
appropriate  manner  when  the  stimuli  are  given.     The  for- 


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30  WILUAU  SBEPHERD. 

mation  of  habits  is,  however,  only  one  way  of  meeting  the 
conditions  of  the  environment.  Habits  once  acquired  often 
become  useless,  and  sometimes  have  to  be  replaced  by  actions 
opposite  in  character.  In  other  words  the  inhibition  or  the 
replacement  of  a  habit  is  often  necessary  to  the  well  being 
of  an  animal  or  of  man,  and  the  ability  to  inhibit  definite 
modes  of  reaction,  including  reflex  tendencies,  is  important 
for  advancement. 

To  test  in  some  measure  the  ability  of  monkeys  to  inhibit 
a  recently  formed  habit  four  experiments  weremade.  Three 
monkeys  which  had  learned  to  discriminate  white  (normal) 
from  rye  (quinine)  bread  were  reviewed  on  this  work  daily 
for  seven  days  in  order  that  the  habit  be  firmly  established. 
A  rest  period  of  seven  days  was  given,  and  then  the  memory 
tested.  The  results  of  the  latter  test  showed  a  perfect  reten- 
tion by  all  the  animals.  On  the  succeeding  day  each  monkey 
was  presented  with  some  pieces  of  rye  bread  that  had  not 
been  soaked  in  quinine.  Then  an  experiment  was  performed 
in  which  the  rye  bread  was  not  made  bitter.  These  tests 
were  continued  for  seven  days,  lo  tests  on  each  day.  The 
results  are  given  in  Table  IV.  It  will  be  noticed  that  on  the 
first  day  monkeys  6  and  8  disregarded  the  rye  bread,  and 
monkey  8  continued  to  disregard  it  for  two  more  days. 
Monkey  7  on  the  fourth  trial  on  the  first  day  took  the  white 
bread  first  and  then  the  rye.  Five  times  thereafter  she  repeated 
this,  and  the  habit  of  refusing  the  rye  bread  when  it  was 
simultaneously  exposed  with  the  white  was  broken.  There- 
after, on  the  six  succeeding  days  of  the  experiment  she  left 
the  rye  bread  only  once. 

After  this  series  a  second  test  was  made  in  which  the 
white  bread  was  made  bitter  with  quinine.  Both  pieces  of 
bread  were  presented  simultaneously  on  a  board,  as  in  the 
previous  experiments.  The  results  of  the  tests,  10  experi- 
ments a  day  for  seven  days,  are  given  in  Table  V.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  animals  soon  learned  to  avoid  the  bitter 
bread.  The  mistake  made  by  monkey  6  on  the  second  day 
was  only  a  partial  mistake  for  the  animal  picked  up  the  white 
bread,  smelled  it  and  immediately  dropped  it.    The  inhibi- 


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INHIBITION  OP  HABIT.  3I 

tion  in  the  case  of  monkey  7  was  fixed  on  the  first  day  after 
four  mistakes  had  been  made. 

A  third  series  was  then  made  in  which  the  small  pieces  of 
bread  (white,  bitter;  rye,  normal)  were  presented  successively. 
In  these  experiments  the  animal  had  a  choice  of  taking  or 
of  leaving  the  single  piece,  white  or  rye.  The  results  are 
given  in  Table  VI.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  three  animals 
avoided  the  white  bread  on  the  first  day  of  the  experiments, 
but  that  00  the  second  all  took  the  white  at  least  once.  On 
the  second  day  monkey  6  took  the  white  bread  six  times, 
and  monkey  8  four  times.  After  these  experiments  both  ani- 
mals disregarded  the  white  bread  when  it  was  presented  to 
them  on  the  board,  even  though  they  were  very  hungry.  Only 
once  during  the  remainder  of  these  tests  did  monkey  6  touch 
the  white  bread.  On  the  fourth  day,  when  the  white  bread 
was  presented,  she  put  her  hand  through  the  wire  of  the  cage 
and  swept  the  piece  off  the  board. 

The  fourth  series  of  experiments  was  begun  after  the 
seven  days  of  series  3.  In  this  last  series  the  breads  were 
presented  to  the  animal  by  the  experimenter,  to  see  if  the 
inhibition  effect,  or  the  new  habit  of  leaving  the  white  bread 
was  associated  with  the  presentation  of  the  bread  upon  the 
board  outside  the  cage.  Each  piece  of  bread  was  taken  by 
the  experimenter  in  his  fingers  and  held  just  within  the  wire 
netting  of  the  cage.  Even  with  this  added  inducement 
monkey  6  refused  to  take  the  white  bread,  but  both  of  the 
other  animals  finally,  and  monkey  7  repeatedly,  took  it. 
In  the  70  trials  with  monkey  7,  she  took  the  white  bread 
fourteen  times.  At  the  sixth  trial  on  the  fifth  day  monkey 
7  struck  at  me  when  I  offered  her  the  white  bread,  as  if  angry 
that  it  should  be  presented  to  her.  Monkey  8  took  the  white 
bread  twice  on  the  second  day,  but  after  he  had  smelled  it  he 
dropped  it.  On  the  fifth  day  he  once  reached  toward  the 
white  bread  that  was  offered  him,  but  drew  back  before  he 
had  touched  it.  On  the  sixth  day  he  struck  at  the  white 
bread  or  at  me  just  as  he  had  monkey  7  on  the  previous  day. 
These  experiments  show,  on  the  part  of  the  monkeys 
investigated,  a  rapid  inhibition  of  a  previously  formed  habit, 


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32 


WILUAU  SBEPBERD. 


and  a  rapid  acquisition  of  a  habit  opposed  to  the  original 
habit.  The  acquisition  of  the  new  habit,  however,  took  a 
much  longer  time  than  that  of  the  original  habit,  as  can  be 
seen  from  a  comparison  of  the  results.  In  the  later  experi- 
ments so  many  new  factors,  especially  those  of  tempting  the 
animal  by  single  presentations,  were  introduced  that  the 
curves  of  learning  cannot  be  directly  compared.  It  would 
be  fair,  however,  to  compare  the  results  in  Table  V  with  those 
in  Table  I.  When  this  is  done  it  is  seen  that  the  replacement 
of  the  association  is  almost,  if  not  equally,  as  rapid  as  the 
formation.  Should  this  result  be  true  for  other  activities 
of  the  monkey,  it  would  indicate  a  rather  high  d^ree  of 
adaptivity,  which  goes  far  towards  the  production  of  appar- 
ently intelligent  actions. 


Inhibilion  of  habils.    All  monitys  had  leamtd  to  moid  quinint  (ryt)  bread;  no  quiiUiu 
in  eilkcr  bread  ft?r  this  test.     W  =  took  vkito,  R  —  toot  rye.     Ten  Ui^  tack  animal 


="..5- 

. 

. 

.    1     ,       . 

6 

W  lo 

W  8 

W  10 

W  lo 

W  lo 

W  lo 

W  to 

R  0 

R  S 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R  10 

R  lo 

R  lo 

J 

W  10 

W  lo 

W  lo 

W  lo 

W  lo 

W  10 

W  lo 

R  S 

R   ID 

R  10 

R  9 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R  lo 

g 

W  lo 

W  10 

W  10 

W  lo 

W  ro 

W  lo 

W  lo 

R  0 

R  0 

R  0 

R  8 

R  lo 

R  lo 

Inkibilion  ef  habits.  All  monkeys  had  been  practised  on  preceding  tests  (TabU  IV). 
Quinine  in  while  bread,  rye  bread  in  natitral  slate.  Simultaneous  presentation.  K 
took  rye,  W  =  took  white  bread.     Ten  trials  daily. 


■OHUTS  AND 

tWIMIMTl. 

* 

* 

' 

^ 

W  I 

W  I' 

W  I 

W  1 

W  lo' 

W  lo 

W  lo 

6 

R  10 

R  lo' 

R  10 

R  10 

R  lo* 

R  lo 

R  lo 

W  4 

W  0 

W  0 

W  o 

W  o 

W  o 

W  0 

R  lo 

R  10 

R  lo 

R  ro 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R  lo 

W  3 

W  I 

W  o 

W  o 

W  o 

W  o 

W  o 

8 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R  10 

R  lo 

R  10 

R  ro 

R  lo 

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IMITATION. 


InUHlien  of  Habiti.  All  animali  kad  httn  pretitnuly  practiied  on  txperiments  recorded 
in  Tables  IV  and  V.  Quinint  in  white  bread,  rye  bread  in  natural  slate.  Sueces- 
MM  pretenlaliont.    W  =  lack  white,  R  —  rook  rye  bread.     Ten  limes  daily. 


Momm  An 

(1U41D4W. 

^ 

* 

* 

W    I 

W    6 

W    o 

W    o 

W    a 

W    o 

W    o 

6 

R  xo 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R   lo 

R   lo 

R   lo 

R     !□ 

W    o 

W    I 

W    1 

w   s 

W    I 

W    1 

W      3 

7 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R    lo 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R   lo 

W    o 

W    4 

W    0 

W    o 

W    o 

W    o 

W    0 

8 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R   lo 

R    lo 

R  lo 

R  lo 

R   lo 

TABLE  Vn. 
Inkibition  of  Bahiis.    All  animals  kad  been  prenously  practised  on  experiments  recorded 
in  Tables  IV,  V,  and  VI.    Quinine  in  v>kile  bread,  rye  bread  in  natural  slate.    Sue- 
cetshe  presentations  tkroufk  wire  netting  of  cage  inslead  o/  outside.     W  ••  look  vhitt, 
R  "  look  rye  bread.    Ten  trials  daily. 


MOnXra    AMD 

snUlMW. 

' 

* 

* 

' 

W    o 

W    o 

W    o 

W    0 

W    o 

W    o 

W    o 

6 

R   lo 

R      !□ 

R      !□ 

R  lo 

R    lo 

R    lo 

R    to 

W    o 

W    o 

W     3 

W    s 

W      7 

W    3 

W    4 

7 

R   lo 

R   lo 

R   10 

R   10 

R    lo 

R    lo 

R   lo 

W    o 

W    1 

W    I 

W     9 

W     I 

W    o 

W    o 

8 

R   lo 

R   10 

R    10 

R  lo 

R    lo 

R   10 

R  lo 

Imitalion. 

Whether  or  not  the  higher  animals  learn  by  imitation  is  a 
mooted  question  among  comparative  psychologists.  Involv- 
ing as  it  does  the  presence  of  ideation  or  of  '  transferred 
association'  in  the  animal  mtnd,  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  this  mental  function  be  carefully  considered. 
Most  experiments  in  the  field  of  comparative  psychology  are 
inclined  to  deny  the  higher  forms  of  imitation  to  animals. 
Morgan  (7),  Thomdike  (8,  9)  Yerkes  (4),  and  Watson  (10), 
take  this  ground,  while  Kinnaman  (11),  Hobhouse  (12), 
Berry  (13),  Haggerty  (14)  and  others  believe  they  have 
found  evidence  of  imitation,  apart  from  mimicry  which  is 


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34  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

sometimes  spoken  of  as  imitation  and  which  may  be  considered 
a  reflex  adaptation  to  certain  stimuli. 

It  is  necessary  first  to  define  precisely  the  term  imitation 
as  it  is  applied  in  comparative  psychoiogy.  The  term  imita- 
tion is  used  in  a  number  of  different  senses.  First  it  is  used 
as  a  synonym  for  what  may  be  more  accurately  called  instinc- 
tive imitation.  This  is  the  form  of  imitation  shown  by  all 
animals  in  the  performance  of  certain  necessary  acts,  such  as 
that  of  a  chick  when  it  pecks  at  a  bit  of  food  on  seeing 
another  chick  do  so.  A  second  use  of  the  word  is  in  relation 
to  mass  activities  and  we  may  therefore  sp>eak  of  it  as  gre- 
garious imitation.  This  form  of  imitation  is  the  performance 
of  an  act  similar  to  that  performed  by  another  animal  of  a 
herd  or  flock,  the  latter  act  being  due  to  a  definite  stimulus 
but  the  act  of  the  imitator,  although  similar  to  that  of  the 
imitatee,  is  not  produced  by  this  same  stimulus  but  by  the 
stimulus  of  seeing  or  of  hearing  the  first  animal.  This  form 
of  imitation  is  illustrated  by  a  herd  of  buffaloes  running  off 
in  alarm  or  a  flock  of  sheep  following  their  leader  and  jump- 
ing over  an  imaginary  obstacle.  Lastly,  there  is  inferential 
or  reflective  imitation,  where  one  individual  sees  another 
perform  an  act,  realizes  or  understands  the  consequences  of 
that  act,  and  thereupon  performs  a  similar  act  with  the  idea 
of  getting  the  same  results. 

Of  the  above  forms  of  imitation  the  first  two  are  of  a  low 
order,  and  perhaps  no  comparative  psychologist  will  deny 
them  to  many  of  the  higher  animals  below  man.  The  con- 
troversy, however,  arises  regarding  the  presence  and  the 
amount  of  the  higher  form  of  imitation,  the  imitation  that 
has  been  defined  as  inferential.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
test  the  presence  of  this  form  of  imitation,  and  three  separate 
kinds  of  tests  were  made. 

An  apparatus  and  plan  similar  to  those  already  employed 
by  Hobhouse  (12,  chap,  x),  and  by  Watson  (10,  p.  175), 
with  which  the  former  obtained  positive  and  the  latter  nega- 
tive results,  were  used  by  me  in  this  work.  This  apparatus 
consists  of  a  glass  tube  or  cylinder,  15  inches  long  and  }-inch 
in  diameter,  and   a  plunger  of  wood  less  in  diameter  but 


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IMITATION.  35 

3  inches  longer  than  the  tube.  The  diameter  of  the  wooden 
plunger  was  such  that  it  could  be  readily  inserted  in  the  tube 
and  was  freely  movable.  A  piece  of  food,  usually  banana  or  a 
peanut,  placed  crosswise  in  the  tube,  was  inserted  in  the 
tube  and  pushed  down  about  half  way.  A  piece  of  food  was 
always  selected  sufficiently  large  not  to  drop  through  the 
tube  when  the  latter  was  held  in  a  vertical  position,  and  yet 
sufficiently  small  that  it  could  be  readily  displaced  when  the 
plunger  was  used  to  push  it  through  the  tube.  This  appara- 
tus was  presented  in  turn  to  eight  monkeys  and  the  imita- 
tion tests  were  begun  after  each  had  failed  to  manipulate 
it  three  times.  The  tube  and  the  stick  were  placed  in 
the  cage  with  the  animal  to  see  if  he  could  push  out  the  food 
after  his  attention  had  been  attracted  and  he  had  been  shown 
by  the  experimenter  how  the  stick  was  to  be  manipu- 
lated for  obtaining  the  banana  or  peanut.  I  endeavored  co 
have  the  monkeys  see  me  perform  the  act  at  least  three 
times  before  each  trial,  and  to  this  end  I  watched  carefully 
each  animal  while  the  exhibition  was  being  given.  If  there 
was  in  my  mind  any  doubt  that  the  animal  had  paid  close 
attention  to  the  performance  of  the  act  by  me,  I  repeated  it. 
Following  the  three  demonstrations  the  animal  was  given 
the  apparatus  for  one  minute,  and  this  amount  of  time  was 
allowed  him  in  which  to  perform  the  act.  In  the  case  of 
some  animals  these  tests  were  made  daily  and  in  the  case 
of  others  there  were  intervals  of  one  or  two  days.  The  varia- 
tion in  the  time  routine  did  not  appeju-  to  have  any  influence 
upon  the  learning.  The  number  of  trials  for  each  animal 
was  also  variable,  from  24  to  96,  each  having  seen  the  act 
performed  three  times  before  each  trial,  i.e.,  having  seen  the 
act  from  72  to  288  times. 

All  the  monkeys  failed  to  show  any  signs  of  imitation,  and 
I  was  unable  to  verify  on  these  animals  results  like  those 
reported  by  Hobhouse.  At  the  end  of  the  tests  all  animals 
acted  in  much  the  same  way  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  tests 
and  the  first  notes  may  be  used  to  indicate  the  general  charac- 
ter of  their  activity.  They  bit  at  the  food  in  the  tube,  locked 
into  the  end  of  the  tube  at  the  banana,  jerked  the  tube 


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36  WILUAU  SBEPBERD. 

around,  often  took  up  the  stick  and  bit  it;  sometimes  picked 
up  the  stick  and  threw  it  away,  dropped  the  tube,  as  if  they 
gave  it  up.  While  I  was  exhibiting  the  mechanism  an 
animal  would  watch  the  operation  closely,  and  at  the  moment 
the  food  appeared  on  the  end  of  the  tube  within  the  cage,  he 
seized  it.  Sometimes  they  attempted  to  reach  into  the  tube 
to  get  the  food.  In  this  experiment  I  also  tried  Hobhouse's 
plan  of  'suggestion.'  When  an  animal  waswrestlingwith  the 
tube  I  pointed  to  and  moved  the  stick  towards  him  to  call 
his  attention  to  it.  Thereupon,  sometimes,  an  animal  took 
up  the  stick,  but  only  to  throw  it  away  after  a  few  seconds. 
In  brief,  throughout  the  three  weeks  of  this  experiment  not 
one  of  the  animals  appeared  to  show  any  understanding  of 
the  problem,  and  any  ability  to  cope  with  it.  It  may  be 
urged  that  a  greater  number  of  trials  than  24,  the  number 
some  of  the  animals  received,  would  have  brought  success 
for  some  of  them,  but,  were  imitation  o(  this  kind  an  impor- 
tant and  a  constant  condition  In  monkeys,  this  number  of 
trials  would  have  been  sufficient  for  them  to  demonstrate 
its  presence. 

A  second  experiment  on  imitation  was  then  performed. 
This  experiment  was  also  similar  to  one  made  on  monkeys 
by  Hobhouse  (12,  chap,  x)  and  by  Watson  (10,  pp.  173,  174) 
A  T-rake,  consisting  of  a  light  handle  18  inches  long,  with  a 
cross  piece  4  inches  long  nailed  at  one  end,  and  at  right  angle 
to  the  handle,  was  used.  This  was  placed  with  the  handle 
end  through  the  wire  side  of  the  cage  and  with  the  T-end 
extending  outward  on  the  floor  of  the  room.  A  piece  of 
banana  or  a  peanut  was  placed  on  the  floor  outside  the  cage 
but  within  the  sweep  of  the  rake  when  handled  by  an  animal 
inside  the  cage.  In  this  experiment  I  wished  to  see  if  the 
monkeys  could  grasp  the  situation  of  the  use  of  the  rake. 
Two  separate  factors  of  adjustment  enter  into  this;  first, 
the  use  of  the  rake  for  the  use  of  grasping  or  reaching  out 
towards  the  food,  and,  secondly,  the  use  of  the  implement  to 
draw  the  food  nearer  the  cage  and  within  reach  of  the  hand 
itself. 

Monkeys  i ,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  were  tested  in  this  manner. 


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IMITATION.  37 

I  showed  an  animal,  by  hooking  the  T  around  the  food  and 
pushing  the  rake  forward,  but  necessarily  from  the  outside 
of  the  cage,  three  times  before  each  trial.  I  then  let  the 
animal  try  the  apparatus  for  two  minutes.  Each  of  the 
eight  animals  was  given  from  24  to  120  trials  in  the  four  weeks 
these  experiments  were  continued.  Each  animal  had  failed 
to  use  the  rake  three  times,  without  being  shown,  before  the 
imitation  tests  were  begun. 

Monkeys  i,  2,  4,  5,  6,  8,  failed  as  completely  as  in  the  pre- 
vious- experiment.  Each  seized  the  end  of  the  rake  handle 
within  the  cage,  jerked  it  around,  bit  it,  tried  to  reach  the 
food  with  their  hands  through  the  wire  of  the  cage.  Some- 
times they  became  angry  and  threw  the  rake  aside;  in  some 
cases  they  finally  gave  it  up.  I  noted,  however,  that  all  soon 
came  to  pull  the  rake  into  the  cage,  up  to  the  T,  which  was 
as  far  as  the  wire  of  the  cage  would  permit.  So  far  as  I  could 
tell,  each  animal  watched  me  closely  while  I  was  showing 
them,  appeared  to  have  much  interest  in  the  proceedings,  and 
seized  the  food  through  the  wire  of  the  cage  the  moment  it 
was  within  reach.  But  what  the  six  monkeys  did  not  do  was 
to  push  the  rake  out  and  hook  the  cross  piece  around  the 
food.  In  all  of  the  trials  with  these  six  monkeys  so  far  as  I 
could  see,  none  gave  a  sign  of  using  the  rake  as  a  tool  with 
which  to  draw  the  food  toward  the  cage.  Here  again  it 
may  be  urged  that  a  greater  number  of  trials  than  24  should 
have  been  given  to  all  animals,  but  the  simplicity  of  the 
apparatus  was  such  that  in  a  child  of  the  same  age  one  or 
two  trials  are  sufHcient  for  a  successful  imitation. 

After  several  days  tests  with  two  of  the  animals,  3  and  7, 
there  api)eared  some  evidence  of  imitation.  Monkey  3 
learned  to  push  out  the  Take,  and,  with  much  slashing  about 
of  the  T  end,  would  draw  in  the  food.  The  securing  of  the 
food  by  hooking  the  T  around  it  was,  however,  very  awkwEud 
work  for  her.  Sometimes  she  would  knock  the  peanut  away 
in  her  effort  to  pull  it  in.  On  its  being  replaced  by  me  she 
usually  succeeded  in  drawing  it  in  roughly.  The  best  that 
can  be  said  of  her  performance  is  that  she  appeared  to  learn  to 
imitate  me  perfectly  in  pushing  the  rake  out,  and  awkwardly 
in  pulling  the  food  in  with  the  rake. 


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38  WILLIAM  SHEPHERD. 

Following  is  an  account  of  the  tests  on  the  third  day.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  method  of  securing  the  food  by 
the  use  of  the  rake  was  demonstrated  three  times  before  each 
test.  On  this  day,  however,  this  demonstration  was  omitted 
after  the  seventh  test.  Trial  i  was  a  failure;  the  animal  did 
not  attempt  to  take  hold  of  the  rake  after  being  shown  three 
times.  On  the  second  trial,  however,  after  the  three  dem- 
onstrations, the  animal  grasped  the  rake,  and  moved  it 
about  in  the  direction  of  the  food.  She  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing in  the  nut  sufficiently  far  so  that  she  reached  it  and  ate 
it;  time,  85  seconds.  In  this  first  successful  attempt  she 
grasped  the  rake  awkwardly  and  did  not  at  first  seem  able 
to  manage  it,  but  eventually  she  managed  to  swing  it  around 
so  that  the  nut  was  caught  and,  as  has  been  said,  pulled  in 
the  nut  so  that  she  secured  it  by  reaching  through  the  bars 
of  the  cage.  In  the  next  trial  the  movements  of  handling 
the  rake  were  about  the  same  as  those  in  the  preceding  trial, 
although  she  had  acquired  some  facility  in  the  use  of  the  tool, 
and  managed  to  secure  the  nut  in  29  seconds.  On  the 
fourth  trial,  during  the  demonstration  she  took  hold  of  the 
rake  and  pushed  it  outwards  toward  the  food.  After  this 
demonstration  she  pushed  the  rake  outwards  in  an  apparently 
purposeful  manner  and  secured  the  nut  in  20  seconds.  The 
fifth  trial  was  similar  to  the  fourth,  but  with  an  increasing 
ease  in  adjustment  and  with  apparent  greater  facility  in  the 
use  of  the  rake.  In  8  final  trials  on  this  day  the  demonstra- 
tions were  omitted  but  the  actions  of  the  animal  were  similar 
to  those  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  fourth  and  fifth 
trials.  On  the  sixth  and  tenth  trials  the  manipulation  of  the 
rake  caused  the  nut  to  roll  further  away  from  the  cage  and 
each  time  I  replaced  it.  The  times  for  these  8  trials  were 
respectively:  15,  15,  9,  12,  24,  14,  4  and  8  seconds. 

Three  days  later,  the  fourth  day  of  the  tests,  demonstra- 
tions were  given  in  the  first  and  second  tests.  The  results, 
however,  were  similar  to  those  on  the  third  day,  but  with 
shortened  times  for  the  performance  of  the  act.  The  times 
were  as  follows:  10,  8,  3,  4, 2,  6,  7, 9,  5, 4, 3,  9,  2,  and  2  seconds. 
On  the  seventh  trial  she  managed  to  get  the  nut  only  part 


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IMITATION.  39 

way  with  the  first  puUing  movement,  but  then,  with  apparent 
intention,  she  gave  another  pull  and  brought  the  nut  within 
reach.  On  the  thirteenth  trial  the  nut  rolled  away  when 
touched  with  the  rake  but  the  animal  pushed  the  rake  out 
farther  beyond  the  nut  and  managed  to  secure  it  in  the  usual 
way. 

Monkey  7  had  failed  to  show  evidence  of  imitation  on  six 
days  of  3  trials  each  when  I  manipulated  the  rake  and  at- 
tempted to  exhibit  the  mechanism  of  securing  food.  It  was 
thought  that  the  operation  of  another  animal  might  be  imi- 
tated, and  for  this  reason  I  placed  her  with  monkey  3,  which 
at  that  time  had  learned  to  use  the  rake  with  facility.  In 
these  experiments  I  carefully  watched  monkey  7  in  order 
to  be  reasonably  certain  that  she  observed  monkey  3  perform 
the  act  with  the  rake.  Only  after  I  was  sure  the  animal 
had  been  looking  in  the  direction  of  monkey  3  while  the  latter 
performed  the  act  three  times  did  I  begin  a  test  of  monkey 
7.  At  these  times  also  I  called  attention  to  the  tool  by 
pointing  to  it  and  to  the  food.  In  each  trial  she  was  per- 
mitted two  minutes  to  perform  the  imitation  act,  and  if  it 
was  not  performed  in  that  time  I  counted  the  test  a  failure. 
The  first  five  tests  were  failures,  and  likewise  the  seventh 
and  tenth.  On  the  sixth  trial  she  pushed  the  rake  outwards 
awkardly,  but  with  such  movements  that  she  could  not 
secure  the  food.  Finally,  however,  after  79  seconds,  she 
managed  to  hook  the  cross  pieces  about  the  food  and  immedi* 
ately  pulled  it  in.  The  eighth  and  ninth  trials  were  simitar 
to  the  sixth  but  the  food  was  secured  in  20  and  8  seconds 
respectively.  The  tenth  trial  I  have  counted  a  failure,  for 
in  this  case  the  animal  pushed  out  the  rake  and  pulled  it  in 
but  did  not  manage  to  get  the  cross  piece  hooked  around  the 
food.  In  the  two  minutes  allowed  for  the  performance  of 
the  act,  she  did  not  manage  to  secure  the  food. 

On  the  second  day  of  these  tests  she  failed  to  show  by  her 
actions  any  evidence  of  imitation  in  the  second,  third,  sixth, 
ninth  and  tenth  trials.  Only  ten  seconds  were  required  for 
the  proper  performance  of  the  act  on  the  first  trial,  for  she 
immediately  manipulated  the  rake  so  that  it  caught  the  nut 


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40  WILUAU  SHEPHERD. 

and  she  pulled  it  inwards.  The  fourth,  fifth  and  seventh 
trials  were  similar,  12,  15  and  9  seconds  respectively.  Al- 
though the  eighth  trial  was  counted  a  failure  the  monkey 
did  manipulate  the  rake  properly,  but  in  pushing  it  out- 
wards the  nut  was  hit  and  rolled  farther  way.  In  the  final 
trials  of  this  day  the  animal  did  not  make  many  efforts  to 
use  the  rake,  although  two  minutes  were  allowed.  In  these 
experiments  the  movements  of  pushing  the  rake  outwards 
were  well  performed,  but  those  of  pulling  inwards  were  very 
badly  executed.  This  was  also  noted  on  the  following  day, 
when  in  6  trials,  she  manned  to  secure  the  food  four  times, 
in  17,  9,  II  and  5  seconds.  In  subsequent  trials  she  con- 
tinued to  be  incoordinate  in  the  pulling  in  movements,  but 
accurate  in  pushing  out  the  rake. 

It  may  be  said  that  monkey  7  did  not  make  the  mental 
connection  between  seeing  me  manipulate  the  rake  and  the 
idea  of  the  acquisition  of  food,  but  that  some  connection  or 
association  was  formed  between  seeing  monkey  3  perform 
the  act  and  such  an  idea  (or  what  corresponds  to  an  idea  in 
the  monkey  mind).  The  impulse  to  handle  the  rake,  to 
manipulate  it  and  to  use  it  in  connection  with  food  may  prop- 
erly be  said  to  be  due  to  her  having  seen  monkey  3  obtain 
food  by  the  use  of  this  tool.  This  impulse  or  association 
may  be  explained  as  A,  ideal,  or  B,  imitative.  In  the  present 
state  of  comparative  psychology  it  is  best  to  consider  it  the 
latter,  and  we  conclude  that  the  use  of  the  rake  by  monkey 
7  has  been  due  to  an  imitative  impulse,  the  tendency  to  per- 
form the  same  or  a  similar  act  performed  by  another. 

In  a  third  experiment  to  test  the  ability  to  imitate  the 
apparatus  used  in  a  previous  test  of  analogical  reasoning  was 
again  employed.  A  piece  of  banana  was  suspended  from  a 
pole  that  extended  across  the  room.  The  food  was  placed 
about  4  feet  from  the  floor,  high  enough  to  be  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  animal  when  it  stood  upright  on  the  floor.  A 
light  pole,  9  feet  long,  1.5  inches  in  diameter,  was  loosely 
attached  at  one  end  by  means  of  a  pivot  to  a  support  and 
extended  7  feet  across  the  open  space  of  the  room  to  a  hori- 
zontal supporting  board  (C).  which  was  2.5  feet  from  the 


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IMITATION.  41 

floor.  Figure  2  shows  the  arrangement.  On  the  horizontal 
board  the  free  end  of  the  pole  was  easily  moved,  and  by 
shifting  it  to  the  position  P-X  the  pole  was  brought  under 
the  suspended  food.  To  bring  about  this  change  it  was 
necessary  to  move  the  free  end  of  the  pole  about  3  feet,  with 
corresponding  decreases  in  the  amount  of  movement  the 
nearer  to  the  pivot  the  pole  was  grasped.  In  the  position 
P-X  the  animal  was  able  to  reach  the  food  if  it  climbed  upon 
the  pole.  The  problem  for  the  animal  was  to  slide  the  free 
end  of  the  pole  sufficiently  far  on  the  horizontal  board  or 


Fig.  1.  Diagnun  of  apparatus 
pended  banana;  B,  didiog  pole  i 
to  be  moved  in  order  tliat  the  an 

slide,  to  bring  the  pole  i 
the  pole  and  get  the  fooc 
Monkey  3  had  been  1 
of  experiments  on  anal 
had  failed  to  manipulai 
shown  how  to  manipuli 
periments  on  imitation  1 
animal  I  moved  the  p< 
of  P-X  and  permitted 
time.  After  having  bee 
moving  of  the  pole  wa; 
allowed  two  minutes  in 


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42  WILLIAM  SHEPHERD. 

act.  If  the  act  was  not  accomplished  in  that  time  I  called 
the  test  a  failure  and  repeated  the  demonstrations.  On  the 
first  day  of  this  experiment  she  succeeded  in  performing  the 
complex  adjustment  of  pole,  etc.,  four  out  of  eight  times. 
On  the  first  trial  she  moved  the  pole  awkwardly,  but  suffi- 
ciently far  that  she  was  able  to  reach  the  food;  30 seconds. 
On  the  second  trial  she  moved  the  pole  only  a  trifle  at  first, 
but  returned  to  it  and  succeeded  in  moving  it  the  required 
distance;  25  seconds.  On  the  next  trial  she  changed  the 
movement  of  pushing  to  that  of  lifting  the  p>ole  and  pushing 
at  the  same  time.  In  this  her  movements  were  awkward 
but  she  managed  to  get  the  food  in  45  seconds.  The  next 
three  trials  were  counted  as  failures,  although  in  all  of  them 
the  animal  manipulated  the  pole  and  showed  signs  of  recogni- 
tion of  the  use  to  which  the  pole  was  to  be  put.  On  the  fourth 
trial  after  having  moved  the  p>ole  a  short  distance  and  not 
obtaining  food,  she  tried  to  get  the  food  by  going  to  the  cross 
piece  from  which  the  food  was  suspended.  On  the  fifth 
trial  she  pushed  the  pole  off  the  slide,  and  could  not  get  the 
food.  On  the  sixth  trial  she  moved  the  pole  a  short  distance, 
and  refused  to  complete  the  act.  On  the  seventh  trial  she 
moved  the  pole  sufficiently  far  to  obtain  the  food,  20  seconds; 
but  on  the  eighth  trial  she  did  not  try  to  move  the  pole  or  to 
obtain  the  food. 

On  the  following  day  she  was  not  shown  how  to  manipu- 
late the  appEiratus  the  first  three  trials,  two  of  which  were 
successful,  but  was  shown  on  the  other  seven  trials.  At  first 
she  pulled  the  pole  part  way,  but  it  appeared  to  be  difficult 
work,  and  she  obtained  the  food  in  20  seconds.  The  second 
trial  she  pulled  the  pole  about  6  inches  and  stopped;  I  took 
hold  of  the  pole  and  helped  her  to  move  it  a  few  inches,  and 
then  she  made  a  great  effort  and  pulled  the  pole  sufficiently 
far  to  obtain  the  food.  The  third  trial  she  did  not  attempt 
to  move  the  pole.  The  following  seven  trials  were,  it  has 
been  mentioned,  preceded  by  three  demonstrations  each. 
In  only  the  fourth  trial  did  she  take  hold  of  the  pole,  at  other 
times  she  did  not  attempt  any  manipulation.  On  the  third 
day  of  the  tests,  six  days  following  that  just  mentioned,  she 


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IMITATION.  43 

failed  to  manipulate  the  apparatus  in  six  trials,  although  she 
was  shown  three  times  before  each  trial.  Only  once  on  this 
day  did  she  touch  the  poll.  Two  days  later,  she  failed  on 
the  first  six  trials.  On  the  seventh  she  helped  me  to  push 
the  pole  when  1  was  demonstrating  it,  and  following  this 
she  managed  to  get  the  pole  moved  by  her  own  efforts  in  68 
seconds.  On  the  eighth  trial  she  moved  the  pole  part  way 
and  obtained  the  food  in  30  seconds.  The  ninth  trial  was 
a  failure  in  two  minutes.  Seven  days  later  she  was  given 
three  trials  and  was  not  shown  how  to  manipulate  the  appara- 
tus. She  did  not  exhibit  any  signs  of  ability  to  manipulate 
the  apparatus  and  was  then  shown.  The  fourth  trial  was  a 
failure;  on  the  fifth,  she  took  hold  of  the  pole  at  the  time  I 
was  moving  it,  and  after  the  demonstrations  she  immediately 
attempted  to  move  the  pole,  which  she  managed  in  36  seconds. 
On  the  sixth  trial  she  managed  to  get  the  food  in  26  seconds. 
The  seventh  trial,  18  seconds,  and  the  eighth  trial  in  9  seconds 
were  successful.  In  the  remaining  17  trials  on  this  day 
she  gradually  lowered  the  time  for  the  performance  of 
the  act  although  her  actions  were  always  about  the  same. 
Two  days  later  there  were  no  failures  in  20  trials,  but  the 
actions  of  the  animal  in  2  of  the  trials  were  noteworthy. 
In  these  trials  the  monkey  moved  the  pole  part  way,  then 
stopped,  and  appeared  to  be  observing  the  amount  of  the 
movement  and  making  a  judgment  r^arding  the  possibility 
of  reaching  the  food  from  the  pole  in  the  position  in  which 
she  had  placed  it.  Then,  not  liking  the  position  she  moved 
the  pole  farther  and  climbed  upon  it  and  obtained  the  food. 
In  these  tests  there  was  a  gradual  learning  to  eliminate 
unnecessary  movements  and  to  perform  the  necessary  move- 
ments in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The  experiment  does  not, 
however,  wholly  belong  to  the  type  of  learning  of  trial  and 
error,  for,  as  has  been  remarked,  the  monkey  moved  the  pole 
properly  the  first  time  she  attempted  to  do  so.  There  was 
no  previous  groping  for  a  something,  no  fumbling  with  any- 
thing but  the  pole.  The  attention,  so  far  as  shown  in  action 
was  directed  to  the  pole.  There  was  an  immediate  grasp 
of  the  situation,  and  this  coming  after  she  had  been  shown 


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44  WILUAU  SBBPHERD. 

that  the  food  was  to  be  reached  by  changing  the  position  of 
the  pole  is  taken  as  evidence  of  imitation.  The  fact  that  in 
later  tests  she  failed  to  F>ay  attention  to  the  pwle  and  to 
attempt  to  move  it  does  not  mean  that  she  could  not  imitate, 
but  it  is  well  known  that  the  monkey  is  extremely  variable  in 
its  actions,  and  its  attention  is  held  with  difficulty.  We  know 
that  in  the  production  of  habit,  as  many  observers  have 
pointed  out,  there  is  not  a  gradual  shortening  of  the  time  of 
reaction  as  in  the  case  of  cats  and  dogs,  but  that  the  time  for 
the  performance  of  an  act  is  extremely  variable.  It  is  this 
factor  of  variability  due  to  elements  such  as  lack  of  hunger, 
etc.,  which  seems  to  me  to  account  for  the  lack  of  attention 
to  the  problem.  It  is  further  to  be  noted  that  in  the  success- 
ful trials  she  used  a  variety  of  means  for  the  accomplishment 
of  the  end;  sometimes  she  pushed  the  ptole  unhesitatingly 
through  the  required  distance;  at  times  she  pulled  it,  and  at 
times  she  pulled  and  pushed  it.  The  variety  of  action  indi- 
cates that  the  performance  of  the  act  is  not  like  that  of  a  habit 
formation,  but  that  of  attempting  to  accomplish  an  object 
in  any  manner  that  this  could  be  done.  The  performance 
of  the  act  was  awkwEU'd,  but  there  appeared  to  be  imitation 
of  a  relatively  high  order. 

In  the  experiments  that  have  been  described  evidence  of 
imitation  by  monkeys  3  and  7  was  found  in  the  second  experi- 
ment of  the  series.  These  two  monkeys  and  the  other  mx 
failed  to  show  signs  of  imitation  in  the  first  experiment  and  I 
failed  to  find  any  signs  of  imitation  on  the  part  of  the  six 
monkeys  in  the  second  experiment.  When  these  results  are 
combined,  I  think  they  indicate  in  a  general  way  that  some 
monkeys  may  and  do  learn  by  imitation.  The  amount  of 
imitation  is  not  shown,  but  the  fact  that  in  so  many  simple 
experiments  negative  results  were  obtained  indicates  that 
these  animals  do  not  imitate  to  the  extent  that  has  been 
ascribed  to  them.  We  are,  I  believe,  justified  in  concluding 
that  imitation  is  a  mental  funcdon  of  the  monkey  or  of  some 
monkeys,  although  the  results  of  my  experiments  may  be 
interpreted  to  mean  that  imitation  does  not  play  a  very 
important  part  in  their  learning  process. 


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Ideation. 

The  evolution  and  anecdote  schools  attribute  ideation  of 
a  comparatively  high  order  to  the  animals  with  brains  similar 
to  that  of  man,  and  they  hold  that  ideas  similar  to  those  of 
man  play  an  important  part  in  animal  behavior.  They  base 
this  belief,  however,  upon  uncontrolled  observation  and  upon 
flimsy  and  circumstantial  evidence  and  not  upon  controlled 
experiments  and  unequivocal  facts.  The  evolutionists  also 
appear  to  believe  it  necessary  to  attribute  ideas  to  animals, 
else  the  doctrines  of  a  progressive  mental  development  would 
not  coincide  with  that  of  the  physical  development.  On  the 
other  hand,  others,  mainly  experimenters,  hold  that  the 
casual  observations  do  not  indicate  animal  ideation  and  the 
same  facts  are  interpreted  differently.  Special  tests  have 
given  negative  results  and  from  these  and  from  the  careful 
observation  of  animals  in  laboratory  surroundings  they  con- 
clude that  animal  ideation  is  not  proven,  and  that  the  present 
evidence  tends  to  indicate  an  absence  or  a  lack  of  ideas  in 
the  animal  mind.  Some,  however,  are  willing  to  admit  that 
animals  may  have  ideas,  although  in  small  number,  but  are 
forced  to  conclude  that  ideas  are  a  very  unimportant  element 
in  minds  below  that  of  man.  It  is  true  that  for  the  most 
part  the  experiments  of  these  men  have  not  been  special 
tests  for  ideation,  but  tests  for  other  reactions  in  which  idea- 
tion, if  present,  should  or  might  have  been  exhibited. 

Before  passing  to  the  evidence  of  ideation,  it  seems  well 
to  dehne  the  term  'idea'  and  thus  to  have  a  precise  notion 
of  what  we  should  look  for  in  animal  behavior.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  comparative  psychology  an  idea  may  be  dehned  in 
the  following  ways:  a,  an  image  or  picture  of  a  visual  object 
which  is  formed  by  the  mind ;  b,  a  general  notion  or  concep- 
tion; c,  a  plan  or  purpose  of  action  or  an  intention;  d,  idea  in 
the  sense  of  an  understanding  of  a  certain  relation  or  situa- 
tion (as  of  sensible  objects).  If,  therefore,  an  animal  ex- 
hibits any  of  the  mental  conditions  noted  above  we  may 
conclude  that  ideation  is  present. 

A  simple  test  for  ideation  was  made  with  animals  i,  2 


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46  WILLIAM  SHEPHERD. 

and  3.  A  board  20  inches  long  and  3j-inches  wide  was 
placed  with  one  end  against  the  side  of  the  cage  and  within 
reach  of  the  animal  with  the  other  end  extending  outwards 
from  the  cage  and  beyond  reach.  Food  was  placed  at  the 
farther  end.  The  object  of  the  tests  was  to  determine  if  an 
animal  would  understand  the  situation  and  be  able  to  secure 
the  food  by  the  indirect  method  of  pulling  at  the  board  near 
the  cage  rather  than  by  directing  its  efforts  at  the  food  or 
the  food  end  of  the  board  which  was  beyond  reach.  In  the 
first  trial  monkey  3  after  some  testing  of  the  openings  of  the 
wire  netting,  seized  the  board  awkwardly  near  the  end  with- 
in reach,  pulled  the  board  alongside  the  cage  and  secured 
the  food,  30  seconds.  In  this  trial  the  attention  for  only  a 
few  seconds  was  directed  to  the  food  position  but  was  directed 
mainly  to  the  end  of  the  board  that  did  not  contain  the  food. 
The  actions  of  the  animals  in  manipulating  the  board  were 
awkward  but  only  in  the  method  of  reaching  for  and  hand- 
ling it.  The  actions  were  directed  to  the  board,  and  not  to 
the  food,  and  it  appears  that  here  is  an  example  of  an  under- 
standing of  a  situation,  a  direction  of  action  to  an  end  not- of 
special  interest  in  the  situation.  In  the  second  and  third 
performances  she  duplicated  her  actions,  but  with  shorter 
times  for  its  accomplishment  because  the  awkwardness 
largely  disappeared  and  because  the  preliminary  direction 
of  attention  to  the  food  was  absent,  20  and  10  seconds.  In 
later  tests  she  continued  to  react  with  complete  success, 
reducing  the  time  to  three  seconds  in  the  fifth  trial,  which 
time  includes  that  for  the  manipulation  of  the  board  and  the 
securing  of  the  food.  Monkey  i  succeeded  in  the  third 
trial  but  showed  more  misdirected  efforts  than  did  monkey 
3.  The  third  animal  also  managed  to  perform  the  necessary 
acts  to  secure  the  food  in  the  third  trial,  but  the  actions  were 
more  awkward  and  poorly  directed  than  those  of  monkeys 
I  and  3. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  test  there  were  many  unnecessary 
movements  on  the  part  of  each  animal,  but  this  awkward- 
ness or  lack  of  understanding  of  how  to  deal  with  the  situa- 
tion was  mainly  that  of  motor  adjustment.     It  was  a  diffi- 


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culty  in  dealing  with  the  board  through  the  wire  netting  of 
the  cage  and  not  a  difficulty  or  a  lack  of  understanding  of 
the  problem,  viz.,  of  reaching  for  and  of  manipulating  the 
board.  In  the  first  trial  of  monkey  3  the  animal  directed 
its  attention  to  the  board  near  the  cage,  and  showed  that 
it  appreciated  the  relation  between  this  part  of  the  board 
and  the  securing  of  food.  The  later  reduction  in  time  for 
the  performance  of  the  act,  which  at  first  sight  makes  the 
experiment  appear  to  be  only  another  instance  of  learning 
by  trial  and  error,  was  mainly  that  of  a  proper  adjustment 
of  arms  and  hands  to  the  wire  netting  and  not  that  of  attack- 
ing the  board  at  the  proper  place. 

These  results  indicate  the  presence  of  ideas  of  the  above 
described  third  or  fourth  class,  i.e.,  a  plan  of  action  or  an 
understanding  of  a  situation.  It  was  apparent  that  from 
the  first  the  animal  understood  that  the  food  could  not  be 
reached  directly  but  must  be  obtained  by  an  indirect  attack 
on  some  other  part  of  the  apparatus.  There  was  in  this 
case  no  general  activity  such  as  has  been  described  by  numer- 
ous investigators  in  connection  with  the  puzzle  box  experi- 
ments; the  trying  here  and  the  pulling  there  were  notably 
absent,  and  the  attention  of  the  animal  was  concentrated  on 
the  board  and  on  the  getting  the  food.  For  a  few  seconds 
after  the  board  and  food  were  displayed  the  hungry  animai 
would  reach  in  vain  for  the  food  which  was  beyond  its  reach, 
but  this  unsuccessful  method  was  given  up  and  the  attack 
directed  to  the  board  on  which  the  food  was  placed.  It  is 
also  of  great  importance  to  note  that  the  attack  was  directed 
not  to  the  part  of  the  board  on  which  the  food  was  placed, 
but  to  the  part  of  the  board  away  from  the  food. 

The  simplicity  of  the  situation  may  be  urged  as  an  argu- 
ment against  the  presence  of  ideation  in  solving  the  problem, 
but  I  would  again  call  attention  to  the  ordinarily  complex 
character  of  similar  experiments  that  have  given  negative 
results  to  other  observers.  In  such  experiments  we  must 
steer  clear  of  both  an  absolute  simplicity  and  of  a  complexity 
abnormal  to  the  animal.  We  must  test  the  animal  under 
conditions  which  are  within  its  mental  range  and  which  will 


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48  WILLIAM  SBEPBERD. 

show  the  ability  to  reason.  It  is  equally  bad  to  set  impossible 
conditions  and  to  draw  unsupported  conclusions,  and  in 
both  these  ways  comparative  psycholt^sts  have  attempted 
to  solve  the  problem  of  animal  reason  and  ideation.  To 
conclude,  for  example,  that  a  dog  or  a  monkey  possesses 
no  power  of  ideation  or  of  reasoning  because  it  does  not 
thread  a  needle  when  the  needle  and  thread  are  supplied 
or  because  it  does  not  unlock  a  door  when  the  key  is  pre- 
sented is  to  limit  the  terms  ideation  and  reason  to  the 
ability  to  perform  certain  activities  connected  with  a  certain 
class  of  civilized  man.  The  examples  cited  are^  perhaps, 
extremes  but  they  illustrate  the  attitude  of  a  certain  class 
of  experimentalists.  On  the  other  hand,  to  conclude  that 
a  cat  reasons  because  it  attracts  attention  by  scratching  on 
the  window  pane  or  because  it  manages  to  strike  an  electric 
button  for  the  opening  of  the  door  is  to  take  no  account  of 
the  possibility  of  previous  training  of  the  nature  of  trial  and 
error.  We  should  steer  between  the  two  extremes  and  test 
the  so-called  higher  powers  of  animals  by  presenting  to  them 
conditions  appropriate  to  the  class.  In  the  simple  experi- 
ment described  in  this  section  and  in  others  to  be  described 
in  the  section  on  reasoning  (p.  52  ff.)  the  conditions  are  appro- 
priate to  the  monkey  family.  We  have  presented  to  the 
animal  a  new  problem  which  it  must  solve,  a  set  of  condi- 
tions to  be  dealt  with  in  order  that  a  resultant  pleasure 
(hunger  satisfaction)  ensue.  In  the  solution  of  the  problem 
the  animals  took  a  direct  path.  There  was  none  of  the  fum- 
bling or  groping,  no  trying  here  and  there,  no  attempts  upon 
other  parts  of  the  c^e  or  its  surroundings,  but  a  direct 
attack  upon  the  boEird  that  held  the  food. 

Somewhat  similar  actions  were  observed  and  noted  above 
in  connection  with  the  food  box  experiments.  After  the 
previously  ignorant  (so  far  as  the  food  box  is  concerned) 
monkeys  had  been  fed  from  the  food  box  a  few  times  so  they 
might  become  acquainted  with  the  location  of  the  food,  the 
doors  were  closed.  Then  began  an  attack  upwn  the  doors, 
not  upon  the  wire  netting  of  the  sides  of  the  cage.  The 
animals  remained  active  about  the  doors  of  the  food  boxes; 


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IDEATION.  49 

they  did  not  sit  sulkily  upon  the  platform  in  the  cage;  the 
attention  was  directed  to  the  doors  of  the  food  boxes.  Thom- 
dike  indicates  a  belief  that  the  attention  of  his  cats  was 
directed  to  the  string  or  to  the  button  because  the  movement 
in  connection  with  these  parts  of  the  appliances  was  followed 
by  a  pleasure.  With  ray  monkeys,  however,  the  attention 
of  the  animals  could  not  have  been  directed  to  the  doors  of 
the  food  boxes  on  account  of  a  pleasure  in  connection  with  a 
movement,  for  the  animals  did  not  have  to  perform  any 
movements  (except  those  of  taking  the  food  from  the  boxes) 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  food  boxes,  and  in  connection  with 
the  doors  there  were  no  movements  to  be  performed.  In 
these  cases  there  was  no  activity  in  the  region  of  the  food 
boxes  or  of  the  doors  which  could  become  associated  with  a 
pleasure.  The  attention  must  then  be  due  to  something 
different  from  the  movement-pleasure  association;  and  it 
seems  probable  that  there  is  some  form  of  ideation  to  account 
for  it. 

In  the  brightness  tests  interesting  behavior  on  the  part  of 
monkey  3  was  observed.  As  has  been  explained  above,  the 
doors  were  opened  by  turning  a  button  and  thus  food  was 
secured.  After  several  days'  experiments  monkey  3  began 
to  close  the  door  of  her  own  accord  instead  of  waiting  for 
me  to  close  it  preparatory  to  another  trial.  Before  I  could 
close  the  door  after  she  had  opened  it  she  would  close  it. 
This  would  expedite  the  getting  of  food.  It  soon  became 
almost  an  habitual  custom  for  her  to  close  the  door,  and  in 
the  remaining  tests  she  did  so  from  three  to  ten  times  each 
day  throughout  the  experiments.  Why  should  an  animal 
close  the  door  if  it  was  not  with  some  design  or  intention 
(perhaps  vague)  of  hurrying  the  food-getting  process?  It 
seems  too  parsimonious  and  even  inadequate  to  call  this 
kind  of  reaction  a  mere  reflex.  In  the  puzzle  box  experi- 
ment the  same  animal  and  two  others,  monkeys  I  and  2, 
often  attempted  to  hold  open  the  door  with  their  hands  and 
this  kind  of  action  was  recorded  many  times  throughout  the 
series.  At  first  I  was  inclined  to  consider  this  action  as  a 
reflex  but  it  is  overworking  the  meaning  of  the  term  reflex 


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so  WILLIAM  SHEPHERD. 

to  use  it  to  explain  or  to  describe  the  actions  of  the  three 
animals  in  this  particular.  Somewhat  similar  behavior  in  a 
different  situation  was  also  noted  with  monkey  8.  In  test- 
ing his  color  discrimination  with  colored  rice  and  breads,  the 
food  was  placed  on  a  block  about  a  foot  away  from  the  cage 
and  then  moved  close  to  the  cage  so  that  he  could  readily 
reach  the  food  through  the  wire  netting.  When  the  food  was 
taken  or  rejected  the  block  was  moved  backwards  a  short 
distance  preparatory  to  placing  food  upon  it  for  another 
trial.  During  the  first  few  experiments  he  acted  as  most 
of  the  monkeys  do,  viz.,  mov^  away  from  the  side  of  the 
cage  as  soon  as  the  food  was  obtained.  After  he  had  learned 
to  discriminate  the  colors,  however,  it  was  noted  that  he 
began  to  push  the  block  away  after  having  taken  the  appro- 
priate food.  This  he  continued  to  do  during  the  remaining 
trials  on  that  day.  The  actions  of  monkey  8  in  this  case 
had  all  the  appearances  of  an  understanding  of  the  situation 
and  a  desire  to  hurry  the  getting  of  food.  It  is  of  consider- 
able importance  in  this  connection  to  bear  in  mind  that  the 
performance  of  this  action  was  sudden  and  not  a  gradual 
growth  and  not  the  result  of  trial  and  error. 

The  actions  of  the  three  animals  in  the  situation  of  the 
diagonally  placed  board,  the  actions  of  monkey  3  In  closing 
the  door  of  the  food  box  and  the  actions  of  monkey  8  in  push- 
ing away  the  block  on  which  food  was  placed  have  a  similar 
appearance.  Were  we  not  obsessed  by  the  law  of  parsimony 
we  would  immediately  say  that  these  actions  show  the 
presence  of  ideas  in  these  animals,  ideas  of  the  highest  form. 
We  are,  however,  in  keeping  with  the  law  of  parsimony,  quite 
justified  in  saying  that  the  actions  indicate  the  presence  in 
the  minds  of  the  animals  of  a  something  very  much  like  an 
idea  in  the  human  sense,  a  something  that  has  for  the  animal 
a  function  or  a  use  similar  to  an  idea  in  man.  This  'some- 
thing' may  be  crude  and  simple,  and  doubtless  it  is  analyzed 
by  the  animal,  but  it  serves  practical  purposes.  These 
somethings  may  be  termed,  as  does  Hobhouse,  practical 
ideas;  they  may  be  partly  sensory-motor  reactions,  and  may 
be  partly  instinctive,  and  in  part  they  may  be  accounted  for 


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REASOtHNG.  SI 

by  the  superior  equipment  of  the  monkey  in  coordinated 
vision  and  in  the  use  of  the  hands.  The  evidence  of  the 
ability  to  imitate  supports  the  view  of  the  presence  of  these 
practical  ideas,  and  in  the  section  of  this  paper  on  adaptive 
intelligence  (p.  54  ff.)  will  be  found  additional  evidence. 
The  fact  that  only  a  few  of  the  animals  exhibited  anything 
like  the  actions  described,  and  each  animal  only  a  few,  indi- 
cates that  these  'practical  ideas'  play  a  subordinate  and  unim- 
portant rdle  in  the  ordinary  life  of  the  animal,  but  they  do 
indicate  that  ideas  may  be  present  and  have  effect  under 
certain  circumstances. 

Reasoning. 

It  was  formerly  held  that  man  alone  possesses  reasoning 
power;  other  animals  only  instinct.  Comparative  psy- 
chology has  modified  the  older  view  of  instinct,  viz.,  that  it 
is  a  mysterious  power,  perfect  at  birth,  unerring,  unchangeable 
in  its  working,  and  radically  different  from  intelligence.  It 
has  given  the  term  a  more  precise  definition  by  limiting  it 
in  various  ways,  e.g.,  from  reflex  action  and  habit  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  higher  mental  processes  on  the  other.  But 
comparative  psychology  has  not  materially  changed  the 
general  view  that  reason  is  confined  to  man.  And  the 
generally  accepted  position  is  that  the  observed  actions  of 
animals  may  be  explained  as  the  results  of  simple  associations. 
Some  experimentalists  have  found  material  facts  that  indi- 
cate to  them  reasoning  ability  on  the  part  of  some  animals, 
but  this  conclusion  is  not  accepted  by  others.  Here  again, 
as  in  considering  the  subject  of  ideation,  it  is  necessary  to 
define  what  we  mean  by  the  term  reason.  This  word  has 
been  used  in  a  variety  of  ways  and  the  following  definitions 
include  the  most  important  of  the  meanings  that  have  been 
given  to  the  term.  A,  implied  reasoning  (Harris),  e.g.,  my 
recognition  of  yonder  horse;  B,  inference  from  particular  to 
particular  (James),  e.g.,  the  bird  which  finds  bread  upon  the 
window  one  morning  comes  back  the  next  morning;  C, 
adaptive  intelligence,  the  ability  to  adapt  to  our  purposes 
conditions  more  or  less  difficult  and  more  or  less  unfamiliar; 


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52  WILUAU  SHEPBEXD. 

D,  analogical  reasoning,  whicli  involves  construction  or 
creation,  e.g.,  to  reacli  an  upper  window  I  utilize  a  ladder 
which  I  hnd;  E,  rational  thinking  (James);  F,  formal  or 
syllogistic  reasoning. 

That  the  higher  mammals  possess  the  ability  to  reason  in 
the  first  two  senses,  probably  no  comparative  psychologist 
will  deny,  although  the  explanation  of  the  process  may  differ. 
Implied  reason  is  probably  a  function  of  all  animals  and  the 
ability  to  infer  from  particular  to  particular  is  well  shown  in  all 
the  experiments  in  habit  production.  It  is  the  higher  level  of 
constructive  analogical  reasoning  concerning  which  there  is  dis- 
pute. Has  the  animal  power  to  create  or  to  construct?  Hob- 
house  in  some  very  interestingexperiments,c1aimsto  have  found 
satisfactory  evidence  of  the  presence  in  animals  of  this  class 
of  reasoning.  He  calls  the  mental  states  that  lead  to  this 
form  of  reasoning  articulate  ideas,  and  he  has  satisfied  him- 
self that  these  are  present  in  some  monkeys  and  apes. 

With  the  purpose  of  confirming  the  work  of  Hobhouse  I 
made  experiments  on  three  monkeys  which  had  been  exten- 
sively used  in  the  previously  described  work  on  discrimina- 
tion, etc.,  and  with  which  I  found  it  most  easy  to  experiment. 

The  first  experiment  was  one  similar  to  the  box  and  the 
chair  experiments  of  Hobhouse.  Food  was  suspended  by  a 
string  from  a  long  pole  reaching  across  the  room,  too  high 
for  the  monkeys  to  reach  or  to  grasp  by  standing  or  by  jump- 
ing. A  light  box  was  placed  near  the  point  of  suspension, 
but  sufBciently  far  away  that  the  animal  could  not  reach 
the  food  by  standing  upon  the  box.  Only  when  the  box  was 
moved  and  the  animal  climbed  upon  it  could  the  food  be 
secured  by  the  animal.  Each  of  the  three  monkeys  were 
given  three  trials,  in  each  of  which  five  minutes  were  allowed 
for  the  performance  of  the  act.  At  the  time  the  experiments 
were  made  the  animals  were  hungry  and  apparently  each 
watched  me  attentively  when  I  fastened  the  piece  of  banana 
to  the  end  of  the  string  and  suspended  it.  When  all  had 
been  arranged  the  animal  was  permitted  to  approach  the 
food  and  to  secure  it  if  possible.  The  actions  of  the  animals 
were  similar.     Sometimes  the  animal  tried  to  reach  the  food 


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REASONING.  S3 

by  jumping,  sometimes  after  the  unsuccessful  attempts  the 
animal  would  have  a  puzzled  look  and  finally  gave  up  attempt- 
ing to  secure  the  food.  None  of  the  animals  seemed  to  notice 
the  box  and  none  made  the  attempt  to  use  It  as  a  means  of 
reaching  the  food.  In  their  actions  there  was  nothing  that 
I  could  interpret  as  a  sign  of  deliberation  or  reflection,  and 
in  this  experiment  I  was  unable  to  verify  the  results  of  Hob- 
house.  It  is  possible  that  the  box  appeared  too  heavy  for 
them  to  move,  but  I  did  not  notice  any  indication  that  ithad 
been  observed,  or  rather  observed  in  connection  with  the  food. 
That  the  box  was  not  too  heavy  was  shown  by  the  fact  that 
a  similar  and  equally  heavy  box  was  being  constantly  moved 
by  monkeys  in  a  large  adjoining  cage.  Failure  to  secure 
evidence  of  reasoning  in  this  experiment  may  have  been  due 
to  the  fact  that  I  did  not  continue  the  experiment  so  long  as 
did  Hobhouse. 

A  second  exp>eriment  was  then  tried.  This  experiment 
has  been  described  in  connection  with  the  observations  on 
imitation,  and  the  apparatus  is  illustrated  on  page  42,  fig.  2. 
The  animal  had  to  move  a  long  pole,  pivoted  at  one  end, 
under  the  suspended  food  in  order  to  secure  the  food.  In 
all  the  experiments  of  this  kind  (three  for  each  of  the  three 
animals)  there  was  no  evidence  of  ability  to  grasp  the  situa- 
tion and  to  solve  the  problem.  In  one  trial  an  animal  climbed 
upon  a  cage  which  was  near  and  jumped  from  it  to  the  food. 
In  general,  however,  each  animal  made  unsuccessful  attempts, 
most  of  them  directed  toward  the  food,  and  in  each  test 
finally  appeared  to  give  up  trying.  Two  months  later  one 
of  the  animals  (monkey  3)  was  again  given  three  trials  pre- 
vious to  the  imitation  tests  and  failed. 

Adaptive  intelligence. 

Although  no  direct  evidence  of  analogical  reasoning  was 
obtained  in  the  tests  just  described,  other  experiments  on 
reasoning  gave  interesting  results.  Those  which  are  recorded 
in  this  section  deal  with  adaptive  intelligence,  the  reason  as 
defined  in  the  third  class. 


dbyGOCKj 


54  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

A  piece  of  twine  was  permitted  to  hang  in  front  of  and 
12  inches  away  from  the  cage,  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
longest  armed  animal  which  was  tested.  At  the  end  of  the 
twine  a  piece  of  banana  was  arranged ;  a  thin  piece  of  wood 
was  pushed  through  the  banana  and  turned  so  that  one  end 
could  be  grasped  by  an  animal  in  the  c^e.  By  grasping  and 
pulling  the  stick  inwards  the  food  was  secured.  All  the 
animals  were  tested  in  this  experiment.  The  results  with 
all  except  one  of  the  animals  were  similar,  and  a  description 
of  the  actions  of  one  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  whole.  As 
scon  as  the  banana  and  stick  were  arranged  monkey  6  put 
her  arm  through  the  wireof  the  cage,  seized  the  end  of  the  stick, 
drew  it  toward  her  and  secured  the  banana.  This  experi- 
ment was  repeated  a  number  of  times  and  in  all  there  was  a 
similar  immediate  characteristic  response.  There  appeared 
to  be  a  decided  adaptation  of  means  to  end.  No  efforts 
were  wasted  upon  random  movements.  It  did  not  appear 
that  any  preliminary  attempt  was  made  to  grasp  or  even  to 
reach  for  the  food,  but  there  was  an  immediate  movement 
toward  the  stick.  The  results  for  all  animals  are  given  in 
table  VIII,  in  which  is  shown  the  approximate  time  for  the 
performance  of  the  act  by  each  animal  in  each  trial.  The 
absence  of  hesitation,  the  direction  of  the  movement  away 
from  the  food  and  towards  the  stick,  and  the  promptness  with 
which  the  food  was  secured  speak  for  the  presence  of  adaptive 
intelligence  in  ten  of  the  monkeys.  It  would  seem  that  this 
is  almost  always  found  in  these  animals. 

In  this  test  the  results  with  monkey  5  were  decidedly 
different  from  those  with  the  other  animals,  in  that  he  failed  in 
the  trials  given  htm.  Monkeys  i  and  4  had  considerable 
difficulty  in  getting  the  food  in  the  first  and  second  tests, 
but  there  was  no  gradual  acquisition  of  the  method  of  secur- 
ing food  with  the  other  eight  animals.  The  times  for  solving 
the  problem  in  the  second  and  third  tests  were  approximately 
the  same  as  those  in  the  first  tests  for  monkeys  2,  6  and  10, 
and  there  was  not  much  difference  in  the  time  between  the 
first  and  the  later  tests  for  monkeys  3,  7,  8,  9  and  1 1 .  Much, 
if  not  all,  the  difference  in  time  can  be  accounted  for  by  the 


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better  adjustment  to  the  wire  netting  of  the  cage,  the  push- 
ing of  the  hand  through  in  the  proper  place,  etc. 


AiafUte  tHldUioiee,  suifeitdad  food  and  aiek.     Three  or  six  trials  each  animal, 
Timt  tn  stconds;  /  «    faiUd. 


™»i.A«. !    ,  !    . 

. 

5        e 

1     60 

■o 

3 

- 

_ 

4 

3 

3 

— 

— 

1      30 

6 

9 

— 

— 

'"f 

f. 

_ 

_ 

_ 

6 

7 

4 

3 

, 

, 

, 

3 

4 

3 

3 

3 

9 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

A  second  test  of  the  presence  of  adaptive  intelligence  was 
made  as  follows:  A  light  wooden  lever  B,  18.5  inches  long 
was  attached  by  leather  hinges  at  one  end  to  a  board  A  which 
rested  upon  the  floor  The  hinge  of  the  lever  was  4  inches 
from  the  end  of  the  horizontal  board,  well  within  reach  of 
the  animals.  The  lever  was  inclined  at  an  angle  of  approxi- 
mately 45  degrees  from  the  horizontal,  and  could  be  moved 
forwards  in  a  vertical  plane.  Fig.  3  illustrates  the  apparatus 
in  relation  to  the  front  of  a  cage.  The  apparatus  was  placed 
outside  a  cage,  the  lower  end  of  the  lever  being  within,  the 
upper  being  beyond  the  reach  of  the  animal.  A  piece  of 
banana  or  other  food  was  placed  at  the  farther  end  of  the 
lever,  and  the  problem  for  the  animal  to  solve  was  how  to 
secure  the  food  which  was  beyond  direct  reach. 

Eleven  monkeys  were  tested  with  this  apparatus,  and  all 
with  the  exception  of  monkey  4  succeeded  in  the  first  test. 
In  the  first  test  the  animals  usually  took  a  longer  time  to  get 
the  food,  but  as  in  the  previous  experiment  this  delay  was 
largely  one  of  making  the  adjustment  of  hand  to  the  proper 
opening  in  the  wire  netting  and  not  to  attacking  the  apparatus 


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56  WILLIAM  SHEPHERD. 

in  the  proper  manner.  In  the  case  of  monkey  4,  he  appeared 
frightened  at  the  time  of  the  hrst  trial  and  I  showed  him  that 
food  was  to  be  secured  by  moving  the  lever  against  the  cage 
and  permitting  him  to  secure  the  food.  In  the  succeeding 
trials  he  immediately  attacked  the  lever  and  obtained  the 
food  in  the  same  manner  as  the  other  animals.  Monkey  9 
was  in  the  same  cage  as  monkey  8  when  the  latter  wasbeing 
tested  and  may  have  taken  the  opportunity  to  observe 
monkey  8.  That  she  performed  the  trick  may  have  been 
due  to  imitation,  but  I  have  credited  her  with  having  per- 
formed it  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  animals.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  monkey  4  would  have  been  able  to 


e  iDtelligence  C,  leather  hinges;  B., 

manipulate  the  apparatus  without  being  shown  if  sufficient 
time  had  been  allowed.  However,  in  whichever  way  it  be 
conceived  that  the  animal  performed  the  trick  we  have  a 
mental  something  very  much  like  imitation  or  like  adaptive 
intelligence.     In  many  of  the  experiments  the  animals  did 

TABLE  IX. 
Aiaplitt  intdUgaice,  leter  lesl.     Time  in  seconds;  /  »  failed. 


' 

, 

9 

4 

i 

t 

6 

4 

3 

3 

^i 

t 

4 

t 

6 

3 

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REASONING.  57 

not  use  both  hands  for  the  moving  of  the  lever,  but  one  hand 
for  the  lever  and  the  other  for  securing  the  food  when  the 
upper  part  of  the  lever  was  within  reach.  Table  IX  gives 
the  time  records  of  four  monkeys  in  this  experiment,  those 
for  the  other  animals  were  approximately  the  same  as  those 
noted  in  the  table,  although  no  accurate  measurement  by 
watch  was  taken. 

A  third  experiment  was  then  made.  A  stick  22  inches 
long,  with  I  inch  extending  into  the  cage  and  the  other  out- 
wards from  the  cage  at  a  right  angle,  was  arranged  so  that  food 
could  be  secured  by  drawing  the  stick  lengthwise  into  the 
cage.  Ten  monkeys  were  tested  in  this  manner  and  all 
immediately  appeared  to  grasp  the  situation  for  they  pulled 
the  stick  and  secured  the  food  within  three  seconds.  In 
the  cases  when  the  food  was  dislodged  the  animals  immedi- 
ately gave  up  the  stick  and  turned  to  the  food,  an  indication 
that  the  stick  had  been  recognized  as  a  means  of  obtaining 
the  food. 

During  the  prc^ess  of  some  experiments  1  noticed  that 
monkey  7  attempted  at  one  time  to  pull  toward  his  cage  a 
small  tin  bucket  in  which  water  was  usually  carried  to  the 
animals  which  had  been  unintentionally  left  near  the  cage. 
From  this  hint  the  following  test  was  made  with  nine  of  the 
animals.  One  end  of  a  piece  of  twine,  1  yard  long,  was 
attached  to  the  bucket  and  the  other  end  was  left  lying  within 
the  cage.  The  bucket  was  placed  at  the  length  of  the  twine 
away  from  the  cage,  and  in  it  was  placed  a  piece  of  food. 
In  all  cases  the  animals  seized  the  twine  immediately,  drew 
the  bucket  toward  the  cage  and  seized  the  piece  of  banana. 
Table  X  gives  the  times  for  monkeys  7  and  8.  These  times 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  other  animals. 


TABLE  X. 
e  inteUifenct,  ptiUtHt  bucket  inwirds  by  n 


:  of  twine.     Time  in  leamda. 


'■^      ■  I   •      ■  I   •  I   '      •  '   '      '      '     '• 

7  643343I3433 

S  033  3ij|j2J3 


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58  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

A  variation  of  the  problem  was  then  made.  The  end  of 
the  piece  of  twine  which  had  been  left  lying  loosely  within 
the  cage  was  tied  to  the  wire  netting  6  inches  from  the  end, 
leaving  that  amount  of  twine  within  the  cage.  In  this  test 
the  animal  had  to  reach  beyond  the  wire  netting,  seize  the 
twine  and  pull  the  bucket.  Seven  jmimjils  were  tested  in 
this  way  by  an  assistant,  and  the  notes  are  not  so  full  as  I 
could  wish,  but  in  brief  the  results  are  as  follows: 


average  lor  lo  trials,  3  sec, 

average  for  other  9  trials,  3,5  sec 

average  for  other  9  triab,  3.5  sec. 

average  for  10  trials,  3  sec. 

average  for  10  trials,  1  sec. 

average  for  10  trials,  z  sec. 

average  for  last  5  trials,  5.5  sec. 


Monkey  I,  first  trial,  3  sec. 

Monkey  z,  first  trial,  20  sec. 

Monkey  3,  first  trial,  losec. 

Monkey  4,  first  trial,  5  sec. 

Monkey  6,  first  trial,  4  sec. 

Monkey  7,  first  trial  3  sec. 

MonkcyS,  first  trial,  izosec. 

In  the  case  of  the  animals  whose  actions  were  noted,  each 
pulled  at  the  short  free  end  of  the  twine  at  first,  but  soon 
reached  beyond  the  knot  and  pulled  the  bucket  inwards. 
This  was  done  by  some  of  the  animals,  notably  monkey  8, 
for  four  or  five  trials.  The  appreciation  of  the  knot  condi- 
tion and  the  ability  to  deal  with  it  is  plainly  shown  by  the 
records  given  above. 

The  results  of  all  the  experiments  described  in  this  sec- 
tion appear  to  speak  for  the  possession  by  monkeys  of  adap* 
tive  intelligence,  of  a  form  of  reasoning.  The  times  for  the 
performance  of  the  various  acts  are  fairly  conclusive,  but  in 
addition  the  appearances  of  the  animals,  their  actions,  etc., 
especially  during  the  first  trial  in  each  experiment  indicated 
an  understanding  of  the  problem.  There  was  no  fumbling 
with  the  apparatus,  no  appearance  of  learning  by  trial  and 
error,  but  there  was  instjuit  action  following  apparently 
instant  understanding  of  the  situation.  The  reactions  of 
the  monkeys  in  the  situations  provided  for  them  gave  diversi- 
fied and  relatively  abundant  indications  of  the  presence  of 
practical  ideas  such  as  have  been  referred  to  in  the  section 
of  this  paper  dealing  with  ideation  (p.  40  ff.). 


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Memory. 

No  one  questions  the  fact  of  the  possession  by  animals  of 
a  sort  of  memory  for  acts  once  or  often  repeated.  Memory 
in  the  restricted  psychological  sense,  however,  has  been 
denied  to  be  present  in  animals  but  it  is  obviously  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  determine  this.  The  nature  of  reten- 
tion and  recall  are  matters  that  are  disputed,  but  that  animals 
have  an  oi^anic  memory,  a  physiological  sort  of  memory, 
is  admitted.  This  memory  acts  well  for  practical  purposes 
and  may  therefore  be  called  practical  memory.  Whether 
or  not  this  be  merely  organic,  or  whether  or  not  animal 
memory  contains  a  representative  factor  must  be  left  for 
future  investigation. 

The  monkeys  observed  in  this  study  showed  good  ability 
of  recognition  and  retention,  of  the  practical  memory.  After 
the  completion  of  the  tests  on  visual  and  auditory  discrimina- 
tion no  further  exp)eriments  were  performed  with  the  appara- 
tus, until  many  of  the  later  exp>eriments  on  imitation,  ideation, 
and  reasoning  were  finished.  Memory  tests  were  then  made 
of  the  animals  previously  used  in  the  discrimination  tests 
with  the  following  results. 

Visual  discrimination  of  pink,  yellow  and  green  rice: 
monkey  i  took  the  green  ten  times,  took  the  pink  the  first 
trial  but  only  smelled  it,  and  on  the  fourth  trial  took  the 
yellow  after  the  green  but  dropped  it  almost  immediately; 
monkeys  2  and  8  took  only  green  and  paid  no  attention  to 
the  pink  and  yellow  rice;  monkeys  3  and  7  took  green  each 
trial,  and  in  the  first  trial  took  pink  after  the  green  and  smelled 
but  did  not  eat  it.  Auditory  discrimination  of  noises  after 
thirteen  days.  Monkeys  4  and  6  made  no  mistakes  in  ten 
trials  each. 

Lever  test  of  adaptive  intelligence.  Monkey  6,  after  130 
days,  showed  perfect  retention  in  four  trials;  monkeys  7 and 
8,  after  123  days,  were  also  perfect  in  four  trials. 


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6o  WILUAM  SHEPHERD. 

General  Summary  and  Conclusions. 

Monkeys  learn  to  discriminate  brightnesses,  but  take  a 
long  time  for  this  when  the  stimuli  have  not  a  direct  relation 
to  the  incentive  for  work;  only  a  few  trials  are  needed  when 
the  visual  qualities  are  a  part  of  the  objects  to  which  they 
naturally  pay  attention. 

Colors  are  discriminated  with  accuracy  and  rapidity  when 
the  colors  are  parts  of  the  food  (red,  pink,  yellow  and  green). 

Three  animals  gave  clear  indications  of  the  discrimination 
of  different  degrees  of  notse,  and  also  learned  to  discriminate 
musical  tones. 

The  habits  are  formed  rapidly  if  there  be  the  double  incen- 
tive of  pleasant  food  as  an  inducement  to  a  correct  response, 
and  of  an  unpleasant  stimulus  to  check  a  wrong  response. 

From  the  experiments  recorded  in  this  paper  it  appears 
that  monkeys  learn  to  inhibit  recently  formed  habits  of 
action  with  facility. 

As  far  as  the  evidence  goes,  in  regard  to  both  the  formation 
and  the  inhibition  of  habits  monkeys  are  superior  to  raccoons 
and  far  superior  to  dogs,  cats,  elephants,  otters  and  other 
mammals  which  have  been  experimented  with. 

Monkeys  have  a  practical  memory;  they  appear  to  show  a 
good  degree  of  retention;  the  representative  function  inmem- 
ory  is  an  unknown  quantity. 

Of  the  higher  powers  of  mind  the  monkey  has  only  rudi- 
ments. He  has  a  something  which  corresponds  in  function 
to  ideas  of  a  low  order  and  which  serves  practical  purposes. 
This  something  we  call,  with  Hobhouse,  practical  ideas. 

Two  of  the  monkeys  learned  by  imitation,  but  six  others 
gave  no  indication  of  imitation  ability.  It  may  be  said  that 
while  monkeys  may  leam  by  imitation  to  a  limited  extent, 
imitation  as  involving  ideation  is  a  small  factor  in  their 
ordinary  learning  process. 

All  the  tested  animals  appeared  to  reach  a  generalized  mode 
of  action  in  dealing  with  problems  but  there  seemed  to  be  no 
evidence  of  true  general  notions.  They  have  an  adaptive 
intelligence,  a  lower  form  of  reason,  or  a  mental  state  inferior 
to  true  reason. 


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BIBUOGRAPEY.  6l 

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