and now we go to garibaldi in georgia, the confederate president, georgian, italian

unification, 1860, 1865. i'm probably going to miss pronounced thomas aiello. well, i'll close what did i allow talk about? yeah, well, what everyone needs in this morning is a lot of bowel movements. yes, exactly. and i'd thank you very much. you may certainly have it then. don't have to figure out how to turn it off. so you have that much to watch it, right? no, no, no. right. absolutely. thank you. all right. thank you everyone. well, giuseppe garibaldi, sicilian campaign of 1860 took place as americans debated slavery and in its most important election cycle to date, after lincoln's victory in the south, secession and the

troubled waters of italian unification still stirred, fighting began in south carolina, the resonance of the italian campaigns and the global fame of garibaldi ensured that the two simultaneous battles would joined by more than the calendar. as everyone in america would seek to marshal the image of the italian leader as an avatar of their own cause. much is made in the scholarship of the civil war of the leaders veneration by lincoln and the united states forces. his fight for union in italy resonated with those in the north fighting for union in america. but garibaldi was a looming presence in southern media. and for this study, georgia media in particular even prior to the election of 1860 and would remain a presence in the public white southern mind as and tucker has explained white southerners who sought to

virginia mize the new nation they were creating hope itself comparisons with garibaldi and his nationalism strength to their case for independent nation. would that presence, however, existed on a decided arc as the tumult of 1860 gave way in the united states to the election of lincoln and in italy, to national unification in newspapers, in georgia interpreted garibaldi as avatar of southern aims, and possibly cities, italian unity was a model for american disunity after the war began, overtures by northern representatives to garibaldi began to sever those metaphorical ties which completely snapped upon the italian leaders vocal, though never support for anti slavery war aims beginning in april of 1860, georgian newspapers began to track garibaldi his every

move for the southern banner in athens. he was the defender of rome, the exile of the marshes of ravenna the candle dealer of staten island, and the hero of the late italian war, candle dealer as a descriptor sold garibaldi somewhat short, was already an international celebrity. he had traveled widely he had fought against the french in rome in the 1840. he did in new york in 1850, and he did briefly in a candle factory. his temporary stay in the united states before leaving in 51. but in 60, garibaldi made his way to sicily to fight for italian unification, which georgia papers covered extensively. the coverage existed alongside that of the stormy democratic national convention, where

southern pro slave delegates absconded from an event they saw as decidedly fixed in favor of stephen, the savannah news wondered about the state garibaldi's activities in a column next to a reprinted speech of e or hardened delegate to the democratic convention who complained that it was not a symbol for the purpose of promoting the great interests of our country, but instead is a douglass convention, one that could split the nation apart apart. he went on to defend the rights of slaveholders and territories, claiming the same breath. i have been all time battling for national democracy see. harden's speech was part of a blanket coverage of the convention and the rights white slaveholders against the that had seemingly abandoned its roots of slave advocacy and private property. but the paper's coverage began with questions about garrett

bold, his arrival in sicily, allowing him another seeming freedom fighter, battling for a nation if not necessary, early in national democracy to loom over frustration with the convention. as white southerners portrayed themselves as attempting to unite a country unreasonably divided by those opposed to slave or its territorial spread. they were the garibaldi cities of the american south, even as garibaldi himself was landing in the italian south, some of the most sustained coverage, in fact, compared garibaldi favorably to william walker, the american mercenary and filibuster, who launched his private military expeditions in latin america to create slave colonies. his most successful invasion came in nicaragua, where he notoriously took over the government. in 1856, the press was to tie the events taking place on the

italian peninsula with. those of white southern politics, even filibustering in latin for slavery only bolster during both the resolve of the south and the image of the italian adventurer as a symbol in the process. in early june, georgia newspapers began reporting that garibaldi had defeated the neapolitans and was in palermo, according to the augusta chronicle and sentinel, which we learned about yesterday. king victor emmanuel was trying to persuade garibaldi against his assault. garibaldi himself, the paper reported, wavered at first, in the face of great responsibility 80, that he was going to assume, but he was ultimately convinced of the efficacy of landing in sicily. the message at the paper, provided its readers, was one of justified insurgency against

unreasonable state power. garibaldi was a hero because he was willing to fight a federal government that had reached beyond its bounds. a significant message to southerners, the first democratic predential nominating had not produced a candidate, and the subsequent convention was scheduled for less than two weeks after the appearance of the report. the structure of those reports of garibaldi's in sicily played directly into white southern grievance politics that dominated the national climate at the time and despite garibaldi's seeming success the daily morning news and savannah reprinted a report from the philadelphia ledger that urged a measure of caution, garibaldi has obtained some partial successes over the neapolitan. neapolitan send troops, it said, but the force of garibaldi is

not sufficient to effect much. sicily had a population of over 2.2 million people, and the neapolitan troops are disciplined. soldier. and though they probably have no great affection for the government which employs them, they still will fight for pay and have the advantage of being well-armed and well-trained. the message that garibaldi's force smaller, less formally trained, fighting against a larger equipped force that was only fighting for the pay without believing substantial usually in the cause for which they were fighting, surely resonate did with a readership filtering the news through the lens of potential secession. this conflict in the united states at the same time, however, others began to worry particular when slavery was inserted into the narrative and editor in the columbus inquire

inquirer noted that most of the northern papers applauding and encouraging the foray of the filibuster garibaldi into sicily. now they're actually calling him a filibuster. the editorial didn't to denigrate that sympathy to be sure, but it did protest that it is glaringly inconsistent for men who eulogize garibaldi as a patriot and as a deliverer, to denounce walker as a pirate and a brigand. both are filibusters and their expeditions remarkably alike. columbus was other newspaper the daily times celebrated garoppolo his fight against government overreach against those who allowed those allowed to exercise their tyranny for so long, and those tyrannies would always push back against liberators as southern editors would framed. one such tyranny was the nomination of stephen douglas as

the 1860 democratic presidential candidate. the daily times was predictably outraged, arguing to its readers, douglas had no chance of winning any states and thus any georgia who cast a vote for was functionally ceding the election to lincoln. the paper didn't make a slave case against douglas, but rather a pragmatic one, arguing john breckinridge, the candidate of breakaway, pro-slavery southern, was the only logical for the georgia voter. the framing of its endorsement, however significant on the pages first column, was the paper's broke pro breckinridge screed on the paper's on the pages other side was douglas's democrat acceptance speech, which explained to his audience that the safety of the union depends upon a strict adherence to the

doctrine. nonintervention in between those columns, the daily times placed a speech by garibaldi at messina. remember? well, that sicily is a country which, by its sacrifices, has earned the right to freedom, said garibaldi, who encouraged his audience to overthrow all the enemies of italy italy. the contrast could have been starker, as douglas worried about intervention as a cause of disunion. a hero expatriate explained that overthrowing enemies was the only path to freedom. garibaldi then became the argumentative fulcrum the daily times against the illinois democrat and in favor of the pro southern breckinridge, of course breckinridge would lose the election of 1860. but even after lincoln's

success, garibaldi coverage continued apace. still framed as a metaphor for the seeming calamity that befallen the white south on december the first, the agusta chronicle editorial page was filled with discussions. the crisis of lincoln's election and the debits and credits of secession. among the screeds advocating from the tyrannical government of the united states was a detailed description. italy's final unification and garibaldi's retirement. after presenting king emmanuel with his new kingdom. while the american people were receiving the returns of the late election, an impressive scene was present in the city of naples. the article, before extolling garibaldi's actions and the power of revolutionary engagement the great deliverer

of italy had the paper admitted committed mistakes along the way. but those defects arose from the moral excellences of the man and did not detract from his greatness after all. the paper argued who was thiem's washington the last because the calmness of his countenance was sometimes disturbed and, an occasional hasty expression broke from his lips. garibaldi was the italian washington and now as the south contemplating its own independence movement, he was a model for what it could do as well. in february. of 1861, the albany patriot quoted slavery defender elwood fisher in responding the claim that the north would defeat the south if they came to war. fisher said, see what southern men italians commanded by garibaldi and for their liberty are arguing to the austrians.

northern. when you gentlemen talk of coercing the south, you had better lay to heart. lessons taught by who are not yankees. no offense to yankee historians in in the room, but we can see even geographically we're talking about southern italy as being more important than northern italy that believed that garibaldi had shown a way to fight for independence and he had shown a way for the south to defeat. north remained a center out in georgia. but the renown of garibaldi was a blank slate onto which everyone could write their own comparisons. in june, georgians learned that lincoln government to keep a perfect parallel with the tyranny of georgia thirds ministers has enlisted the refugees and adventurers from europe for the iasion of the south. the group called itself the

garibaldi guard, the 39th new york infantry regiment. tho georgia media cast castigated it as composed mainly of german swedish and swiss and hungarians. they are desperate adventurers whom the capital of new york were very glad to remove from a dangerous proximity to their strong boxes. the description was decidedly untrue in the ideological battle for claiming garibaldi as, an avatar of the southern cause. however demeaning the group that called itself the garibaldi guard and its makeup was necessary. for a southern media that had given so much praise and paid space to the italian leader, confederate troops were the true garibaldi in the georgia press argued. even as reports began appear that lincoln had made overtures to garibaldi about leading a force against the southern states, the the proposed

alliance between garibaldi and the u.s. explains. and tucker threatened confederate symbolic to equivalency with garibaldi whose own italy the macon telegraph was like so many others worry about that possibility but tried spin the dire news. what a humiliate and confession to them that they have no leaders on whom they can depend but rely on for and aid. the telegraph wrote the central georgian saw the american invitation to garibaldi as very humiliating to the american and government, of course, when garibaldi demurred. georgia's press use the rejection as a vindication of their own cause and of their own causes resemblance to that of garibaldi's. the of the north is in fact disarmed honored by the advances that have been made to garibaldi, wrote the marietta

weekly advocate. the terrible humiliation is a death blow dealt by this grandiloquent politician. in 1862, with the war in its second year and with garibaldi situation more complicated in troubled politics of the new kingdom, italy, the composite extensions began to wane in september 1862. georgian reported on garibaldi's to again march on rome and on. king emanuel's proclamation against him. but the reports coming from europe were contradictory. the politics complex and the metaphors with the southern situation, no longer aligned in a way that made useful. his lack of success as compared to his campaign of 1860, only further southern self-perception. the italian adventurer. the turn ward countryman went even farther by actively

attacking garibaldi. he and the hungarian leader, kossuth were once two honored names in the confederacy, the countrymen explained. now no one will regret their demise, cos up at one time revise, build our institutions and garibaldi is said entertained the proposition to come and fight to enslave us, let them die the death and so perish all the enemies of my country. not only had he entertained that proposition in 1861, he had done so again in october of 1862, when the american consulate enna asked. if he would fight for the united states. garibaldi was wounded and couldn'comeut celebrated in response. the great american republic which is n fighting for universal liberty. he described southern leaders, traffickers in human flesh. those reports, the repts of

garibaldi's response circulated in georgia newspapers, severing all the rhetorical bonds built over the previous three years. and so the co-operative model shifted. union major general franks siegel gave a speech glorifying the northern cause. it is the same fight that was lately fought in italy under the lead of garibaldi who broke down the tyranny of the kingdom of naples and drove out the hated. the rebellion is the naples of america. there can be no liberty, no composure, no peace until it is. it was a strange metaphor, to be sure, but siegel's statement appearing in georgia newspapers, demonstrated the full turn that garibaldi's image had made in the region. he was no longer an avatar of southern discontent. he was an anti slavery icon. by mid 1864. the augusta pacific later

described garibaldi. as a man who inveighed id with an armed force, a peaceable territory, and overthrew all the existing government without, the remotest shadow of even a pretext. so now we have a framing of garibaldi as a reckless youth surfer and the american south as a constitutional democracy which demonstrated the change of the italian's image in southern eyes. he had become the foil by which confederates castigated the union. of course, garibaldi was still a global figure, and the papers to report on his actions. but the coverage itself at point was perfunctory. no longer. no longer was garibaldi an aspirational superhero for southern aims. he was simply a line in a larger story as lewis, as lucy rail has explained. garibaldi, he was both sign and lived existence. he was both a practical

instigator of political change and an imaginary symbol of the excitement. it could provoke. his was a legend cloaked in the established nationalist rhetoric. and that nationalist rhetoric could bend the myth of garibaldi particular ends. until reality ruined the metaphors generated by the avatar he became in the south. thank you. thank you very much. we have time for maybe just one quick question. yes, simon. great presentation and great paper. just curious, was there any northern equivalent to, a figure like that or throughout the world that you came across? what was that? not the garibaldi. a figure in the north, too. i mean, there are mean it's been far more written about that. they venerated garibaldi that way and it fits because the unification fight is going on in italy. there is some who are doing the

same kind of veneration of mazzini, but almost all of that kind of foreign composite of stuff was happening with italy, because we're still ten years away from germany doing it. so they're really only thinking about italian unification as as kind of a symbol of lincoln's attempt for unifying the country again. but it's all the various figures in italian politics get that treatment. but garibaldi is above everybody and he becomes the site for both sides. fascinating. thank you. all right. thank assignment. thank you very much. thank you, everyone. oh, you've got to meet them. okay. we're going to. i now have the distinct pleasure to introduce hub burton. but if you get to know him well enough until the interesting story of why he was called pub, i don't think we have time for

that day is his study a most commendable. amy morris bradley and the soldiers journal. thank you very much. good morning. i've often had that effect on an audience where people leave en masse. don't be alarmed. a most commendable enterprise. meaningful survey of the union veterans war experience is complete without significant scholarship devoted to george and his popular and influential newspaper, the national tribune. founded in 1877 as a monthly journal to address the interests of soldiers and sailors of the late war and all pensioners of the united states. the sheet was likewise intended to advance fortunes of its publisher and his growing practice in the nation's capital, with its impressive circulation and relentless advocacy in support of generous pension legislation. and it eventually became a weekly journal of record for the fraternal organization grand army of the republic. as much of an entrepreneur as george lemmon proved to be, his enterprise was hardly original

in truth. a lively and competitive, patriotic press featuring more than 40 publications serving, the tastes and needs of veterans was well-established by the time of the tribune's launch, and historian brian matthew jordan observes, within a decade of apa maddox, nearly every major northern city boasted a veterans newspaper. lemmon's inspiration for what became a wildly successful publishing empire, certainly fueled by what he read in the columns of those veteran journals circulating the war's immediate aftermath. and yet there's an argument to be made that his exposure to the concept of content tailored to the interests of former soldiers and sailors actually occurred years earlier. in october 1863, captain george lemmon suffered a severe leg wound fighting with the 125th new york volunteer infantry at bristow's station, sent to a military hospital in washington. he recovered and he returned to his regiment, but was unable to stand up to the of the wilderness campaign and. forced to return for further treatment in annapolis year later. it's likely that receiving care for his wounds he passed least

some of the time. perusing the pages of such publications as the armory square hospital gazette, the crutch, the cripple and the soldier's journal distributed to patients paroled prisoners, soldiers in transit to the front and those facing allegations of desertion. these hospital newspapers were among the first to print information, specifically for newly minted veterans, i.e. those being medically discharged and invalided home or alternatively mustered out at the conclusion of their term of enlistment. and in this enterprise, the hospital journals actually predated the national tribune by more than a decade. the purpose of this study is to revisit the pages of hospital publications, to rediscover the true origins of the patriotic. from such a survey, it's possible determine that thousands of union soldiers and sailors first saw content published expressly them not years later in a hometown veteran's periodical or even the national tribune. instead, they this specialized material aimed at easing transition back to lives left behind even as they recovered

from sickness and wounds in the wards of northern hospitals prior to the confederates surrender. the editors and publishers of these modest recognized not all patients were going to be returning to their units. and for many the war was over. they'd not be marching on to richmond. they'd not be parading in the grand revue, but instead returning home with multiple challenges confront along the way. no hospital newspaper was more dedicated to providing such assistance than the soldier's journal. founded by relief agent amy morris bradley of the united states sanitary commission at camp convalescent in alexandria, virginia in february of 1864. the journal enjoyed a run of just 18 months. yet in that year and a half, the newspaper not only made good on its pledge to raise funds in support of children by the loss of fathers in service to the but build an audience. thousands of readers, including president abraham lincoln, vice hannibal hamlin and general ulysses s grant among its subscribers. the prospects for such success were grim. upon bradley's arrival at camp,

convalescing on the west bank of the potomac in december of 1862, commonly referred as camp misery, hers was the daunting task to transform a perfect golgotha into a functional and efficient hospital for the processing of patients in preparation for discharge or return to regiments. yet if there was a nurse or hospital administrator capable of meeting challenges and setting things right, it was almost certainly amy morris, bradley born in east vassalboro, maine, september 13th, 1823, she overcame a fragile constitution to become a precocious and highly regarded teacher. even so, she remained susceptible to serious bouts of pneumonia, eventually sought relief in more hospitable southern climes, including charleston, south carolina and even costa rica. april of 1861 found her in boston where she learned of the surrender of fort sumter. anxious to do her part, she persuaded former students and colleagues now serving in the third maine volunteer infantry of her potential care for the sick and wounded and over the next six months she gained a reputation as a tireless worker and indefatigable advocate for

the well-being of her patients. not surprisingly, she made immediate progress at transforming camp convalescent into a clean and efficient destination for the army of the potomac. sick and wounded. despite her long hours and tireless efforts, amy morse somehow summoned the stamina to set about publishing a camp newspaper and sought to model a journal after those just beginning to appear elsewhere by early 1863. known to boost morale and offer welcome diversion from the monotony of life in the wards, these publications routinely featured original poetry, serialized fiction, news from the battlefield of heroic commanders and harrowing descriptions of life and confederate prisoner of war camps. yet only was devoted to the idea that enough revenue could generated to provide much needed support for the increasing number of war orphans coming. to the attention of the sanitary commission. and her columns would adhere to a simple theme let the war go forward. the rebels retreat, but the government never. and where other sheets might offer listings of hospitals and

relief. amy's aim was to publish more detailed information and present thousands of departing or transient soldiers with specific information and instruction on best to obtain the benefits owed to them their families. how to avoid swindlers and prepare for impending return to civilian society. staking her to $550 to cover the newspaper's start costs, military and commission stipulated the funds would need to reimbursed in total before amount could be set aside for orphan relief. confident in the publication's prospects, amy set out for philadelphia in late december of 1863, purchased a printing press and other materials, and targeted. mid-february 1864 for the launch of. the camp journal. by the time the first issue of the soldier's journal went to, she drafted the blueprint for what eventually became one of the most successful hospital newspapers of the entire war. key to her early success was, the recruitment of a volunteer editor to aid in the publishing of the journal and his name was robert r.a. cassidy, an

apprentice printer in the town of belfer. he enlisted as a private in the 148th pennsylvania in 1862 and survived the campaigns of the army of the potomac before being admitted to convalescent for sunstroke. her vision, the soldier's journal, was made clear in the first edition of the eight page paper published february 17th, 1864. its masthead, the simple philanthropic premise dedicate it to the soldiers, children, and the details of how she and cassidy plan to deliver on that worthy pledge followed three pages later with reference to upcoming guidance and information attractive to potential no small amount of space in the inaugural edition. was over to welcome guidance on where to access important services in a soldier's directory. for washington, it included information on lodging where to find the paymasters office even directions to the location where transportation given orders for discharged men might be found. on the newspaper's last page, one could find directories for the relief and supply departments alongside helpful hospital contacts. and finally, there was prominent placement of a notice for the protective war claim pension

agency of the u.s. sanitary commission, offering safe and trustworthy procurement of pensions, bounties and back pay. it was a natural addendum to one of the first editions featured pieces and borrowed from the sanitary commission bulletin was a clear and concise primer on how best to apply for pensions established by congress in july of 1862. that was presented as well. there was also extensive in the opening issue devoted to the variety of other content awaiting the journal's readers, but a warning for would be contributors and be declared. we've also received several contributions unaccounted by the names of their authors, which, in accordance with our rule, we consigned to the wastebasket. the first issue of the journal achieved the blend of entertainment and instruction. its editors intended featuring poetry from a mae morris. that was amy's pen name, by the way, followed by a history of the convalescent camp, an article on soldier's weddings, notices of temperance meetings and entertainment festivals and lists of letters awaiting pickup at the camp post. and it's estimated that during their time in service to the sanitary commission, amy, more

than 100,000 hospital soldiers with securing backpay and discharge papers. and it was clear that her journalistic efforts promised to reach thousands more. her efforts, they were rewarded. the first year she sold 1000 copies. the required 1500 papers to meet demand, along with instructions for filing applications. other important topics. updates on the wages to which soldiers were entitled and what bounties might be obtained for extended length of service. which office might be approached for their distribution on the plight of federal prisoners and their families was a frequent topic as well. more than one column in the journals. first few editions tended specific advice on how families might access the backpay of their loved ones still in captivity in confederate hands. few details escape. damien cassidy on march 23rd, for instance, 1864, their fledgling camp newspaper even presented a comprehensive description of the documentation necessary for an amputee to apply for an limb in issues.

significant copy would be dedicated to such topics as work for disabled soldiers borrowed from the new york times was a heartfelt appeal to employers to look beyond preconceived notions of what wounded war veterans might achieve. it's necessary, the article stated, to instruct employers we're really willing to help get here under the belief there's nothing in their establishments which disabled men can do we know by actual observation? there are innumerable services that the maimed can perform. encouraged by early success, emmy created a network of agents to promote circulation. not just around the camps in washington, but to push subscriptions as far away as their hometown in maine and charlestown and new bedford, massachusetts. in just a few short months, the soldier's journal reached beyond its first few subscribers and loyal over the counter customers to a enlist subscribers. the white house 64 addresses in maine, 25 in new york, and scores more as far away as minnesota, vermont, michigan and even mississippi. when cassidy was mustered out in

the fall of 1864, he was replaced by thomas valentine cooper, an accomplished printer and typesetter in civilian life before investing in the 26th pennsylvania and transferred to the 24th regiment of the veteran reserve corps. he proved a godsend to amy and her hospital newspaper. cooper came aboard, facing not the challenge of finding enough material for the eight page paper, but rather editing the overwhelming amount of content available for potential publication. news of the atrocities at andersonville and secretary of war edwin stanton's daily war routinely put cooper's editorial skills to the test, especially in covering the presidential election of 1864. cooper found himself tracking the movements of the entrenched army of the potomac. not so much on the battlefield, as in its pivotal parade towards the poles and the national nations day of decision. knowing full well the soldier vote and the army of the potomac was crucial to lincoln's chances for another term. the journal's editor included the latest information on the temporary release of patients and whole regiments for 20 days

to go home to vote. there was also information on polling procedure in the field for the election. competing with election results on the morning of november 9th, there was other important news. the journal was now a paying paper and not a dollar of debt remained against the establishment. after three quarters of a year in print, the paper's object to benefit the soldier and the citizen who receives and hereafter to educate and give a home to children who may be left out in cold and ignorance by the vicissitudes of war. well, it had become a reality over the course of the next four months, as grant's army wore down lee's hard pressed troops, the journal maintained its established themes of providing information and service to soldiers featured bulletins, documenting unions successes in the field offered inspirational and articles to bolster morale and editorialized on charges of atrocities at andersonville fort pillow. lee's army of northern virginia abandoned richmond to federal cavalry sunday, april 2nd. by wednesday a publication day for the journal. cooper had ample time to stack the very latest news and headlines, trumpeted richmond

hours petersburg captured and with barely contain joy. cooper finished the seven decks with lee in full flight. grant pursuing more bold print, soon followed. and on april 12th, dramatic decks of headlines sourced from official war bulletins proclaimed peace and the surrender of lee and his whole army of northern virginia. one week later, there were new decks of headlines but bordered in black, announcing calamitous news and lamenting the assassination of. the president, it foretold of more coverage with full of the tragedy and even such dramatic events. tho amy and, her loyal editor, never lost their on the soldier's affairs. on may 3rd, the journal reported a definitive order to reduce military and the subsequent processing of patients out of the service so that all soldiers now in hospital who do not require actual treatment are ordered to discharged and their papers arranged. immediate payment. future editions were all about mustering out and all the latest particulars, and the soldier's journal became something of a handbook for those seeking guidance on the next steps from

soldier to veteran. such was the demand for the journal of may 1865. the whole edition sold out on printing day and cooper, an urgent request from the sanitary commission for an additional 10,000 copies, recognizing modest press at the camp could never accommodate such an order. he conveyed his trays and type to a large printing establishment in washington, and new stacks of sheets were ready. three days later, the story was the same. wednesday morning, may 24th, and cooper printed 5000 extra copies, noting the number of soldiers in the capital for the grand review just as the weeks before the sanitary commission made another late request for additional papers, this time. ordering 40,000 more copies and the total run for the week was 53,000, a number beyond the wildest imagination of the paper's publishers. in their efforts to transition soldiers to civilians. the expanded editions may 17th and may 24th represented the high watermark for the journal in both circulation and influence. the soldier and sailor audience with cooper's mustering out yet another editor was welcome to on

board will p griffith, a pennsylvania soldier assigned to the reserve corps, a former correspondent, editor and poet, the washington pennsylvania reporter he a natural choice to take the reins, but unlike cassidy and cooper, his tenure was in weeks, not in months. and while his was the happy task to print black headlines announcing the boys home in july of 1865, he himself assumed departing upon discharge from his detachment, stepping into the breach as a last minute publisher. rienzi judson well read a, teenaged veteran of the 121st new york volunteer. and member of the 24th regiment of the reserve corps, published the final edition of the soldier's journal on august the 23rd, 1865. it featured a heartfelt valedictory and from the newspaper's proprietress and guiding light, with all the modesty and the empathy that had marked her service in the sanitary, amy took her leave by any measure. the soldier's journal. it was a resounding success. published for more than 75 consecutive weeks, it delivered

timely and accurate reporting to the rank and file. and almost 650 pages of informative and inspirational copy. circulation grew from a few hundred in and around camp, convalescing to right reach runs in the tens of thousands and captured the attention of president lincoln, vice president hamlin and general ulysses s grant, among others. perhaps most important of all, at least to amy, the enterprise raised an initial debt of $550 and netted a profit 2155. that's. almost $40,500 today. even the press and the materials were sold off. so after the war, amy went on to become a beloved educator in wilmington, north carolina, establishing normal school for the community there before passing away at the age of 80 on january 15th, 1904. the historical record of the union's overburdened department notwithstanding, the eight page hospital weekly serves an even more significant purpose for contemporary journalism historians seeking greater clarity and context and understanding the origins of the

patriotic press. rediscovering the soldier's journal as a pioneering publication circulating in advance of better known specialty that contributed to the explosion of popular media that helped propel gilded age consumerism. well, it rewrites what is known of how and when customized copy came to hand for those seeking to reenter lives left upon enlistment or conscription. long before george lennon made his millions and scores of northern cities launched periodicals devoted to the interests of the conflict, survivors amy morris bradley and her journal delivered indispensable information and guidance to newly minted veterans and their families. paroled prisoners, transit recruits and even deserters. it's timely and comprehensive presentation of available resources provided a critical lifeline to those seeking support in swapping their coats of blue for the anticipated peace and tranquility of private life. its warnings of corruption and crime, awaiting unsuspecting saved countless men and their loved ones from grief being

robbed or worse. and not coincidentally, its outreach a significant civilian audience sought to sensitize the war weary homefront to the needs of those returning from life altering, if not life shattering, experiences suffered the late war. thank you. take any questions here. i yeah. yeah. yeah. so quick question. obviously very lots of pragmatic information here on how you navigate the challenges of the war. did they talk much in, this journal, about the challenges, particularly about trying to track down loved one who you don't know where they're at in terms of being hospitalized? maybe communicating letters or dying soldiers, something like that. i mean it is there the negative stuff in here is what? like practical stuff that deals with the challenges that are facing as well? very good question. and there towards the tail end

of its publication schedule, august of 1865. one or two very short classified sites of people asking for information about loved ones. one of the things to your point that was included in great detail was how to do that with those directories in the back and the listings of hospital contacts and it was basically, i think, put forward that if you had question about perhaps where you are, son might be hospitalized or what has particular the condition might have been. those were areas that you might have been able to explore, but it predated in little way clara barton's later with the missing soldiers office. ray paper had a lot of similarities you can see between this and yankee magazine which would come much much later on during the second world war. so i thought, that's fascinating. yeah, it was a there were several hospital journals. one of the things i take up in the paper is the fact there were

19 hospital journals from northern hospitals, of which only nine survive and some sort of archival representation. and of those many of those archival collections scattered. many editions are missing. but the wonderful thing about amy morris and soldiers journal, it was the complete run. which is a little bit about your sources of can my students get the archives that you've been using? absolutely. the one of the sources that i used was a book that was written. the author escapes my name, but it was about hospital journals. and i can get you that and i can send that to you after after the conference. and that sort of was, in a way to point me to the names of the actual papers themselves at newspapers, tor.com some other sources, basically were very helpful in terms of having the full run and the full run actually is in the genealogy website as well. genealogy icon one thing that

was very interesting to me as sort of a sidebar was exploring who these editors were. you know, they were transferred into this veteran reserve corps, which was for those who were no longer capable of serving in an active way on the front. and it just so happened that some of these journalists or former journalists from before the war to pass through these hospitals. and amy morris bradley was nothing, if not a gifted administrator and recruiter. and so what was interesting is what happened. these editors afterward, almost all of them continued careers in journalism. and so looking for them was way in which to sort of get get a sense of, you know, what happened to them and not only what they did in terms of journalism, but most of them went on to be very, very involved with the grand army of the republic itself, veterans affairs. i hope that's helpful in terms of where some of that came from. john. okay. thank you very much. so you just opened our website. can i comment is just a most impressive research, comprehensive and and unexplored

material. i mean to little explorer. thank you so much. thanks, bill. and our final paper of this segment. oh, yeah. i have to use my microphone a distance reporting in civil war. the case of american civil war hubert van tuyll augusta university. thank you. thank you. war reporting is a fraught activity. journalists physical danger and suffer problems of narrow vision, reluctant to manipulate as of sources, cultural barriers

and distance. the latter was a huge issue for the journalists of the american west. there are good reasons to study this. electronic communication. simplified transmission of information, but it has amplified the ability to falsify. additionally, civil wars have become the most ubiquitous form of warfare. reporters there face special difficulty as a civil war is inevitably marked by chaos and pressure to be loyal to one side or another. during the civil war, western journalists far away from almost all the fighting. time and space were enemies. an army newspaper in the dakota territory, he put it. well, as we are out of the land of civilization. and as far as hearing what has transpired on earth is concerned, we might as well be in the heart of the atlantic ocean. let's examine how they solve these problems and whether distance hampered or helped their quality perspective. almost all reporters dealt with the east the situation in the west, outside of the states on the mississippi was well by a

comment late in the war in the union and decoding about the western army that it consisted kirby smith four mules and a bass and a brass drum. poor lieutenant general kirby smith, who commanded square miles and fewer troops than. any general in history. there was a confederate invasion of mexico intended to capture colorado goldfields and then move into california, extending the confederacy to the pacific ocean. this might seem a bit much for 3200 men, but the union forces were also small. superficially the invasion went well, including two tactical victories in the capture of albuquerque, rocky and santa fe. but the underlying reality was different. supplies were short, foraging was difficult, and union forces could not be driven out. eventually, the confederates retreated to texas. it was a remarkable effort involving some 2000 miles of movement. but outside of the affected area. the campaign received little attention. it was not even mentioned in papers in.

washington, oregon and colorado. more attention was given to indian wars and the multistate proposal to reason militia so that veterans could be sent into the heavy fighting east the mississippi. yet few western papers paid much attention to the most important american indian leader of the war. confederate brigadier stan wadi. the last general to surrender reactions. wadi naturally varied the houston tri weekly telegraph wrote in 1864 that we are daily expect to hear of something daring from the old hero and toward the end of the year, noting the great and brilliant services the indians in our struggles will not be overlooked by the future historian. the name of stand wardy, who has been called by the lamented general jeb stuart, the washington of his people outside of texas. the opinion different. the nebraska advertiser was pleased to report a defeat of the notorious stand whitey regiment of rebels, the daily central register reported how

the and disloyal indians are slaughtering one another. the hills daily news deigned report that an indian of the cherokee tribe stand waiting name has been made. a brigadier general in the confederate army. history has been kinder. so how to report a faraway war? the oregonian hired couriers for california, but that was hardly practical for events in virginia or even louisiana. the telegraph allowed western to publish eastern journalists, but their reports were often contradictory, forcing western papers to draw their own conclusions. there was no timely way to get information from the confederacy, although eastern papers would telegraph. confederate excerpts. pity the texas papers after the union conquered. the mississippi. they had no regular sources of information at all. assessing generals was all pervasive. occasionally there was some humility. the portland, oregon. in commenting on the removal of general george mcclellan, noted

that the events were happening 3000 miles away and therefore it was not possible to form anything like reliable conclusions at the other end of scale was the union in dakota. in which accused general pope of grossest and most flagrant and misconduct. they were right, by the way. there were high hopes for for mcclellan commanded the invasion of virginia in 1862. mcclellan's reputation wobbled, but his latest october 30, the oregonian, and reported that there was no need to believe the rumors that mcclellan had been superseded. he was fired six days later. the oregonian soon reported that lincoln was unhappy with mcclellan for his inaction after. the same good, bad pattern can be seen with his success. ambrosi, burnside, of course, is also on the poster whose initial assaults at fredericksburg were described as successful blows. but within a few days, the same paper, the battle terrible and noted that our troops fought at

a great disadvantage. enemy losses were inconsiderable when compared with ours, and the result was even described as truly disheartening. a far more interesting case was that of joe hooker because of his links. he was stationed in the far west, resigned from the army farm in california and later time as superintendent of military roles in oregon. the oregonian. the letter published in a kansas which claimed that our old oregonian hooker is very ambitious and looks to no second in rank. the oregonian wrote that great faults he certainly has, but selfishness, meanness or ingratitude, we cannot believe are among them. he is too brave and frank, a man to enter into intrigues against his superiors. in any event, his 1863 offensive was described little better than a defeat by union and the in lucky here was william rose, a krantz who escaped reputation

final damage despite twice being surprised by the same mediocre rebel general braxton bragg, and surprised chickamauga, even though newspaper in kansas and south dakota had reported the massing of confederate in northern georgia. justly more celebrated, of course, was uncle billy himself. western understood the strategic implications of his march. sherman exploited his victory at atlanta by cruising through the deep south and destroying slavery as he went. the kansas herald of freedom wanted sherman to capture augusta and suggested keeping lee at richmond because if sherman cruised to the carolinas quote it will bruise the head of the serpent of secession in its and hatching place. later santa fe weekly gazette opined strategy has accomplished its and done more to conclude the civil strife of the country than all the hard contested that have been fought during the war. the abandonment of petersburg and richmond by lee's declining forces was even attributed to sherman's march reporting

battles was actually more difficult. confusion often supreme. after fredericksburg and chancellorsville for example soldiers on both sides wrote home, asking newspapers to find out who won. even commanders not have a clear picture. eyewitness were unavailable first. bull run was superficially simple to describe the daily nebraska and described the result as a helter skelter retreat and claimed that it was because union commander in the shenandoah valley had allowed confederate joe johnston to slip away and reinforce beauregard. the union and draconian stated his sudden arrival had created panic in the union ranks. the galveston news did better, describing it as a repulse, so decided. sometimes ed showed considerable sophistication. the oregonian explain how had been able to defeat two union armies by operating on interior lines a concept basic to understanding warfare. but common knowledge.

the writer actually done research reading a pre war book by general henry w halleck in the summer of 1863, of course, was by the union victories at gettysburg and vicksburg. vicksburg got more attention because operations there had been occurring and covered for a long time. with gettysburg, the battle could hardly have been anticipated by when it was a surprise to both. vicksburg was. well understood. the union and dakota incorrectly speculated in may that the rebels might be trapped in vicksburg. accurately described the destruction of mississippi's rail system and remarkable he was aware that grant had maneuvered inland mississippi by living off the land and the john pemberton confederate commander at vicksburg was anything but brilliant. the oregon reported that vicksburg was strongly fortified but doomed. another paper shared the fact that six correspondents had been killed at vicksburg. finally, in june, report came that the rebel pemberton had

surrendered to the gallant grant. but the prize for battle overall battle accuracy and reporting, in my opinion, has to go to the which reported the of fort sumter. several days before it actually happened. what about understanding the overall ebb and flow of the war? the western papers took their public mission seriously. publishing material on how weapons worked, how much firepower was used in a operation, and the complexities of maneuver all to california. early on noted that most generals and colonels knew more about the arts of peace than of war, but hoped that newly generals had benefited from foreign trips. papers published detailed descriptions of major battles. papers caution about misinformation. readers were told not to rely much on war news and rumors, even if published by the papers. the union and decoded warned of contrary rumors about what stonewall was up to in 1862.

reports had him attacking at opposite ends of virginia. the portland oregonian indulge media analysis, noting that papers denounced lincoln for having too little energy mcclellan for having poke, for having too much grant, for wanting to fight too buell for wanting to fight too and the government for removing buell wanting to fight too little. the paper also noted that losses were only slowly. the sacramento daily news added to its report on the surrender of vicksburg the news is so good that we must indulge in a little skepticism until. we receive confirmation. the westerners did well, considering that they were completely dependent on official statements, telegrams, easter newspapers and letters. even out west, the disproportionate cost of grant's bloody campaign in, virginia became evident. sound accompanied sherman's victory in georgia. the failures of hood's attacks on sherman received wide attention. the nevada gold hills daily news

reported that the capture of atlanta meant that the whole state of georgia in sherman's power. and as for the rebel future the capture of atlanta secures the possession of the whole state of georgia and renders the condition of the rebel more desperate than ever before. the importance of atlanta can hardly be overestimated. the paper quoted a savannah newspaper. the triumph of sherman involves the rule of us all and that it would bring, quote, the abolition yoke, end quote. a nebraska note newspaper noted a good effect on public feeling, but was otherwise somewhat reserved, perhaps because of the frequent announcements of great victories for once. the more enthusiastic paper was write. this was quite a contrast from the beginning when editors expected a quick result on june one, 1861, the nebraska in reported that federal troops would occupy manassas the following night. quote, driving away the rebels have congregated there. the union and dakota and opined that the reverse of bull run

would only spur the north to greater effort. the washington statesman where will the triumphant termination of the war for the leave the republic? in september of 1862, the union accordion stated that general mcclellan has been pushing his successors astonishing vigor, and the portland oregonian raised the expectations that the confederate army was trapped in about the surrender. even later, faith ultimate union victory never wavered. even the dates of vig for were omitted with the surrender of vicksburg. the term shortly was popular regarding gettysburg. the union, dakota, and wrote that the prospect is good for capturing the bulk of lee's whole army before he can cross the potomac. the sacramento daily union called the battle a substantial victory for union arms and that meade seemed to be satisfied with holding his ground. there will never a better opportunity disposing of lee's army than is now presented.

this only mentioned possibilities, not certainties. the washington statesman concluded that the news encouraging enough to cause union men to rejoice with joy unspeakable. but it praised the modesty of meade's reports, contrasted these with the, quote humbug ing bombast heard before the central city register described the victories as glorious, but then added, we cannot say where the matter will end, how much bad news. we may yet have occasion to record. but we are determined. determined to rejoice while we make a prophetic statement. as almost two years would pass before the last confederate surrender. in conclusion, western newspapers coped well. the challenges of distance. perhaps distance was not all bad. maybe the far flung western papers were like monasteries out of touch with society, but developing a very high level of. this explains remarkably prescient comment in the union and accordion.

on 20th may 1865. quote peace is not yet, nor will it be until every vestige the spirits which brought on this rebellion is completely within our dominion. a comment not without relevance today. thank you.